Marine Pollution Bulletin 63 (2011) 243–248

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Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Hypoxia in Manila Bay, Philippines during the northeast monsoon

Gil S. Jacinto a,⇑, Lara Patricia A. Sotto a, Maria Isabel S. Senal a, Maria Lourdes San Diego-McGlone a,
Ma. Teresa L. Escobar a, Atsuko Amano b, Todd W. Miller c
a
Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines
b
Geological Survey of Japan, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba 305-8567, Japan
c
Center for Marine Environmental Studies, Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-cho, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Herein we present results from one of the first extensive bay-wide oceanographic surveys of Manila Bay,
Manila Bay wherein 31 stations were sampled during the northeast monsoon (cold and dry season). A band of hyp-
Hypoxia oxic bottom water (dissolved oxygen <2.8 mg/L) spanned the midsection of the bay from east to west.
Northeast monsoon Bottom nitrate concentrations (5.7–16.8 lM; avg. 11.1 lM) and total organic carbon values in sediments
Organic matter decomposition
(1.7–3.1%; avg. 2.4%) were high in the midsection, which coincided with the band of hypoxic bottom
Eutrophication
water. Physical processes and site-specific accumulation of organic material likely lead to hypoxic condi-
tions in Manila Bay, even during the northeast monsoon period when the water column is relatively well
mixed. The results of this study complement the previously reported widespread hypoxia that occurs
during the rainy season. Thus, hypoxia may be pervasive in the bay throughout the year, although it var-
ies in intensity and spatial extent.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction organic matter can be attributed to eutrophication or excess nutri-

Hypoxic systems, or ‘‘dead zones,’’ have spread and expanded in
area significantly in coastal systems around the world since the
1960s (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008). They affect a total area of more
than 245,000 km2 and are primarily associated with populated
areas and watersheds that deliver large quantities of nutrients to
coastal waters (Diaz and Rosenberg, 2008). To date, studies on hy-
poxia have been conducted mostly in North America and Europe
and have focused on hypoxic systems found in the Baltic and Katt-
egat Seas, the northern Gulf of Mexico, and the Chesapeake Bay
(Karlson et al., 2002; Rabalais and Turner, 2001; Kemp et al.,
2005). Very few studies have focused on the hypoxic systems in
Southeast Asia, Japan, Hong Kong, and China (Wu, 1982; Kodama
et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2007). Prior to our study, only one pub-
lished report (Chang et al., 2009) dealt with hypoxia in the Philip-
pines, although Velasquez et al. (2002) suggested the presence of
this phenomenon in the 1990s.
Hypoxia refers to very low levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) in
the water column; quantitatively it is defined as <2.8 mg L 1 of
DO (Diaz and Rosenberg, 1995). Hypoxia can develop and subse-
quently be maintained by water column stratification and decom-
position of organic material (Bierman et al., 2001). Increases in
ent loading (Nixon, 1995). The total load of organic matter in Man-
ila Bay was estimated at 250,000 tons Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD)/year, and <20% of the sewage discharged into the
bay is treated (PEMSEA and MBEMP-MBIN, 2007). The effects of
eutrophication and hypoxia on coastal marine ecosystems can be
dramatic, as low DO levels can result in massive die-offs of fish
and invertebrates and can cause major shifts in community struc-
ture and production of the entire ecosystem (Diaz and Rosenberg,
2008). Understanding the dynamics of nutrient loading and hypox-
ia in Manila Bay is therefore critical to establishing and monitoring
management practices for recovery of the ecosystem.
This study builds on previous work conducted in Manila Bay
and is the only spatially extensive assessment of hypoxia and
eutrophication of the system during the northeast monsoon (cold
and dry) season. The goal of this study was to obtain a better
understanding of the spatial and temporal extent of hypoxia and
the processes that may bring about these conditions.
2. Methods
2.1. Study area

⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Marine Science Institute, Velasquez Street, Manila Bay is a semi-enclosed estuary located at the southwest-
University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines 1100. Tel.: +63 2 ern part of Luzon Island and facing the South China Sea. It has a
9223944. surface area of 1800 km2 and an average depth of 17 m (Jacinto
E-mail address: gilj@upmsi.ph (G.S. Jacinto). et al., 2006).

0025-326X/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.02.026
244 G.S. Jacinto et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 63 (2011) 243–248
2.2. Sampling
During the bay-wide sampling of Manila Bay, 31 stations were
occupied from February 11–13, 2010 (Fig. 1). Seawater samples
were obtained at three depths (0.5 m, mid-depth at the chlorophyll
maximum, and near the bottom) using a 5 L Niskin sampler; and
depth, salinity, temperature, DO, turbidity, and fluorescence data
were collected using a YSI Sonde 650 MDS. Surface sediment (the
uppermost 2 cm) was collected using a Bridge–Ekman grab sampler
during June and November 2008 (Fig. 1). All samples were col-
lected during the day, which also coincided with the flooding phase
of the tide.
Water samples for nutrient analysis were filtered through a
0.45 lm Sartorius CA membrane filter and kept frozen until analy-
sis. Samples for total suspended solids (TSS) were filtered through
pre-weighed Whatman GF/F filters, kept in aluminum foil, and fro-
zen until analysis. Sediment samples were kept in a plastic bag and
placed in a freezer until analysis for total organic carbon (TOC)
content.
2.3. Laboratory analyses
For the seawater samples, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, phos-
phate, and silicate concentrations were determined using methods
modified from Strickland and Parsons (1972) for use with a SKA-
LAR SANS ++ segmented flow analyzer D5000. TSS content was
determined by drying the samples to a constant weight.
TOC content of surface sediments was measured using a Ther-
mo Finnigan Elementary Analyzer Flash EA1112. For pretreatment,
sediment samples were dried in an oven at 50 °C for 24 h and then
ground to a fine powder. About 10 mg of dry sample were placed in
a thin Ag film cup. Next, 1 M HCl was added to the sample then it
Fig. 1. Sampling stations in Manila Bay. Open squares show sites occupied in February 2010; filled diamonds show sediment sampling sites in 2008.
was left to dry for ten minutes. This process was repeated several
times to remove the carbonate carbon before completely drying
the sample at 70 °C for 2 h. The dried samples were each wrapped
in a thin Sn film for combustion and measurement.
3. Results
3.1. Temperature and salinity
The average surface temperature during the survey was 26.7 °C,
with slight stratification observed in the deeper stations. The aver-
age surface salinity was 32.6 psu, with low salinity near the coast
due to river influx, especially near the mouth of the Pasig River
in the eastern part of the bay.
3.2. DO levels
A contour plot of the bottom DO concentrations revealed a band
of hypoxic bottom water that spanned the midsection of the bay
between Bataan on the west and Manila on the east (Fig. 2A). Bot-
tom DO at the midsection of the bay ranged from 0.79 to
3.76 mg L 1, with an average of 2.50 mg L 1. For the entire bay,
bottom DO levels ranged from 0.79 to 7.25 mg L 1, with an average
of 4.49 mg L 1.
3.3. TOC in surface sediments
The TOC content in surface sediments of Manila Bay ranged
from 0.9% to 3.1% (avg. 2.1%). A contour plot shows that surface
sediments at the midsection of the bay also had high organic car-
bon (Fig. 2B).
 G.S. Jacinto et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 63 (2011) 243–248 245

Fig. 2. (A) Bottom dissolved oxygen (DO), (B) total organic carbon (TOC) in surface sediments, (C) surface chlorophyll a (Chl a), and (D) total suspended solids (TSS) in Manila
Bay, Philippines.

3.4. Chlorophyll a and total suspended solids
Surface chlorophyll a levels ranged from 0.2 to 25.5 lg L–1 (avg.
5.11 lg L 1) for the whole bay. The distribution of chlorophyll a
showed high levels (5.7–25.5 lg L 1) in the northwestern and east-
ern parts of the bay near Pampanga and Manila, respectively
(Fig. 2C). TSS for the whole bay ranged from 26.7 to 128.4 mg L 1
(avg. 43.0 mg L 1), with high TSS values also in the northwestern
and eastern parts of the bay.
west, thus coinciding with the area of hypoxic bottom water. In
this area, bottom nutrient concentrations ranged from 5.57 to
16.32 lM (avg. 11.60 lM) for nitrate, 35.03 to 62.53 lM (avg.
50.22 lM) for silicate, and 0.66 to 2.00 lM (avg. 1.23 lM) for phos-
phate. Total inorganic nitrogen (TIN) (Fig. 3D) was also elevated at
the midsection of the bay ranging from 6.96 to 25.9 lM (avg.
15.1 lM) in the area.
Similar spatial distributions were found for nitrate (Fig. 3C) and
TIN (Fig. 3D) indicating the dominance of nitrate among the inor-
ganic nitrogen species.

3.5. Nutrient levels

4. Discussion
Table 1 provides a summary of nutrient concentrations in Man-
ila Bay. Bottom phosphate, silicate, and nitrate concentrations Chang et al. (2009) reported widespread hypoxia in Manila Bay in
(Figs. 3A–C) were high in the midsection of the bay from east to June 2008 during the southwest monsoon (i.e., the rainy season);
246 G.S. Jacinto et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 63 (2011) 243–248

Table 1
Summary of dissolved nutrient concentrations in Manila Bay, Philippines.

NH3 (lM) PO4 (lM) NO2 (lM) NO3 (lM) SiO2 (lM)b
a
ASEAN WQC 5.00 1.45 3.93 4.28 –
Surface range n.d.–2.25 0.24–1.65 n.d.–1.52 n.d.–2.35 n.d.–69.33
Surface average 0.86 ± 0.18 0.69 ± 0.04 0.59 ± 0.01 0.39 ± 0.05 24.68
Bottom range n.d.–13.75 0.25–2.00 n.d.–7.04 n.d.–16.32 n.d.–66.29
Bottom average 1.91 ± 0.13 0.91 ± 0.05 2.23 ± 0.38 6.91 ± 0.09 31.16
a
ASEAN Water Quality Criteria (ASEAN, 2004).
b
Duplicate values were not obtained for silicate and no ASEAN criterion is available for silicate.

Fig. 3. Distribution of (A) bottom phosphate concentration, (B) bottom silicate concentration, (C) bottom nitrate concentration, and (D) bottom total inorganic nitrogen
concentration in Manila Bay, Philippines.

bottom DO levels reached 1 mg L 1 at this time. In our study (Febru- hypoxia in the bay is inferred to be a consequence of seasonal differ-
ary 2010, northeast monsoon, dry season), the hypoxic area was con- ences between the northeast and southwest monsoon. The north-
fined to a band located at the midsection of the bay from east to west east monsoon is associated with relatively strong winds and
with DO levels of <2.8 mg L 1. The spatiotemporal variation of limited water column stratification. Aside from this, depth of the
 G.S. Jacinto et al. / Marine Pollution Bulletin 63 (2011) 243–248
water column and sediment organic carbon distribution also has an
effect.
The hydrography of Manila Bay is characterized by a two gyred
circulation pattern, and the gyre in the north and the gyre in the
south are separated at the midsection of the bay (de las Alas and
Sodusta, 1985; Villanoy and Martin, 1997). These gyres are a signif-
icant characteristic of the bay, and may create a convergence area
in the middle of the bay where particulate organic matter can
accumulate and, upon settling, decomposing, and causing in-
creased bacterial respiration, exert a demand for oxygen on the
overlying waters.
The midsection of the bay is relatively deep (20–25 m) (Siringan
and Ringor, 1998), which could favor some degree of stratification
and allow sediments to accumulate. Fuji-ie and Yanagi (2006)
reported the presence of clay deposits in the center of Manila Bay
in all seasons. Clay, which is defined as fine grained and having a
large surface area, tends to accumulate and adsorb organic matter
and pollutants. In Tolo Harbour (Hong Kong), Hu et al. (2001) found
that the stations that contained fine silty clay sediments had the
highest sediment oxygen demand.
The TOC distribution in the sediments in Manila Bay (Fig. 2B)
also indicates higher deposition of organic matter in the eastern
and central parts of the bay relative to other parts of the bay,
and this pattern coincides with that of the band of hypoxic bottom
water. Thus, the combination of the bay’s physical features with
relatively deep sections in the middle of the bay, physical pro-
cesses (the convergence of two gyres in the middle of the bay cou-
pled with some stratification in the deeper areas) and high organic
matter in the sediments may be important in generating the ob-
served band of hypoxia in the middle of Manila Bay during the
northeast monsoon.
We found high bottom phosphorus and nitrate concentrations
in the midsection of the bay where DO levels were low (Fig. 2A
and C). In the Pearl River Estuary, nitrification was found to be
the second largest cause of DO depletion below the pycnocline
after sediment oxygen demand (Zhang and Li, 2010). Phosphorus
flux from the sediments has also been found to increase as oxygen
levels become depleted (Hu et al., 2001; Mort et al., 2010). Accord-
ing to Mort et al. (2010), diffusive fluxes of nutrients from the sed-
iments are high in hypoxic areas in the Kattegat, Danish Straits,
and the Baltic proper.
The presence of hypoxia in Manila Bay, even during the north-
east monsoon season when the water column is relatively well
mixed, suggests that hypoxia in the bay will likely be significantly
more intense and widespread during the wet southwest monsoon
months (June–September) when stratification can occur. Pycnoclin-
ic stratification can result in a capping effect that prevents the
transfer of DO from surface to deeper DO-depleted waters. Seasonal
differences in precipitation and wind patterns can therefore result
in seasonal changes in both the distribution and intensity of hypox-
ia, which has been observed in the northern Gulf of Mexico
(Rabalais and Turner, 2001) and the Chesapeake Bay (Kemp et al.,
2005).
From initial observations during the sampling, green Noctiluca
scintillans seemed to dominate the phytoplankton assemblage in
Manila Bay. They were found to be dominant during the June
2008 bay-wide survey conducted by Chang et al. (2009). Blooms
of N. scintillans are often associated with eutrophic ecosystems
and might be related to excess food supply and an increase in bot-
tom hypoxia (Uye, 1994; Sriwoon et al., 2008).
5. Conclusion
Hypoxia in Manila Bay during the northeast monsoon (dry sea-
son) when the water column is relatively well mixed is driven by
physical and biochemical processes that confine the distribution
247
of low bottom DO conditions to a band at the midsection of the
bay. Decomposition of organic material, nitrification, and sediment
oxygen demand are the likely causes of DO depletion when high
levels of TOC in surface sediments and high nitrate and phosphate
concentrations are present at the midsection of the bay. During the
southwest monsoon (wet season), hypoxia in Manila Bay is ex-
pected to be more widespread due to the increased stratification
brought about by river run-off. Additional examination of seasonal
differences in water quality of Manila Bay is warranted and is cur-
rently being pursued.
Acknowledgment
We acknowledge the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) of the Philippines and the Global Center of Excellence-
Center of Marine Environmental Research, Ehime University (Japan)
for the funding provided for this study; and the Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) for use of their vessel and the assis-
tance from their research staff. TOC analysis was performed under
the cooperative research program of the Center for Advanced Marine
Core Research (CMCR), Kochi University (08A003, 08B003).
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