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Space‐based Synthetic Aperture Radar for Geological Mapping in the Central

Coromandel Peninsula, South Auckland, New Zealand

Article  in  Geocarto International · September 1999

DOI: 10.1080/10106049908542118

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Space-based Synthetic Aperture Radar for Geological Mapping in
the Central Coromandel Peninsula, South Auckland, New Zealand

S.E. Belliss
Landcare Research
Box 69, Lincoln 8152, Canterbury, New Zealand

A.B. Christie
Resources Group, Institute of Geological and Nuclear Science
Box 31312, Lower Hutt, New Zealand

D.W. Burgess, S.J. McNeill and D. Pairman

Landcare Research
Box 69, Lincoln 8152, Canterbury, New Zealand

A.D.W. Fowler
103 Pinehaven Road, Upper Hutt, New Zealand

Abstract

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data taken by the Japan Earth Resources Satellite-1 (JERS-1) was used to aid
geological mapping in the Coromandel-Hauraki region, North Island, New Zealand, where volcanic terrain hosts
more than 20 epithermal, gold-silver vein deposits. The JERS-1 SAR L-band, horizontal-send, horizontal-receive
data were considered potentially useful for both structural and textural investigations.
Linear features identified typically corresponded to topographic expressions in the field and are a useful aid to
mapping the structural trends in the region. Several linear features coincide with rock unit boundaries identified in
published geological maps, and some were used to help define rock unit boundaries in the new 1:50000 geological
map of the Waihi area. Some trends in strike directions of the mapped linear features correspond to the location of
gold-silver veins but in many cases veins generally strike in a different direction to the linear features. Only one of
the many outcropping quartz-veins was visible on the SAR data.
Mapping of different textures in the radar image failed to show any consistent relationship to mapped rock type.
This was due to both the complexity of the volcanic deposits, and erosion, and hydrothermal alteration.

Introduction map sheet, currently being mapped by the Institute of

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data for the Coromandel-
Hauraki region, (Figs. 1 and 2), was taken by the Japan
Earth Resources Satellite-1 (JERS-1) and made available in
late 1993 for our research work. SAR remote sensing data
can provide valuable information for geological mapping,
especially in areas with poor outcrop and accessibility,
such as the Coromandel-Hauraki region. The northernmost
part of this area was recently geologically mapped at
1:50,000 by Skinner (1993, 1995), whereas the southernmost
area was mapped by Houghton & Cuthbertson (1989).
Work on the intervening area was progressing at the time of
this study and included final field work and compilation for
the New Zealand 1:50,000 metric map sheets T13 and U13
(Fig. 3) (Brathwaite & Christie, 1996), and some initial
reconnaissance mapping for sheet T12. Most of the area
will be included in a new 1:250,000 Auckland geological
Geological and Nuclear Sciences (Rattenbury et al., 1994;
Edbrook, S.W. & Brathwaite, R.L. in prep.).
In previous work with L-HH SAR of the Ruahine Ranges
taken by the Shuttle Imaging Radar-B sensor from Space
Shuttle Columbia in October 1984, textural variations in
the data corresponded well to lithological variations. These
included Tertiary outliers on Mesozoic basement, some of
which had not been recognised before. As well, major
faults that had significant topographic expression were
identified (Belliss & Oliver, 1988). Before this study
satellite-based remote sensing data had not been used to aid
geological mapping of this region in any routine operational
sense, although a caldera noted on the recent T11 geological
maps by Skinner (1993, 1995) was identified first from its
strong semi-circular depiction on low sun angle, Landsat 3,
multispectral scanner data (Skinner, 1983). Also from the
Landsat data, Skinner (1983) recognised another circular

Geocarto International, Vol. 14, No. 3, September 1999 57

Published by Geocarto International Centre, G.P.O. Box 4122, Hong Kong.
“caldera” feature (Wharekawa) on map T12, and several
fault zones.
The Coromandel-Hauraki region is a major producer of
gold and silver with more than 20 known epithermal gold-
bearing quartz veins within the area of SAR coverage and
one currently working mine at Waihi with a current annual
output of 2,500 kg of gold and 19,000 kg of silver. The
mineralisation exhibits strong structural control, and
therefore a knowledge of regional structural trends is
important in the exploration for new deposits. Study of the
SAR data was therefore considered to have potential to
provide valuable information both for regional mapping
and mineral exploration.

Geographical and Geological Setting

The Coromandel Peninsula region is situated southeast

of Auckland on the east coast of the North Island, New
Zealand (Fig. 1). The physiography of the region is
dominated by the NNW-trending Coromandel Range and
the adjacent Hauraki Depression, occupied by the Hauraki
Plain (Fig. 4). The rugged ranges, up to 950 m high, are
well dissected and display few remnants of the original
volcanic surface.
Basement rocks in the Coromandel region comprise
Late Jurassic greywacke and argillite. None of these outcrop
in the area covered by the JERS-1 SAR image, but they are
believed to form the subvolcanic basement throughout the
region. The area is dominated by a late Cenozoic subaerial
sequence of volcanic rocks and associated volcaniclastic
sediments, reviewed by Skinner (1986). River and lake
sediments are interspersed with the volcanic sequences,
and Quaternary sediments fill most valley floors and underlie
the Hauraki Plains. Volcanic features include eroded large
composite startovolcanoes, domes and spines, calderas,
ignimbrite sheets, and monogenic basaltic vents.
The upper Cenozoic calc-alkaline rocks are dominated
by early andesites and dacites, and later rhyolites; basalts
are rare. Volcanism began in the early Miocene and was
dominantly andesitic-dacitic until the late Miocene when
significant rhyolitic volcanism occurred. As a general rule,
the volcanic rocks young towards the south (Adams et al.,
1994). They host epithermal vein gold-silver-lead-zinc-
copper deposits which range in age from Miocene to Pliocene
(Brathwaite et al., 1989). The regional structure is dominated
by the NNW trends of the Coromandel Range and fold axes
of the greywacke basement. Subsequent faulting was
predominantly along this trend or transverse (NE to ENE)
to this trend. Along the eastern side of the peninsula,
depressions are filled with rhyolitic and volcaniclastic
sedimentary rocks (Skinner 1983; Bromley & Brathwaite,
1991).
JERS-1 SAR and the Announcement of
Opportunity
The JERS-1 satellite was launched into a polar orbit in
Figure 1 Locality map showing the major geographical features of the
area, within the SAR coverage.
February 1992. It carried two major sensors, an eight-band
optical sensor, one band of which looks forward to give a
stereoscopic capability, and a SAR. Landcare Research,
New Zealand, responded to the Announcement of
Opportunity with a proposal to test the utility of these data
in a topographically and geologically complex area with
heavy vegetation cover (Pairman, 1990). The Coromandel
region was chosen because:
• it has rugged, bush-covered hills, traditionally difficult
to map geologically by conventional ground and aerial
methods and where SAR may be of the greatest use;
• the geology of the area is relatively broadly well known
compared to other areas in New Zealand, providing a
good information base for interpretation of the JERS-1
data sets. Also, there is still high interest in mineral
exploration, and geological mapping projects are ongoing
at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences,
universities, and by mining companies. New sources of
information may reveal hitherto unknown features;
• other remote sensing data covering all or part of the
region were availiable for comparison.
The SAR image, taken on 5 November 1993 (Figs 2 and
4), gave good coverage of the area of interest. These data
were supplied as a 3-look amplitude product with a nominal
12.5 m ground sampling, or approximately 50%
oversampling with respect to the nominal spatial resolution.
Characteristics of the JERS-1 SAR are outlined in Table 1.

58

Table 1 Characteristics of the JERS-1 radar sensor
Frequency 1275 MHz (L-band, 24 cm)
Bandwidth 15 MHz
Polarisation H-H
Look angle 35 degrees (right looking from
the descending node)
Satellite altitude 570 km
Along track ground 18m at three looks
resolution
Across track ground 18m at three looks
resolution
scene size 75 km x 75 km
Methods Used in this Study
Orthorectification (Geocoding) Manually derived
ground control points gathered from 1:50000 topographic
maps were used in geocoding. As a general rule, well-
defined features on these maps can be located to an
accuracy approaching ±50 metres at the 95% confidence
level. Consequently, a relatively large number had to be
gathered to bring the confidence level of the geocoded
result to within the nominal resolution level over the full
area. Elevation information for geocoding was also
derived from the same topographic maps, estimated from
20 m contours. The accuracy of these contours is quoted
at ±10 metres at the 90% confidence level which is, we
believe, approximately correct in this rugged terrain.
Welch & Ehlers (1988) estimated that, whereas ground
control points in visible and near infrared data can be
located to sub-pixel accuracy, those for radar typically
are located to around 1-3 pixels. Welch & Ehlers were
using Shuttle Imaging Radar-B and Landsat Thematic
Mapper (30 m spatial resolution) data in relatively flat
terrain when they computed these accuracies. The
orthorectification of the JERS-1 SAR image used 52
ground control points, mostly derived from natural, rather
than cultural, features, and had an overall error of 6.06
pixels of 12.5 metres, or just over 75 m. More recently,
Yesou et al. (1993), when combining SPOT multispectral
and Seasat SAR data, again in an area of low topographic,
found that the main source of rectification error was the
difficulty in defining the location of SAR ground control
points in image space.
As SAR is a side-looking system, the image axis
orthogonal to the flight line is derived from the time it takes
the SAR pulses to reach the point on the ground and return
to the antenna. As a consequence of this, points that have a
higher elevation appear closer to the antenna and are thus
shifted in the resulting image. This creates two effects –
foreshortening and layover, both of which are mitigated
during orthorectification of SAR data. The location of the
ridge lines is much improved but the return signals are not
properly corrected. Layover results in some regions that
cannot be corrected and which, if unnoticed, can cause
problems when interpreting imagery. With the particular
viewing geometry of JERS-1, layover occurs once the
foreslopes are over 38.7 degrees. Its should be noted that
the rugged nature of the terrain meant that severe
foreshortening of some slopes occurred. One some
occasions, it was more useful to base interpretation on the
original (unrectified) imagery, depending upon the feature.
Figure 5 shows 10 km x15 km subsets of the north-
central Coromandel region, an area where layover has
occurred. Examples of this area are shown, rectified,
orthorectified, and as a sunshaded DEM, as well as indicating
areas where layover has occurred.
The SAR were combined with digital aeromagnetic data
derived from low-level, constant terrain clearance
aeromagnetic surveys carried out in 1977-78 by Amoco
Minerals (Rabone, 1991). The aeromagnetic data was colour-
coded and then “washed” over the black and white SAR
imagery. Generally, the overlay showed, as expected, that
the aeromagnetic anomalies are strongly influenced by
topography. Many apparent anomalies, including some very
low magnetic intensity values in two valleys, are probably
a function of topography rather than of lithology or structure.
Several anomalies are discussed in relation to mapped
features in the SAR image, but taken as a whole, the
combination of datasets has so far not shown up any obvious
new information.
Feature Mapping and Conversion
The identification of linear and semicircular features in
satellite images is very subjective, particularly in the case
of subtle features. To minimise this, features in the SAR
image were mapped by interpreters, independently of one
another, over at least a week, to allow each person several
“looks”. The plots were drawn at 1:250,000 scale. This
scale is large enough to show all the features but also fine
enough to obviate blurring, which becomes a problem at
1:100,000 and 1:50,000 scale. The resulting plots were
compared and a master plot of linear, curvilinear, and
semicircular features was drawn up, based on commonality
and consensus. Overlays of different radar textures were
also drawn.
Tracing linear drainage features is also very subjective.
We have generally used the central stream or river course,
but a causative structure could lie on the valley side or
along the ridge, or be a composite structure of parallel
faults or a single fault with side-stepping jogs. The linear
feature traces should therefore be considered as only
approximate, with the structure potentially lying in a corridor
up to several hundred metres either side of the drainage
channel. A strict correlation of the linear features with
potential causative features mapped on the ground is
therefore not expected.
Field Check
A check was made to see if the linear and semicircular
59
features identified in the laboratory had field expression and were natural and Hauraki Plains, with a bright rim
not man-made features, such as farm of forest boundaries, roads, or drainage especially along the western side,
channels. The features identified on the SAR image were transferred onto indicating very wet conditions under the
1:50,000 topographical map sheets for use as field sheets, because it is very swamp vegetation;
hard to locate oneself in the field directly from the SAR image. To aid • the smooth, dark return from all the
accurate field location, GPS readings were taken at regular intervals for water-covered areas in the image.
immediate geolocation to within 100 m and eventual geolocation via
differential GPS to approximately 10 m. Linear Features
Some of the linear features identified in
Description of the SAR Image and Mapped Features the SAR imagery have obvious geological
causes; others are problematical. Fifty-nine
General Features linear and curvilinear features, with a length
Figure 2 shows the western two-thirds of the SAR data. The main of 5 km or more, were mapped from the
characteristics of the SAR image are: SAR image (Fig. 6 and Appendix). These,
• the mixed bright and medium radar returns from the Coromandel Range together with more numerous sub- 5 km
area, with bright returns from foreslopes and dark returns from backslopes; linear features (some of which are shown
• darker radar returns from the flatter areas, especially the basin area around on Fig. 6), mostly strike in the northerly
the town of Waihi, the Hauraki Plains, and the river valleys on the east quadrant (NW-NE): there are very few
coast. The bright linear features at approximately right angles to the radar linear features that strike in the easterly
look direction are shelter belts, fences, roads, stopbanks, and ditches. quadrant (NE-SE). Three main sets of
• the smooth radar return outlining the Piako Peat Dome, on the central north-northeasterly trending linear features
predominate:
(a) the strong, long linear feature (L18)in
the north-west of the image
(b) the series of features starting at the top
of the image (L1), and extending south
to join a major river valley and linear
features formed by tributaries of several
streams (L15)
(c) the combination of L25, L34, L43,
and L54, a series of streams and ridges.
The linear/curvilinear feature L55,
following a major river valley in the bottom
centre of the image, is also very prominent.
The large size of these linear features
suggests that they are fundamental
structures of the region, possibly related to
structures in the underlying greywacke
basement, although some have slightly
different trends to the NNW and ENE trends
recognised previously for basement
structures by Skinner (1986).
The strong linear features are
superimposed on a background of closely
spaced, “fine”, parallel linear features in a
dense pattern. These fine features have
two predominant strike directions, north-
north-east and north-east. For example, the
north-north-east striking pattern is strongly
developed in the hills 4 km north-west of
Whangamata and the northeast striking
pattern is prominent in the vicinity of the
circular structure 8 km south-west of
Tairua.
Figure 2 JERS-1 SAR image of the Coromandel, taken 5 November 1993. These data have
been orthorectified to the New Zealand Metric Map Grid. Although the full image
In the north of our test site, recent
covers 75 x 75 km, much of the sea has been discarded from the eastern side to geological mapping of the New Zealand
reduce the processing time. 1:50,000 map sheet T11 by Skinner (1993,

60

Figure 3 Locality of the 1:50,000 map sheet referred to in the text.
1995) provides good ground control for the SAR data. The geological
maps were completed before the SAR data became available and
mapping the SAR linear features was completed without viewing the
geological maps . Therefore, we were interested in level of correlation
between the mapping of faults based on geological considerations
versus linear features identified from the satellite data. For the most
part, correlation was good. For example, L3, which corresponds to a
river course, follows a composite site of northerly faults mapped by
Skinner (1995), which are offset by northeast striking faults. In other
cases, although the linear features followed the same trend as mapped
features, they did not correspond exactly to mapped features. The
strong linear feature L1 strikes north-north-east along a series of
ridges, passing within 1 km to the west of a former gold-sliver mining
area (the quartz veins have approximately the same strike), and in the
vicinity of, but not corresponding to, north-east striking faults mapped
by Skinner (1995). However, in this case, the feature corresponded to
a series of residual volcanic necks and dikes (Skinner, pers. comm.) A
full description of the linear features is given in the Appendix.
Further south in the SAR image in the Central Coromandel, in the
area corresponding to map sheet T12, a few small
areas have been mapped at 1:50 000 or large scale
in several MSc these (Moore, 1976; Torckler,
1978; Fulton, 1988; Aldrich, 1995; McGunnigle,
1995; Trotter, 1995) and preliminary geological
mapping field work on this sheet has been
undertaken by the Institute of Geological and
Nuclear Sciences. However, for most of the area,
the most recent mapping is the Auckland 1:250,000
map sheet of Schofield (1967). Examples of linear
features that correspond to mapped geological
features are L16, which comprises the Staircase
Fault mapped by Trotter (1995), and L29, which
follows approximately a lithological contact
between ignimbrite (west) and andesite (east).
Other examples in map sheet T12 include L12,
L25, L32, L36 and L38.
Also in map sheet T12, Aldrich (1995) used
the SAR data to map features in the Onemana
area, the peninsula north of Whangamata (see
Fig. 1; also Fig. 3), all of which were less than 5
km long and of a more detailed scale than mapped
during this study. One of his linear features,
approximately 1 km long, was confirmed by
exposure of a fault on the coast (Aldrich 1995
p.66, linear features). Aldrich postulated that the
arcuate shape of the Onemana Peninsula, and the
harbours immediately north and south of it,
represented the western margin of a caldera. This
arcuate shape is visible on the SAR image, but
was not highlighted by our mapping team.
The SAR image became available after
completion of fieldwork for the recent Waihi map
sheet (T13) (Brathwaite & Christie, 1996), but
was used during the compilation of the map. For
example, the northern end of L42 was used to
map an inferred fault terminating a small area of
rhyolite exposed in the nearby stream, and the
Ramarama Scarp forms the northern part of L48
which, in the south, was mapped as a fault
terminating the south-west exposures of a rhyolite
capping Mt Karangahake, south-east of Paeroa
(op. cit. 1996). Other examples in T13 with some
geological correlation include L50 and L52.
Correlation between linear features and
mineralisation was variable. In some cases, known
mineral deposits lie along, or near to, linear
features but the actual trend of their veins is
usually different (e.g., L20, L33, L35, L43, L52
in the Appendix). A linear feature in a valley
(L58), parallels, but lies about 1 km to the east of
a large quartz vein, on the southward strike of a
major drainage linear feature (L54). In the field,
this quartz vein is a prominent outcrop in the
southern part of this valley and workings expose
the reef near the central and northern parts of the
valley. We were therefore surprised that, apart
from the isolated outcrop of the vein at the southern
61
 Figure 4 Perspective view processed from the orthorectified SAR data, looking north-east, illustrating the
general topography of the test site and the locality of some of the more important local features
referred to in the text. The structural high of the Coromandel-Kaimai Ranges is flanked on the west by
the low-lying Hauraki rift. The north-north-west-trending western front of these ranges is the eroded
scarp of the Hauraki Fault.

end, the vein could not be identified on the SAR image.
The SAR heading direction is ideal for showing up
roughly north-south features (i.e., at right angles to the
radar look direction), but was therefore not ideal for east-
west trending features. Nevertheless, a number of these
were mapped in the northern part of the SAR image,
frequently in areas of very difficult access. As consequence,
these have not been field-checked.
Semi-Circular Features
There are a number of circular and semicircular features
visible in the SAR data, (Fig. 6 and Appendix). The
topographic expressions of these generally correspond to
features noted previously in other remote sensing media.
Some of these features relate to drainage around volcanic
domes (e.g., cB and cE). The semicircular feature cI was
also observed by Rabone (1991) in the AMOCO
aeromagnetic anomaly map. Rabone postulated that the
feature was a caldera, but no lithological evidence for a
caldera was found during recent geological mapping by
Brathwaite & Christie (1996).
Interestingly, some important circular features, previously
noted on low sun angle Landsat MSS imagery and / or by
field mapping, did not stand out on the SAR. These include:
• a large crater known as the Kapowai Caldera, west of
Tairua, mapped by Skinner (1983, 1993, 1995) from
Landsat imagery and field geology, although a small
section of the ring fault is represented by L12.
• a crater termed the Tunaiti caldera of Briggs & Fulton
(1990), which has some topographic expression on the
T12 1:50,000 topographic map and SAR image, but was
not initially recognised in the image by any of the three
compilers. Instead, the compilers marked another, more
prominent, but similarly sized (2.8 km) semicircular
drainage feature in a stream area (cF), immediately to the
south.
Descriptions of all the circular and semicircular features
identified in the SAR image are given in the Appendix.
Radar Textures
In some cases, SAR can be used to distinguish between
rock types that have different resistance to erosion because
of lithological or age differences, even in areas of vegetation
cover and low/no outcrop (Belliss & Oliver, 1989).
Lithological or lithofacies mapping using SAR is based on
the detection of contrasts and boundaries between
lithological units and on the observation of features with
specific geomorphological signatures. In the Coromandel-
Hauraki region however, there were few major differences
between the lithologies present at a scale mappable in the
JERS-1 SAR image. Six textural features were identified.
• Very coarse texture, especially in the north-central area

62
 Figure 5 The incidence of layover in JERS-1 SAR data.
10 km x 15 km subsets of the north-central Coromandel Peninsula (top left coordinate 6460000.0,
2740000.0).
5a (top left) SAR data that has been rectified to the New Zealand Metric Map Grid but not orthorectified.
That is , no corrections for height have been made so inclined surfaces are leaning towards the radar
look direction and high areas are displaced from their correct geolocation.
5b (top right), these data have been orthorectified. The high areas are far more geomertrically precise;
however, data on the some near side slopes are “smeared” suggesting that some information may be
missing in the these areas.
5c (bottom left) Artificially sun-shaded digital elevation model, with the “sun” positioned at 10 a.m. in
summer. The image gives a simple view of the topography, but is difficult to reconcile with the SAR
5d (bottom right) shows the areas in this subimage where the foreslopes are steep, over 38.7 degrees,
and thus where layover has affected the image and no interpretation, apart from the steepness, is
viable. Layover areas in the image are in white.

of the peninsula. where the terrain corrections inherent in
the orthorectification process have caused “smearing” of
the data. The textural pattern is therefore identifying
areas of steep terrain, rather than a specific lithology.
• Coarse texture with light tones, representing hilly areas
predominantly in areas of indigenous forest.
• Coarse texture with dark tones, representing hilly areas in
pasture.
• Fine texture with light tones, such as Matakana Island
and on part of the Onemana Peninsula north of
Whangamata, representing either flat or moderately
subdued topography planted out in exotic species, mainly
Pinus radiata. Fine, light-toned textures are also observed
around the Piako Dome, where they represent very wet
ground, under trees and swamp.
• Fine grained, medium-toned textures, especially apparent
in the centre of the Piako Dome (refer Fig 1), representing
scrublands, a mixed assemblage of shrubs and trees
dominated by manuka-kanuka, 0.5-2 m high, growing
over the peats.
• Fine-grained areas with dark backgrounds and bright
stripes, representing areas of pasture on the Hauraki
Plains with very regular, basically N-S-oriented, series of
ditches and/or hedges, fences, and shelter belts.
These features show that the vegetation cover influences
the radar textures as much as does topography. In areas of
consistent vegetation over low slope and flat areas,
vegetation gives a uniform texture, with variations due to
wet ground under the trees in the case of the Piako Dome
margins, differing ages of pine trees in the case of plantations
north-west of Whangamata and on Matakana Island, and
differing land uses in the case of the flat land around the
harbour behind Matakana Island.
These mapped textural differences are on a very broad
scale. When fine-scale textural mapping is considered, the
rapid variations and inter-fingered distribution of the
volcanic rock types, overprinted with patterns of
hydrothermal alteration affecting the appearance and
resistance of the landforms and masked by vegetation
differences, make the pattern of textures too complex to
make any sense at this regional scale, except in few isolated
cases. For example, some small bright circular areas, south-
west of the basin area surrounding the town of Waihi,
correspond to intrusive plugs or domes. Some of these were
very prominent on the combined SAR image and
aeromagnetic anomaly map we produced, because of the
strongly magnetised nature of a few of the intrusives.
However, in some other parts of the SAR image and the
combined SAR and aeromagnetic anomaly map, similar
intrusives mapped in the field are not discernable, and
therefore the remote sensing techniques cannot be used on
their own to map the occurrence and extent of this particular
lithofacies.
63

Figure 6 Linear, curvilinear and semi-circular features mapped on the SAR image
opposite. Linear features identified as formed by human activity (e.g. land
boundaries) during a field check are excluded. Keys to the number and
letter references are given in Tables 2 and 3 respectively.
Discussion
A large number of new linear, curvilinear and semicircular features
have been identified in the SAR image that were not previously
recognised in Landsat images. Conversely, several major features
previously identified in Landsat imagery, especially some of the
circular features, are poorly defined in the SAR image. The different
sets of data are complimentary, highlighting different structures because
of different look and “illumination” angles.
Of particular importance is whether the patterns of linear features
identified are representative of the regional structure, given the bias
for definition of northerly trending linear features. We have initiated
work on other satellite imagery and also digital elevation models
constructed from Land Information New Zealand topographic contour
data. Results reported by Christie et al. (1994) for map sheet T13 are
consistent with the general patterns deduced from the SAR data. Two
general types of major linear features have been mapped from the
SAR image: linear features representing major scarps showing vertical
throw and, possibly, contact between differing lithologies as well, and
those that can be described as drainage linear features, where erosion
64
along a major fracture or lithological contact is
inferred. Drainage linear features could have
originated in one of the following ways:
• faulting
• lithological boundary changes, such as contacts
between two different rock types
• a major fracture in the older volcanic or
greywacke basement rocks of the area that
continues to exert topographic influences on
the more recent overlying rocks, either through
affecting the conditions under which they were
deposited or by continuing activity.
• a fracture in younger rocks which may have
influenced the drainage pattern. Subsequently,
the young rocks may have been eroded off, but
the stream, for example, continues to cut down
into the underlying rocks. This drainage linear
feature will appear just like the ones caused by
features in the older rocks, but although they
are cutting through the old rock, they do not
represent any structural feature that is present
in that rock.
Major structures inherited by younger rocks
from the greywacke basement or old volcanic
rock are, of course, of great interest for mineral
exploration and the others may be red herrings.
Many of the linear features identified in this
survey mark lithological boundaries defined by
field mapping. Most of the remainder occur within
a single rock type or sequence, and although
their cause may not be known at present they
help reveal the regional structural pattern and
may be targets for future geological and mineral
exploration work.
Merchant (1989) proposed that the location of
several gold deposits and alignment of their quartz
veins constituted a structural belt he named the
Karangahake - Ohui structural trend (KOST).
Rabone (1991) mapped a strongly linear corridor
of magnetic lows approximately coincident with
this corridor but extending further south to Te
Aroha. SAR linear features were drawn along
this corridor (e.g., L17, L24, L31, L32, L35 and
L43) but no continuous linear feature was
identified. Rabone also mapped a north-east
trending magnetic low from south of Thames to
Tairua on the east coast. Again, SAR linear
features, and especially curvilinear features, were
identified along this same line but generally
striking in a more northerly direction.
Conclusions
Most linear features mapped on the SAR
imagery proved to have topographic expression,
indicating the presence of geological or structural
causative features. They highlight the main
structural trends, and several mark faults and / or major
geological boundaries identified by recent 1:50,000
mapping. Some of the linear features have no known cause,
occurring within mapped units and removed from mapped
faults. Nevertheless, these features have helped in defining
the orientation of some structurally controlled formation
boundaries in recent mapping of sheet T13.
The important features identified from the SAR data
include:
• the very strong NNE-SSW alignment of linear features
• secondary NW-SE and NE-SW trends
• pervasive, closely spaced NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE linear
features over most of the northern hilly parts of the map
area
• the paucity of major E-W or NE-SW aligned features
• three large, prominent composite linear features:
(a) L18 - Kapowai River - Kauaeranga River,
(b) L1 and L15 - Tapuaetahi Hill - Tairua River and
(c) L25, L34, L43, and L54 - Wharekawa - Whakamoehau
Ridge - Waitekauri River - Mangakino River.
• several small circular, semicircular and crescent features,
a few of which are formed by the margins of rhyolite
domes.
Many of the known quartz-vein gold deposits lie along
or adjacent to SAR linear features although none of the
known mineralised structures were visible on the remote
sensing data (apart from the vein outcrop noted in the
southern part of the image see L58 in Appendix 1). The
linear features may represent deep structures that have
provided the loci for the deposits, although the actual
mineralised structures are small features that generally
strike in different directions. The texture of radar images is
usually considered a major feature of SAR data and it was
disappointing that we were unable to find a simple
relationship of texture to rock type in the area. This was due
primarily to the lack of major differences in the lithologies
present, and to the added complexity of variations in
alteration and vegetative cover. Textural maps prepared
from the radar data were difficult to interpret and did not
directly reflect mapped lithofacies. The factors which may
prevent a simple relationship between texture and lithology
are:
• 2-15 million years of erosion which has eliminated most
of the primary volcanic landforms;
• complex inter-fingering of different volcanic units such
as flows and pyroclastic rocks in the 100s of metres scale;
• variable and often intense hydrothermal alteration
affecting the rocks in the area which has superimposed a
secondary textural element.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Japanese Government,
especially the JERS-1 team at NASDA, for the opportunity
to experiment with these data. The authors also thank, their
colleagues at both Landcare and GNS for their assistance
and constructive comments on the work. Thanks also to the
geological team at Coeur Gold, and David Skinner and Bob
Brathwaite at the Institute of Geological and Nuclear
Sciences for useful discussions. Philip Warnes transferred
the linear features from our overlay tracings onto 1:50,000
topographic maps for our use as field sheets. Michelle Park
drafted the Figures. This research was funded by the New
Zealand Foundation for Research, Science and Technology.
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Appendix 1: Description of the Individual
Features
In this appendix, many local names of settlements, mines,
and topographic features have been included to aid locality
identification for the workers in the field.
Linear Features
L1 strikes NNE along a series of ridge crests that are
marked by residual volcanic necks and dikes (Skinner pers.
comm.). It lies less than 1 km to the west of the former Boat
66
Harbour gold-silver mining area (the quartz-veins have
approximately the same strike), and in the vicinity of, but
not corresponding to, NE-striking faults mapped by Skinner
(1995).
L2 lies mostly in ignimbrite but party follows or forms
the north-eastern boundary of a rhyolite and ends to north-
west at a rhyolitic dome. The Jennings or Corric Bell mine
lies just off the southern end of this linear feature and on the
northern end of another linear feature which strikes NE,
approximately at the projected intersection of the two linear
features.
L3 follows a set northerly faults, mapped by Skinner
(1995), that follow the Kapowai Caldera ring and are offset
by NE-striking faults.
L4 and L5 are formed by breaks in slope related to a
series of linear skeletal vents (Skinner pers. comm.).
L6 is a composite of two faults mapped by Skinner
(1995) displacing or terminating exposures of local
andesites, and rhyolites. A semi-parallel linear feature to
the south (L7), lies mostly within rhyolite but also terminates
small areas of basalts and ignimbrites.
L8 marks the eastern boundary of a local andesite
formation (Skinner 1995).
L9 bisects the two rhyolite domes of Trotter (1995), and
proceeds south to join the Ohui Fault.
L10 and L11 are depressions between northerly belts of
hills and knobs formed by small domes and exposures of
various rhyolitic flows and ignimbrites mapped by Trotter
(1995). An unlabelled linear feature west of L11 in Fig. 6
corresponds to the Duck Creek Fault inferred by Trotter
(1995) to explain the low-lying area between several rhyolite
domes.
L12 is a small section of the Kapowai Caldera ring fault
mostly within andesite.
L16 at its northern end, comprises the Staircase Fault
mapped by Trotter (1995). This fault lies on the western
side of a linear line of rhyolite flows originating from
Staircase Ridge, and displaces a dacitic dike by 100 m.
L17 may begin as far north as Storm Beach, near the top
of the image, and extends for about 20 km southward into a
major stream valley. L17, together with L16 and L24,
appear to form the locus for various small areas of andesite,
lying within areas of ignimbrites, rhyolite, and dacite.
L17 also passes through the Ohui mining area and is
possibly the control on its location.
L18 is one of the most prominent linear features in the
SAR image. In the south, it is developed in andesites,
rhyolites, and ignimbrite, whereas in the north it passes
through the centre of Kapowai Caldera, in a valley of
pyroclastic rocks flanked by domes of rhyolite.
L20, L27 & L28: Former mines at Neavesville (Ajax
and Champion) and in Puriri Valley (Miners Right, We
Three and Sheet Anchor) lie adjacent and between L20,
L27, and L28. Also to the north, the former Broken Hills
and Golden Hills mines lie adjacent to L20. The linear
features are developed in a mixture of intrusive andesitic
and rhyolitic rocks mapped by Schofield (1967).
 L21-23 are developed in andesite and are each major W-
NW-trending drainage linear features.
L25 borders the hills on the west side of the harbour
north of Whangamata and extends southward into a valley
where it forms the contact between andesite and ignimbrite.
An exposure of this contact was located during the field
investigation. The northern end of the structure is possibly
the north-eastern border of the Onemana peninsula.
L26 is developed in the volcanics and parts of the
southern section mark the western boundary of rhyolite
flows mapped by Schofield (1967).
L29 follows approximately a contact between ignimbrite
(west) and andesite (east).
L32 marks a boundary between rhyolite and andesite
mapped by Schofield (1967).
L33 is developed in andesite and passes through the
location of quartz veins of the Wentworth mines, mainly
the Auckland and Glamorgan mines, which have different
strike directions to the linear feature and each other.
L34 may be a southward continuation of L30 and although
mostly developed in andesite, it forms the south-east contact
of an area of ignimbrites with overlying andesite in the
headwaters of a stream (Schofield) 1967.
L35 passes close to the quartz veins of the former
Goldwin mine but at slightly different strike direction.
L36 is developed mostly in andesite but truncates the
north-west of a small area of rhyolite at the junction of two
streams.
L37 is mostly developed in ignimbrite, extending SW
and NE into andesite. Small areas of andesite and rhyolite
are localised on L37. Next to this, another linear feature
runs N-S through coarse breccia just to the eastern edge of
a capping rhyolite. This feature was not strongly marked in
the topography.
L38 marks the western boundary to some ignimbrites
overlying andesites.
L40 is formed by two separate ridge lines. No faults are
evident from geological mapping by Brathwaite & Christie
(1996), but a 1.5 km x 2 km exposure of rhyolite in the
valley between them is centred on this feature suggesting a
potential genetic link and a possible focus for the rhyolite
eruptions.
L41 is a prominent 6-km long NW-trending drainage
linear feature that can be projected SE to join and form part
of the north-eastern border of the Waitekauri-Golden Cross
semicircular structure (cI). The linear feature bisects the
silver-gold-bearing quartz veins of the Maratoto area which
strike NE.
L42 was used by Brathwaite & Christie (1996) to map
an inferred fault terminating a small area of rhyolite.
L43 follows the N-S trend of a major valley, bisecting
the upper Waitekauri-Golden Cross semicircular feature
(cI). L43 can be projected south to join L54, and north,
after an approximately 500-m NE offset, to join L34
northward along the western face of a ridge. Several mineral
deposits (St Hippo, Taranaki, Empire at Golden Cross, old
Golden Cross, Grace Darling) lie along L43 but the actual
trend of their veins is NE. Similarly, the Huanui lies on a
smaller linear feature to west. The southern part of L43
marks approximately the eastern boundary of a large area
of alteration in the Waitekauri valley, west of Waihi.
L48 is a NW-trending linear feature formed by a scarp
which passes to the west of Ramarama Trig. It is mostly in
andesite but the southern part was mapped as a fault
terminating the south-west exposures of rhyolite capping
Mt Karangahake, a prominent hill south-east of Paeroa
(Brathwaite & Christie, 1996).
L49 follows ridges of andesite.
L50 crosses andesite in the Mangakara valley, southward
across a ridge of younger andesite, and forms a boundary
between andesite and dacite formations along its southern
extent in the Owharoa area.
L51 & L56: Three NNE-trending linear features are
formed by the northern tributaries of a stream and are
developed in andesite. The western linear feature (L51)
extends south into ignimbrites in stream headwaters where
it has only mild topographic expression but was identified
at several points along its length. This linear feature can be
extended further south to join L56.
L52 is a drainage linear feature along a stream
headwaters, then extends south through ignimbrites, but at
its northern end it follows a mapped fault in Waipupu
Formation. The Union Hill gold-silver-bearing quartz veins
lie along this linear feature.
L53 is formed by a break in slope along the western
Coromandel Range front, developed in Waipupu Formation
with no apparent structural cause although it ends to the
south on the Tui lead-zinc-copper deposit.
L54 and part of L58 follow a major valley. A major
geological boundary, between two formations, also lies
along this valley, although not strictly coincident with
either of the mapped linear features. However all three
features may be related to some underlying and deep-
seated basement structure. L58 continues south down another
valley, paralleling the Big Buck quartz reef, which lies
about 1 km to the west, on the southward strike of L54. The
line of the Big Buck reef was not visible in the SAR image
apart from a prominent outcrop of the quartz vein at the
southern end of the valley.
L55 is the locus for several domes and plugs of andesite
mapped by Brathwaite & Christie (1996).
L57 partly formed by a stream, is the largest of a series
of NE-trending linear features present in the Athenree
Gorge area, south of Waihi. They have good topographic
expression but do not appear to be associated with any
specific geological features.
L59 follows the break in slope for part of the east range
front of the Kaimai Ranges in the south of the image area,
and represents the current position of erosional cut-back of
the range from the bounding fault mapped about 1-1.5 km
to the east by Brathwaite & Christie (1996).
L13, L14, L15, L19, L30, L31, L39, L44, L45, L46,
and L47 have , at present, no known structural or lithological
cause.
67
Semicircular Features
cA is formed by streams in ignimbrite, with no apparent
structural cause.
cB consists of two small circular features related to
drainage around rhyolite domes. The western feature, 2.2
km in diameter, corresponds to the Kapowai Dome and the
2-km diameter eastern feature represents the northern dome
of Puketotara Domes mapped by Skinner (1995).
cC is a 4 x 3.5 km elliptical structure around Coulters
Hill, and lies on the NE rim of the Kapowai Caldera. cC has
no apparent volcanotectonic origin, being comprised of
several different lithologies, namely andesite, ignimbrite,
and rhyolite, mapped by Skinner (1995).
cD is a prominent 2.8-km diameter semicircular feature
developed in rhyolite.
cE is a composite feature of several concentric
semicircular features, with a maximum projected diameter
of 10.5 km. This feature lies to the north, but slightly
overlapping the Wharekawa caldera, postulated by Skinner
(1986) from Landsat multispectral scanner imagery. The
Broken Hills and Golden Hills gold-silver deposits lie on
the western rim of cE. The small inner semi-circle marks
the crater at the top of a dacitic dome (McGunnigle, 1995),
and the crescent-shaped curvilinear feature immediately to
the SE is part of the margin of the dome. The three concentric
crescent-shaped features to the NE appear to be related to
the eastern margin of another dacitic dome and east-flanking
rhyolites and ignimbrites.
cF is a 2.8-km diameter semicircular drainage feature
developed mostly in andesite and flanked by rhyolite to the
west and east.
cG is a 5-km long crescent-shaped feature formed by
a stream running through deposits of andesite and dacite.
It is paired by an opposite-facing crescent making a 3.5-
68
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km diameter feature.
cH is a 1.2-km diameter semicircular feature within
andesite.
cI is a 4-5 km diameter semicircular feature in the upper
Waitekauri Valley near Waihi. It is bisected by L43 and
encloses the Golden Cross deposit. Rabone (1991) also
noted a circular “caldera” feature here from the aeromagnetic
anomaly pattern. However, there is no evidence for a caldera
in the recent geological mapping by Brathwaite & Christie
(1996).
cJ & cK: A semicircular feature north of Waihi has a
western boundary generally defined by the ridge line above
two streams, and near the contact of Waipupu Formation
with overlying andesites. Two eastern boundaries are
present. One is the north-eastern ridge line above one of the
streams, enclosing a 3-km diameter circle (cJ),
approximately along the contact of Waipupu Formation
and overlying andesitie; the other is represented by the hills
of andesite enclosing an 8 km elliptical feature (cK).
cL: An unlabelled small circular feature is present at the
northern end of Golden Valley, immediately east of cK and
several crescent-shaped features, up to 3.5 km long, are
present nearby (cL). These features are mostly developed
in rhyolites, but extend southward into andesites and breccia
(Brathwaite & Christie 1996).
cM is an indistinct 9 km by 4 km elliptical outline of the
Waihi basin, marked by the differing land use in the basin
compared with the surrounding hills. Bromley & Brathwaite
(1991) and Brathwaite & Christie (in prep.) consider that
the Waihi basin and its contained ignimbrites represent a
caldera.
cN & cO: 1 and 1.5-km diameter “bulls-eye” circular
features (cN) are present in the southern part of the image,
and a 5-km diameter feature is present in the Kaimai Range
(cO), all three predominantly in andesite and dacite.