Mineralogy

GEOLOGY - GROUP 2
 What is Mineralogy?
It is a branch of geology that focuses on the analysis of the chemical

composition, crystal structure, and physical characteristics of

minerals and other mineralized artifacts, particularly their optical

qualities. Mineralogy-specific research includes examinations of the

origin and development of minerals as well as their classification,

distribution, and uses.

 Georgius Agricula
‘The Father of Mineralogy’

He was born on March 24, 1494, Glauchau, Saxony (Germanydied).

Died in November 21, 1555, Chemnitz. He provided the foundations

for the study of the Earth (and its rocks, minerals, and fossils), in a

systematic, recorded, way. Agricula spent a lot of time studying and

observing mining operations. His famous books about minerals are

De Re Metallica , De natura fossilium , and De Ortu et Causis

Subterraneorum
 IMPORTANCE OF

MINERALOGY TO

CIVIL ENGINEERING
Mineral properties are just as important as properties

of construction materials. Construction materials for

general purpose buildings are supposed to perform

for a period of at least 50 years, (unless explicitly

designed for alternative age or the purpose is

explicitly defined). Corrosion is a grave factor which

most engineers overlook/undermine. The basic

chemistry between atmospheric gases and concrete

surfaces/exposed steel surfaces is very crucial.

ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE

ON SYMMETRY OF

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC

SYSTEMS
 SYMMETRY
Observing the symmetry of a crystal is often a way to distinguish one

mineral from another. Symmetry is a fundamental property of crystalline

solids' atom arrangements that is used in crystallography. It is used describe

crystals, find recurring elements in molecules, and to make almost all

calculations and data collection easier. The majority of symmetry types in

crystallography can be explained in terms of an apparent movement of the

object, such as a rotation or translation. These apparent movements are

called symmetry operation. The locations where the symmetry operations

occur such as a rotation axis, a mirror plane, an inversion center, or a

translation vector are described as symmetry elements.

There are TWO distinct

methods of describing

rotational symmetry

operation.
 Carl Hermann-Mauguin
nomenclature
Is typically used to describe crystals and

crystallographic symmetry.

Arthru Schonflies nomenclature

Is primarily used to describe symmetry in discrete

molecules, in optical spectroscopy, and in quantum

mechanics.
What is a crystal

structure?
 Crystal Structure
Crystal Structure is obtained by

attaching atoms, groups of atoms or

Crystal Structure is defined as solids

that have an atomic structure with

long-range, 3-dimensional order.

This structure develops as a result of

the constituent particles' tendency

to arrange themselves in

symmetrical patterns. Nicholas

Steno made this observation for the

first time in 1669, and it later came to

be known as the law of constancy of

interfacial angles.
 No matter how big or small,

where they are found, or whether

they are man-made or natural,

any two crystals are subject to

the law. The smallest group of

particles in the material that

constitutes this repeating pattern

is the unit cell of the structure.

 Unit Cells
All crystalline minerals fit into one of the

thirty-two crystal classes that are spread

throughout seven different crystal

systems. A crystal can be represented

diagrammatically by an orderly stacking

of unit cells, the smallest component of a

crystal lattice. A unit cell is the building

block of the crystal structure and it

explains in detail the entire crystal

structure along with its principal axes.

Lattice constants or lattice parameters

are the length, edges of major axes, and

angle between unit cells.

 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
Crystal systems describes the classes of crystals, space

group and lattices. Crystals and space groups are grouped

into seven crystal systems based on their point groups. The

Seven Crystal Systems is a method for classifying crystals

based on their atomic structure and lattice. The atomic

lattice is a series of atoms that are organized in a

symmetrical pattern. With the help of the lattice, the

appearance and physical properties of a stone will be

determined leading to identifying on which crystal system

they belong to.

 THE SEVEN

CRYSTAL SYSTEM

Triclinic
Monoclinic
Orthorhombic
Hexagonal

System System System System

Trigonal
Tetragonal
Cubic

System System System

 Triclinic System
It is the most unsymmetrical

crystal system. In the triclinic

system, all the axes are different

lengths. None of them meet at

90º. Based on the three inclined

angles the various forms of

crystals are in the paired faces.

Labradorite, Amazonite, Kyanite,

Rhodonite, Aventurine Feldspar,

and Turquoise are a few examples

of common triclinic systems.

 Monoclinic System
Monoclinic System has three axes,

two of which are at right angles to

one another and one of which is

inclined. All these three axes vary

in sizes. Minerals that form in the

monoclinic system include

azurite, brazilianite, crocoite,

datolite, diopside, jadeite, lazulite,

malachite, orthoclase feldspars,

staurolite, sphene, and

spodumene.
 Orthorhombic System
In this system there are three

axes, all of which meet at 90º to

each other but it has different

lengths. Based on their Rhombic

structure the orthorhombic

system includes various crystal

shapes namely pyramids, double

pyramids, rhombic pyramids, and

pinacoids. Some common

orthorhombic crystals include

Topaz, Tanzanite, Iolite, Zoisite,

Danburite and more.

 Hexagonal System
In hexagonal systems, crystals

have six sides. The three angles 1,

2, and 3 are all contained in single

plane called basal plane and are

at 120 degrees. These three are

equal in length and meet at 60º to

each other. Crystal shapes of

hexagonal systems include

Double Pyramids, Double-Sided

Pyramids, and Four-Sided

Pyramids. Examples include

sugilite, apatite, beryl, and

cancrinite.’
Trigonal System
Mineralogists sometimes divide the

hexagonal system into two crystal

systems, the hexagonal and the trigonal,

based on their external appearance. At

the base of a hexagonal system (ross-

section of a prism), there will be six sides.

In the trigonal system (base cross-

section) there will be three sides. Crystal

shapes in a trigonal system include

threesided pyramids, Scalenohedral and

Rhombohedra. Some typical examples

include Ruby, Quartz, Calcite, Agate,

Jasper, Tiger’s Eyes and more.

Tetragonal System
The tetragonal system also has

three axes that all meet at 90º.

The length of the primary axis

might be either short or long. The

two axes are parallel and have the

same length. Tetragonal crystals

can be found in trapezohedra,

pyrite, double and eight-sided

pyramids, four-sided prisms, and

other geometries based on their

rectangular core structure.

 Cubic System
The isometric or cubic system of

crystals is the first and most basic.

The lengths of all three angles are

equal and they connect at right

angles. Because of the equality of

the axes, minerals in the cubic

system are singly refractive or

isotropic. All garnets, diamond,

fluorite, gold, lapis lazuli, pyrite,

silver, sodalite, sphalerite, and

spinel are examples of minerals

that develop in an isometric

system.
 PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF

MINERALS
T RI VI A
 TRIVIA!
Minerals generally

named on basis of

Physical property

(magnetic =magnetite),

predominant element (Cr

=Chromite, Ba =Barite),

Locality (Franklin, New

Jersey =Franklinite) and,

Colour (Albus

(L.white)=Albite)
 Physical properties of

minerals
In most circumstances, distinguishing physical

characteristics of minerals can be used to determine

the its identity. Most minerals have distinct physical

characteristics that can be used to identify and

categorize them, including hardness, luster, color,

streak, specific gravity, cleavage, fracture, and tenacity.

 Physical Properties of

Minerals as Identifying Tools

Isotropism
-Minerals are categorized based on their physical

characteristics, which might vary depending on the

direction.

Anisotropic
- The mechanical and physical characteristics of a single crystal can vary with orientation.

Our models of the crystalline structure show that atoms should be able to slide over one

another or distort in respect to one another more easily in some directions than others. An

anisotropic material is one whose characteristics change depending on the

crystallographic orientation
 Isotropic
Alternately, a material is said to be isotropic if

its qualities are the same in all directions.

Before any processing (deformation) of the

material is done, the grain orientations of

many polycrystalline materials are random.

As a result, even if the individual grains are

anisotropic, the material as a whole is

isotropic because the disparities in properties

tend to average out. An anisotropic material

is one that has grains that are typically

deformed and stretched in one or more

directions throughout the formation process.

We'll talk about material formation later, but

for now, let's continue our discussion of

crystalline structure at the atomic level.

 Polymorphism
The atomic structure, bonding forces, and chemical makeup of minerals all

have a direct bearing on their physical characteristics. The type of

elements and the spacing between them in a crystalline structure affect

bonding forces, which are electrical forces that exist between atoms and

ions. This means that multiple crystal structures can be seen in minerals

with the same chemical composition (as a function of changes in P & T or

both). Polymorphism is the term for the phenomenon of materials having

diverse physical properties due to their crystallization in various symmetry

systems. It is claimed that certain minerals are polymorphous. Depending

on how many mineral species are present in a group, they may be

dimorphic, trimorphic, or polymorphic

 PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES OF

MINERALS
 Hardness
One of the most helpful characteristics for classifying

minerals is their hardness, or capacity to withstand being

scratched. The ability of one mineral to scratch another

mineral determines its hardness.

Federick Mohs

A German mineralogist used a group of

ten common minerals to create a hardness

scale. The minerals are arranged on the

scale in ascending order of hardness. Any

mineral with a lower number will scratch

any higher-numbered mineral.

 Luster
A mineral reflects light by having luster. The two main

categories of luster are described by the labels metallic and

nonmetallic.
 Metallic luster
Strictly pertains to opaque

minerals, where the surface

totally reflects light. The majority

of ore minerals with a high metal

concentration have a metallic

sheen. Gal, Mat, Pyt, etc. Sub-

metallic, imperfect metallic shine.

 Non-metallic luster
Non-metallic luster is the collective

name for various additional luster

kinds. It may be dazzling or dim

where there is poor reflection,

which is brought on by light

scattering from the mineral surface.

 Color
➢ The color of a mineral is among its most glaring

characteristics. When recognizing a mineral, color should

be taken into account, but it should never serve as the

primary identifying feature.

➢ The properties of color are used to classify minerals into

three primary categories: idiochromatic, allochromatic, and

pseudochro-matic.
Idiochromatic
are "self colored" as a result of

their composition. The mineral's

hue is a consistent and

predictable feature. Examples

include the stones green

Malachite, red Cinnabar, and blue

Azurite.
Allochromatic
are "other colored" due to trace

impurities in their composition or

defects in their structure. In this

case, the color is a variable and

unpredictable property of the

mineral. Examples are the blue in

Amazonite (orthoclase), yellow in

Heliodor (spodumene) and the

rose in rose quartz.

Pseudochromatic
are "false colored" due to tricks in

light diffraction. In these cases,

color is variable but a unique

property of the mineral. Examples

are the colors produced by

precious opal and the shiller

reflections of labradorite.
 Streak
➢ The color of the powdered mineral is known as the

streak, and this color is typically more helpful for

identification than the color of the entire mineral sample. A

streak will appear if you rub the mineral across a streak

plate. The unglazed back of a white porcelain bathroom or

kitchen tile can be used to create a streak plate. Because

they are harder than the streak plate, some minerals won't

streak.
➢ Example is distinguishing Gold (yellow streak), and

Chalcopyrite (black streak).

 Specific Gravity
➢ Specific gravity is the ratio between the mass (weight) of

a mineral and the mass (weight) of an equal volume of

water. A mineral's specific gravity (SG) can be determined

by dividing its weight in air by the weight of an equal

volume of water. For instance, quartz with a density of 2.65

is 2.65 times as heavy as the same volume of water.

➢ SG= mineral mass/water mass

 Specific Gravity
➢ Water has a specific gravity of 1.0. If a mineral has a

specific gravity of 2.7, it is 2.7 times heavier than water.

Minerals with a specific gravity under 2 are considered

light, between 2 and 4.5 average, and greater than 4.5

heavy. Most minerals with a metallic luster are heavy. The

specific gravity may slightly vary within a mineral because

of impurities present in the minerals structure.

 Cleavage
➢ The way in which a mineral breaks along smooth flat

planes is called cleavage. These breaks occur along planes

of weakness in the mineral's structure. However, if a

mineral breaks along an irregular surface, it does not have

cleavage.
Quality of Cleavage:
▪ Perfect
▪ Good
▪ Poor
▪ Indiscernible (Indistinct)
▪ None
 Minerals with perfect cleavage will cleave

without leaving any rough surfaces; a full,

smooth plane is formed where the crystal broke.

Minerals with good cleavage also leave smooth

surfaces, but often leave over minor residual

rough surfaces. On minerals with poor cleavage,

the smooth crystal edge is not very visible, since

the rough surface is dominant. If a mineral

exhibits cleavage, but it so poor that it is hardly

noticeable, it has "indiscernible" cleavage.

Minerals with no cleavage never exhibit any

cleavage, thus broken surfaces are fractured

and rough.
 Fracture
If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break

along random directions called fracture

Conchoidal: smooth fracture (Qua,glass ) Uneven or irregular: rough and irregular

surfaces

Fibrous and splintery: sharp pointed

Even: more or less smooth surfaces, may

fibers (Asbestos, Serpentine), resemble cleavage,

Hackly: jagged fractures with very sharp

edges (Mat).
 Tenacity
Tenacity describes the reaction of a mineral to stress such

as crushing, bending, breaking, or tearing. Certain minerals

react differently to each type of stress. Since tenacity is

composed of several reactions to various stresses, it is

possible for a mineral to have more than one type of

tenacity.

The different forms of tenacity are:

 Brittle - Mineral crushes to angular
Sectile - Mineral can be cut with a knife

fragments (quartz). into thin shavings (talc).

Malleable - Mineral can be modified in

Flexible - Mineral bends but doesn't

shape without breaking and can be

regain its shape once released (selenite,

flattened to a thin sheet (copper, gold). gypsum).

 Elastic - Mineral bends and regains its

original shape when released (muscovite

and biotite mica).
Other Diagnostic

Characteristics
Other characteristics may be useful in identifying some
minerals:
Transparency - Objects are visible when
Opaqueness - No light is transmitted,

viewed through a mineral. even on the thinnest edges.

Translucency - Light, but not an image, is

Taste - Taste can be used to help identify

transmitted through a mineral. some minerals, such as halite (salt).

Acid Reaction
Object reacts to hydrochloric acid.
Example: Acid test is used to test gold with

The most distinguishing

acid concentrates. Gold is a noble metal and

characteristic of calcite is that it

is resistant to change by acid, corrosion, or

effervesces when hydrochloric

oxidation. The acid test is applied to rub any

acid is applied. Dolomite shows a

colored gold item on a black stone which will

reaction on a freshly broken or

leave a visible mark. By applying aqua fortis,

powdered surface. Testing for

this mark is tested known as nitric acid

calcite, limestone, or dolomite calls

which, except gold, dissolves the mark of all

for 10% hydrochloric acid, but

colored gold items. Otherwise, it dissolves if

strong white vinegar can be

the remaining marks are tested by applying

substituted for the acid. aqua regia (nitric acid and hydrochloric acid).
Magnetism - Magnetism is a distinguishing

characteristic of magnetite.
Crystal shape - Cubic, rhombohedral

(tilted cube), hexagonal (six-sided), etc.

 Study of Rock-

forming Minerals
What is a rock?
The solid mineral material forming part of the

surface of the earth and other similar planets,

exposed on the surface or underlying the soil or

oceans.
 How rocks are

formed?
Through the process of erosion,

these fragments are removed from

their source and transported by

wind, water, ice, or biological

activity to a new location. Once the

sediment settles somewhere, and

enough of it collects, the lowest

layers become compacted so

tightly that they form solid rock.

 Rocks
Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally

occurring substance which is usually solid, crystalline,

stable at room temperature and inorganic. There are

almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority

of rocks are formed from combinations of a few common

minerals, referred to as “rock-forming minerals”.

The rock-forming minerals are: feldspars, quartz,

amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.

Here are are some

examples of rock

forming minerals:
 Feldspars
Feldspar is the name applied to a group of

minerals that is the second most common of all

the minerals. All feldspars are composed of

aluminum, silicon, and oxygen combined with

varying amounts of one or more metals,

particularly potassium, sodium, and calcium.

Feldspars have a hardness of 6, have a smooth,

glassy or pearly luster, and show good

cleavages along two planes at nearly right

angles to each other. Specific gravity is about

2.6. The streak is white, but the color of the

mineral is highly variable.

How Feldspars Mineral

transformed?
Feldspars transform though hydrolysis —to form clay

minerals plus some ions in solution. In other cases, the

minerals dissolve completely, and their components

go into solution. For example, calcite (CaCO3) is

soluble in acidic solutions.

 The general

information of

Feldspar:
Type: Mineral Mineral
Classification: Silicate Chemical
Formula: KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8
Streak: White Mohs Hardness: 6-6.5
Crystal System: triclinic, monoclinic
Color: pink, white, gray, brown
Luster Vitreous
Fracture conchoidal, uneven
The top feldspars producing countries are Turkey,
India and Italy.
 Quartz
Quartz - is one of the most famous minerals on

the earth. It occurs in essentially all mineral

environments, and is the crucial constituent of

many rocks. It is likewise the maximum varied of

all minerals, taking place in all distinct habits,

and colorings. There are more range names

given to Quartz than any other mineral. It is the

maximum abundant and widely allotted mineral

determined at Earth’s surface. It is abundant all

over the arena. In any temperatures. It is

abundant in igneous, metamorphic, and

sedimentary rocks. It is highly resistant to both

mechanical and chemical weathering.

How Quartz Mineral

transformed?
With the temperatures above 867 °C (1,593 °F), beta-

quartz changes into tridymite, but the transformation

is very slow because bond breaking takes place to

form a more open structure. At very high pressures

alpha-quartz transforms into coesite and, at still

higher pressures, stishovite. Such phases have been

observed in impact craters.

 The general

information of

Quartz:
Type: Mineral Mineral
Classification: Silicate Chemical
Formula: SiO2 Streak: White Mohs
Hardness: 7
Crystal System: trigonal
Color: Pure quartz is clear.
Color variance due to impurities: purple (amethyst),
white (milky quartz), black (smoky quartz), pink (rose
quartz) and yellow or orange (citrine).
Luster: vitreous, waxy, dull
Fracture: conchoidal

The top quartz producing countries are China, Japan

and Russia.
 Garnite
These minerals are found throughout the world

in metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks.

Most garnet found near Earth's surface forms

when a sedimentary rock with a high aluminum

content, such as shale, is subjected to heat and

pressure intense enough to produce schistor

gneiss. Garnet is also found in the rocks of

contact metamorphism, subsurface magma

chambers, lava flows, deep-source volcanic

eruptions, and the soils and sediments formed

when garnet-bearing rocks are weathered and

eroded.
How Garnite Mineral

transformed?
It is usually composed primarily of the minerals

quartz, feldspar, and mica. When granite is subjected

to intense heat and pressure, it changes into a

metamorphic rock called gneiss.

 The general

information of

Garnite:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate Chemical
Formula: X3Y2(SiO4)3 (Where X is often Ca or Mg, and
Y is often Al or Fe)
Streak: White Mohs Hardness: 6.5-7.5
Crystal System: Isometric (meaning equality in
dimension. For example, a cube, octahedron, or
dodecahedron)
Color: Generally brown, virtually all colors, blue very
rare
Luster: Vitreous, resinous
Fracture: Conchoidal, uneven

The countries that produces the most garnet are

Canada, Brazil and mali.
 Augite
Augite is a rock-forming minerals that

commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate

igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, andesite,

and diorite. It is found in these rocks throughout

the world, wherever they occur. Augite is also

found in ultramafic rocks and in some

metamorphic rock that form under high

temperatures. Augite has a chemical

composition of (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6 with

many paths of solid solution.

How Augite Mineral

transformed?
An increase in magma water vapor and a decrease in

temperature transforms augite into hornblende.

 The general

information of

Augite:
Type: Mineral Mineral
Classification: Pyroxene Chemical Formula: 8[(Ca,Na)
(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6]
Streak: Light green to colorless Mohs Hardness: 5-6
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: Black, brown, greenish, violet-brown; in thin
section, colorless to gray
Luster: Vitreous and dull
Fracture: Ranges from splintery to uneven

You can find augite anywhere in the world.

 Hornblende
Hornblende is a field and classroom name used

for a group of dark-colored amphibole minerals

found in many types of igneous and

metamorphicrocks. These minerals vary in

chemical composition but are all double-chain

inosilicates with very similar physical

properties. A generalized composition for the

hornblende group is shown below.

(Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)2
 How Hornblende

Mineral transformed?
At constant pressure of about 2kb, temperature

decrease to near 950°C will cause crystallization of

hornblende to begin. If this is the first mineral to

crystallize, this curve also defines the maximum

liquidus temperature for the system.

 The general

information of

Hornblende:
Type: Mineral Mineral
Classification: Silicate Chemical
Formula: Double chain SiO4 with other elements
Color: Generally dark black, sometimes brown

The countries with the most deposits of Hornblende

are Norway, Sweden and Italy.
 Biotite
Biotite - is a name used for a large group of

black mica minerals that are commonly found

inigneous and metamorphic rocks. These include

annite, phologopite, siderophyllite,

fluorophlogopite, fluorannite, eastonite, and

many others. These micas vary in chemical

composition but are all sheet silicate minerals

with very similar physical properties.

A generalized chemical composition for the

biotite group is:

K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
How Biotite Mineral

transformed?
Biotite is black magnesium/iron-based mica of low

commercial value. It appears in the form of thin sheets

which generally range from 0.003 mm to 0.1 mm in

thickness. Biotite first alters to interstratified biotiteto

vermiculite in which the vermiculite is hydroxy-Al

interlayered. The kaolinization of biotite extends

throughout the grain, the pseudomorphs retaining the

morphology of the biotite precursor but having the

optical and structural properties of kaolinite.

 The general

information of

Biotite:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Mica
Chemical Formula: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
Streak: White Mohs Hardness: 2.5-3
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: Black
Luster: Vitreous, may be pearly
Fracture: Micaceous

You can find biotite in the United States of America,

Canada and Norway.
 Muscovite
Muscovite - is the most common mineral of the

mica family. It is an important rockforming

mineral present in igneous, metamorphic, and

sedimentary rocks. Like other micas it readily

cleaves into thin transparent sheets. Muscovite

sheets have a pearly to vitreous luster on their

surface. If they are held up to the light, they are

transparent and nearly colorless, but most have

a slight brown, yellow, green, or rosecolor tint.

How Muscovite Mineral

transformed?
Muscovite transforms into kaolinite through the

intergrowths of two phases, mica and kaolinite.

A degradation series, muscovite
→
mica/montmorillonite → montmorillonite → kaolinite

also is observed
 The general

information of

Muscovite:
Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate
Chemical
Formula: Lepidolite K(Li,Al)3(AlSi3O10) (O,OH, F)2, ;
biotite K(Mg, Fe)3(AlSi3O10) (OH)2; phlogopite
KMg3(AlSi3O10) (OH)2; muscovite KAl2(AlSi3O10)
(OH)2 Mohs Hardness: 2.5-4 (lepidolite); 2.5-3 biotite;
2.5-3 phlogopite; 2-2.5 muscovite
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: purple, rosy, silver, gray (lepidolite); dark green,
brown, black (biotite); yellowish-brown, green white
(phlogopite); colorless, transparent (muscovite)
Luster: pearly to vitreous

The countries with the most Muscovite deposits are

India, Pakistan and Brazil.
 Olivine
Olivine- The mineral olivine is a magnesium iron

silicate with the chemical formula (Mg,Fe)2SiO4.

It is a type of nesosilicate or orthosilicate. The

primary component of the Earth's upper mantle,

[9] it is a common mineral in Earth's subsurface,

but weathers quickly on the surface. For this

reason, olivine has been proposed as a good

candidate for accelerated weathering to

sequester carbon dioxide from the Earth's

oceans and atmosphere, as part of climate

change mitigation.
How Olivine Mineral

transformed?
With increasing depth, olivine (α-phase) transforms

to wadsleyite (β-phase), then to the spinel structure

(γ-phase) and then to perovskite + magnesio-wüstite.

These transformations occur at P and T conditions

that match the 410 km, 520 km and 660 km

discontinuities and are viewed as the cause of the

seismic jumps
 The general

information of

Olivine:
Category: Nesosilicate, Olivine group, Olivine series
Formula : (repeating unit),(Mg,Fe)2SiO4
IMA symbol: Ol[1]
Strunz classification: 9.AC.05
Crystal system: Orthorhombic
Space group: Pbnm (no. 62)
Color: Yellow to yellow-green
Crystal habit: Massive to granular
Cleavage: Poor
Fracture: Conchoidal
Tenacity: brittle
Mohs scale hardness: 6.5–7
Luster: Vitreous
Streak: colorless or white Diaphaneity: Transparent
to translucent Specific gravity: 3.2–4.5[2][3][4][5]
Optical properties: Biaxial (+) Refractive index nα =
1.630–1.650 nβ = 1.650–1.670 nγ = 1.670–1.690
Birefringence δ = 0.040
 The general

information of

Olivine:
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity: 3.2–4.5[2][3][4][5]
Optical properties: Biaxial (+)
Refractive index nα = 1.630–1.650 nβ = 1.650–1.670 nγ =
1.670–1.690
Birefringence δ = 0.040
 Calcite
Calcite - calcite, the most common form of

natural calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a widely

distributed mineral known for the beautiful

development and great variety of its crystals.

The primary producers of calcite are Canada,

the United States, Britain, China, Namibia,

Pakistan, Belgium, Russia, Czech Republic,

Slovakia, Peru, Brazil, Iceland, and Romania.

Many of the finest colored specimens come from

Mexico.
How Calcite Mineral

transformed?
When calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water

containing dissolved calcium, which can take place

through both biological and nonbiological processes.

The solubility of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3) is

controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon

dioxide ( CO 2) in the water. It will forms a Limestone

 The general

information of

Calcite:
Chemical Classification: Carbonate
Color : Usually white but also colorless, gray, red,
green, blue, yellow, brown, orange
Streak: White Luster: Vitreous
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Cleavage: Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions
Mohs Hardness: 3
Specific Gravity: 2.7
Diagnostic Properties: Rhombohedral cleavage,
powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute HCl,
curved crystal faces and frequent twinning
Chemical Composition: CaCO3
Crystal System: Trigonal
Uses: Acid neutralization, a low-hardness abrasive,
soil conditioner, heated for the production of lime
 Pyroxene
Pyroxene - Pyroxenes are the most significant

and abundant group of rock-forming

ferromagnesian silicates. They are found in

almost every variety of igneous rock and also

occur in rocks of widely different compositions

formed under conditions of regional and contact

metamorphism. One country where you can find

pyroxene is Finland.
How Pyroxene Mineral

transformed?
A speculative model is also presented whereby the

occurrence of the garnetpyroxene transformation in

blocks of eclogite which are sinking through the

mantle provides a mechanism for deep-focus

earthquakes
 The general

information of

Pyroxene:
Chemical Classification: A single chain inosilicate
Color: Dark green, black, brown
Streak: White to gray to very pale green. Augite is
often brittle, breaking into splintery fragments on
the streak plate. These can be observed with a hand
lens. Rubbing the debris with a finger produces a
gritty feel with a fine white powder beneath.
Luster: Vitreous on cleavage and crystal faces. Dull on
other surfaces.
Diaphaneity: Usually translucent to opaque. Rarely
transparent.
Cleavage: Prismatic in two directions that intersect
at slightly less than 90 degrees.
Mohs Hardness: 5.5 to 6
Specific Gravity: 3.2 to 3.6
Diagnostic Properties: Two cleavage directions
intersecting at slightly less than 90 degrees. Green to
black color. Specific gravity.
 The general

information of

Pyroxene:
Chemical Composition: A complex silicate. (Ca,Na)
(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Uses: No significant commercial use.
 Chlorite
Chlorite - chlorite, widespread group of layer

silicate minerals occurring in both macroscopic

and clay-grade sizes; they are hydrous

aluminum silicates, usually of magnesium and

iron. The name, from the Greek for “green,”

refers to chlorite's typical colour. You can find

chlorite in Poland.
How Chlorite Mineral

transformed?
Formation of the iron-rich chlorite in the lignite

overburden shales probably resulted from

interactions between aluminous smectite and

solutions rich in ferrous Fe. Exposure of the

overburden shales to oxidizing conditions may result

in the transformation of chlorite to smectite with

precipitation of released Fe
 The general

information of

Chlorite:
Chemical Classification: Silicate
Color: Various shades of green. Rarely yellow, white,
pink, black
Streak: Greenish to greenish gray
Luster: Vitreous, pearly, dull
Diaphaneity: Transparent, translucent, opaque
Cleavage: Perfect in one direction
Mohs Hardness: 2 to 3
Specific Gravity: 2.6 to 3.3
Diagnostic Properties: Color, hardness, foliated
appearance, feels slightly greasy
 The general

information of

Chlorite:
Chemical Composition: A generalized formula:
(X,Y)4-6(Si,Al)4O10(OH,O)8 The "X" and "Y" in the
formula represent ions, which might include: Fe+2,
Fe+3, Mg+2, Mn+2, Ni+2, Zn+2, Al+3, Li+1, or Ti+4. The
composition and physical properties of chlorites vary
as these ions substitute for one another in solid
solution.
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Uses: Very few industrial uses. Used as a filler and as
a constituent of clay.
 Serpentine
Serpentine - Serpentinite is a rock composed

predominantly of one or more serpentine group

minerals, the name originating from the

similarity of the texture of the rock to that of

the skin of a snake. Serpentinite has been called

serpentine or serpentine rock, particularly in

older geological texts and in wider cultural

settings. The most famous deposits are located

in Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the island of

Cyprus, the Alps, Cuba, and New Caledonia.

How Serpentine Mineral

transformed?
Serpentinization is a geological low-temperature

metamorphic process involves chemical reactions

which convert anhydrous ferromagnesian silicate

minerals (pyroxene, olivine) into hydrous silicate

minerals (serpentine) plus some other possibilities like

brucite and magnetite.

 The general

information of

Serpentine:
Chemical Classification: Silicate
Color: Usually various shades of green, but can be
yellow, black, white, and other colors.
Streak: White
Luster: Greasy or waxy
Diaphaneity: Translucent to opaque, rarely
transparent
Cleavage: Poor to perfect
Mohs Hardness: Variable between 3 and 6
Specific Gravity: 2.5 to 2.6
Diagnostic Properties: Color, luster, fibrous habit,
hardness, slippery feel
Chemical Composition: (Mg,Fe,Ni,Al,Zn,Mn)2-
3(Si,Al,Fe)2O5(OH)4
Crystal System: Most serpentine minerals are
monoclinic.
Uses: A source of asbestos, architectural stone,
ornamental stone, gem material.
 Staurolite
Staurolite - a mineral, basic iron aluminum

silicate, Fe2Al2O7(SiO4)4(OH), occurring in

brown to black prismatic crystals, which are

often twinned in the form of a cross. You can

find strautolite in Canada; North Carolina,

Virginia, and Georgia, U.S.; Brazil; Brittany,

France; and Switzerland, especially along the

Saint Gotthard Pass

How Staurolite Mineral

transformed?
Staurolite can alter to chlorite or sericite and to a

mixture of clay minerals and iron oxides during

retrograde metamorphism and weathering. Staurolite

and kyanite can be found associated as epitaxial

intergrowths, thanks to their closely related crystal

structure.
 The general

information of

Staurolite:
Chemical Classification: Silicate
Color: Usually brown, reddish brown, yellowish
brown, brownish black, black, dark gray
Streak: Colorless (harder than the streak plate)
Luster: Vitreous, sometimes resinous
Diaphaneity: Translucent to opaque, rarely
transparent
Cleavage: Poor
Mohs Hardness: 7 to 7.5
Specific Gravity: 3.7 to 3.8
Diagnostic Properties: Color, six-sided crystals that
are frequently twinned, usually found in schist and
gneiss with muscovite mica and almandine garnet
Chemical Composition: (Fe,Mg)2Al9Si4O23(OH)
Crystal System: Monoclinic Uses: Little industrial use
 Epidote
Epidote - a lustrous yellow-green crystalline

mineral, common in metamorphic rocks. It

consists of a hydroxyl silicate of calcium,

aluminum, and iron. You can find epidote in

Austria.
How Epidote Mineral

transformed?
Epidote is a very common hydrothermal alteration

mineral. This alteration process, if it happens with

feldspars, is known as epidotization.

 The general

information of

Epidote:
Chemical Classification: Silicate
Color: Usually yellowish green to pistachio green,
sometimes brownish green to black
Streak: Colorless
Luster: Vitreous to resinous
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent to nearly
opaque
Cleavage: Perfect in one direction, imperfect
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 7
Specific Gravity: 3.3 to 3.5
Diagnostic Properties: Color, cleavage, specific
gravity
Chemical Composition: Ca2(Al2,Fe)(SiO4)
(Si2O7)O(OH)
Crystal System: Monoclinic Uses: Semiprecious gem.
 Zeolite
Zeolites are microporous, crystalline

aluminosilicate materials commonly used as

commercial adsorbents and catalysts. They

mainly consist of silicon, aluminium, oxygen.

These positive ions can be exchanged for others

in the current contacting electrolyte solution.

H+ exchanged zeolites are particularly useful as

solid acid catalysts. China is the biggest

producer of zeolite.
How Zeolite Mineral

transformed?
The heat around 700 °C was sufficient to transform

the natural zeolite to amorphous metazeolite. Indeed,

heating the zeolite material at 800 °C was suggested

to decrease performance. It is apparent that the

activation of natural zeolite by thermal treatment

results in a wide range of outcomes

 The general

information of

Zeolite:
Composition: Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.xH2O
Mohs Hardness: 4.0 -5.0
Density: 2.0-2.1 g/ml
Refractive Index: 1.470-1.494
Color: white to reddish tabular monoclinic
tectosilicate crystals
Gravity: 2.1 to 2.2
DID YOU

KNOW?
 DID YOU KNOW?
Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust these are oxygen,

silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium.

The composition of minerals formed by igneous processes is directly

controlled by the chemistry of the parent body. For example, a

magma rich in iron and magnesium will form minerals such as olivine

and pyroxene (as found in basalt). Magma richer in silicon will form

more silicarich minerals such as feldspar and quartz (as found in

granite). It is unlikely that a mineral will be found in a rock with

dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike its own; thus it is unlikely that

andalusite (Al2SiO5) would be found in an aluminium-poor rock such

as a quartzite.
 PROPERTIES,

PROCESS

FORMATION OF

ALL MINERALS
 Process Formation of

all Mineral
Physical and chemical condition s include factors such as temperature,

pressure, presence of water, pH, and amount of oxygen available. Time is

one of the most important factors because it takes time for atoms to

become ordered. If time is limited, the mineral grains will remain very

small. The presence of water enhances the mobility of ions and can lead to

the formation of larger crystals over shorter time periods.

 Process Formation of

all Mineral
Most of the minerals that make up the rocks around us formed through the cooling

of molten rocks, known as magma. At the high temperatures that exist deep within

earth, some geological materials are liquid. As magma rises up through the crust,

either volcanic eruption or by more gradual process, it cools and minerals

crystallized. If the cooling process is rapid (minutes, hours, days, or years), the

components of the minerals will not have time to become ordered and only small

crystals can form before the rock becomes solid. The resulting rock will be

finegrained (crystals less than 1mm). If the cooling is slow (from decades to

millions of years), the degree of ordering will be higher and relatively large

crystals will form. In some cases, the cooling will be so fast (seconds) that the

texture will be glassy, which means that no crystals at all form.

 Minerals form in all geologic environments and

thus under a wide range of chemical and physical

conditions, such as varying temperature and

pressure. The four main categories of mineral

formation are:
 Igneous or Magmatic
Igneous rocks and minerals solidify from molten rock, called magma below

the Earth’s crust and lava when flowing above ground. These rocks and their

mineral components, presented below, are the result of processes that

formed Earth and other rocky planets. Igneous environments are integral to

the recycling of Earth’s crust; they produce the granite roots of the

continental plates and basaltic rocks beneath the oceans. For those studying

our dynamic planet, igneous rocks and minerals are windows into Earth’s

deep processes.
 A rock is a collection of

minerals. Imagine a rock

that becomes so hot it

melts. Many minerals start

out in liquids that are hot

enough to melt rocks.

Magma is melted rock inside

Earth, a molten mixture of

substances that can be

hotter than 1,000oC. Magma

cools slowly inside Earth,

which gives mineral crystals

time to grow large enough

to be seen clearly. Granite is

rock that forms from slowly

cooled magma, containing

the minerals quartz (clear),

plagioclase feldspar (shiny

white), potassium feldspar

(pink), and biotite (black).

 Sedimentary
- in which minerals are the result of sedimentation, a process whose raw

materials are particles from other rocks that have undergone weathering or

erosion.
Earth is always changing. As rocks and minerals become exposed at its

surface, the weathering process changes them through exposure to air,

water, ice, and life. Weathering is often accompanied by erosion, or the

transportation of weathered materials by flowing water, wind, ice, and

gravity. Weathering counteracts Earth’s dynamic building processes and,

over millions of years, has produced the clays, soils, and salts critical to the

survival of life on Earth—including our own.

Water on Earth, such as the water in

the oceans, contains chemical

elements mixed into a solution.

Various processes can cause these

elements to combine to form solid

mineral deposits.

When water evaporates, it leaves

behind a solid precipitate of minerals.

When the water in glass A

evaporates, the dissolved mineral

particles are left behind

 Tufa towers form when

calcium-rich spring water at the

bottom of Mono Lake bubbles

up into the alkaline lake. The

tufa towers appear when lake

level drops.
 Metamorphic
- in which new minerals form at the expense of earlier ones owing to the

effects of changing, usually increasing of temperature or pressure or both on

some existing rock type.

The minerals in the original rock were formed at one set of conditions, but

were then subjected to different conditions of heat, pressure, and H2O

abundance in Earth’s crust. They responded to that change by transforming

to become minerals stable under the new conditions. Metamorphic rocks and

minerals record the history of the dynamic Earth.

 Metamorphic
When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface, it is called lava. Lava cools much

more rapidly than magma when it is below the surface. In a cooling lava,

mineral crystals do not have time to form and are very small. The chemical

composition will be the same as if the magma cooled slowly. Existing rocks

may be heated enough so that the molecules are released from their

structure and can move around. The molecules may match up with different

molecules to form new minerals as the rock cools. This occurs during

metamorphism.
 Hydrothermal
- in which minerals are chemically precipitated from hot solutions within

Earth.
Hydrothermal processes require hot water, which dissolves minerals and

transports their components where the water goes, along fractures and

through porous rocks. As the water travels, it cools—or other conditions

change—and the dissolved materials can be deposited in spaces in the

surrounding rocks, forming veins or pockets of minerals.
 Hydrothermal
Magma heats nearby

underground water, which reacts

with the rocks around it to pick

up dissolved particles. As the

water flows through open

spaces in the rock and cools, it

deposits solid minerals. The

mineral deposits that form when

a mineral fills cracks in rocks are

called veins.
 Hydrothermal
When minerals are deposited in

open spaces, large crystals form.

Amethyst formed when large

crystals grew in open spaces

inside the rock. These special

rocks are called geodes

 Hydrothermal
The first three processes generally lead to varieties of rocks in which different

mineral grains are closely intergrown in an interlocking fabric. Hydrothermal

solutions, and even solutions at very low temperatures (e.g., groundwater), tend to

follow fracture zones in rocks that may provide open spaces for the chemical

precipitation of minerals from solution. It is from such open spaces, partially filled by

minerals deposited from solutions, that most of the spectacular mineral specimens

have been collected. If a mineral that is in the process of growth (as a result of

precipitation) is allowed to develop in a free space, it will generally exhibit a

welldeveloped crystal form, which adds to a specimen’s aesthetic beauty. Similarly,

geodes, which are rounded, hollow, or partially hollow bodies commonly found in

limestones, may contain well-formed crystals lining the central cavity. Geodes form

as a result of mineral deposition from solutions such as groundwater.

 COAL AND

PETROLEUM
 COAL AND PETROLEUM
Coal and petroleum are both products of the decomposition of

prehistoric plant life that existed millions of years ago. This

decomposing vegetation began to accumulate, resulting in the

formation of peat. Geological processes generated heat and

pressure over time to convert these minerals into coal. These are

also called as fossil fuels.

 COAL
Coal formation occurred millions of years ago, where plants completed their life cycle

and wilted. New plants replaced them, they went through a life cycle, and the entire

process repeated itself over the years, resulting in the accumulation of dead plants

on the earth's surface.

This resulted in the formation of a very thick layer of dead decomposed materials

that compressed plant matter and washed away all decayed materials. Over time,

physical and chemical changes occurred as a result of heat and temperature

removing all oxygen from plant layers, leaving only carbon-rich material, culminating

in the creation of coal.

TYPES OF COAL
 TYPES OF COAL
Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than

50% by weight of carbon. Coal formed can be of three

types depending on the amount of oxygen, carbon and

hydrogen they contain. They are:

 Lignite - aka brown coal, is the lowest grade coal

Peat - First stage of transformation and

with the least concentration of carbon. Lignite

it contains less than 40 to 55 percent

has a low heating value and a high moisture

carbon. It burns like wood, gives less heat,

content and is mainly used in electricity

emits more smoke and leaves a lot of ash.

generation. It contains 40-55 percent of carbon.
 Bituminous - Bituminous coal is a

BITUMINOUS middle rank coal between

subbituminous and anthracite.

Bituminous coal usually has a high

heating value and is used in

electricity generation and steel

making. It contains 40-80 percent of

carbon. It is dense, compact, and is

usually of black color. Its moisture

and volatile content is 15 to 40

percent. Its calorific value is very

high due to high proportion of

carbon and low moisture.

 Subbituminous
Subbituminous - coal has a lower

heating value than bituminous coal.

It is a category of coal which

appears as grey-black or dark

brown. It ranges from hard to soft

as it represents an intermediate

stage between low quality lignite

and higher quality bituminous coal.

The carbon content of sub-

bituminous coal varies from 70-76%.

Anthracite

The highest rank of coal. It is a

hard, brittle, and black lustrous

coal, often referred to as hard coal,

containing a high percentage of

fixed carbon and a low percentage

of volatile matter. It contains 80-95

percent of carbon. It ignites slowly

and burns with a short blue flame.

 The Philippines has 19 coal districts. The largest

total coal resource is estimated at 570 Mmt of

subbituminous coal and is located in the Semirara

coal district located on Semirara Island. The

smallest coal resource (at 0.7 MMT) is the

lignitesubbituminous coal in the Quirino coal

district. The combined lignite and subbituminous

coal resources, using the classification by GCRDD

and including Semirara and Surigao coal districts,

are about 1,899.2 MMT, which make up about 84

percent of the total coal resources of the

Philippines. The remaining resources are

composed of bituminous and semi-anthracite

coal.
 PETROLEUM
Petroleum, also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural gas, petroleum

was formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as plants, algae, and

bacteria. Over millions of years of intense heat and pressure, these organic remains

(fossils) transformed into carbon-rich substances we rely on as raw materials for fuel

and a wide variety of products.

 FORMATION OF

PETROLEUM
The geological conditions that would eventually create

petroleum formed millions of years ago, when plants, algae,

and plankton drifted in oceans and shallow seas. These

organisms sank to the seafloor at the end of their life cycle.

Over time, they were buried and crushed under millions of

tons of sediment and even more layers of plant debris.

 FORMATION OF

PETROLEUM
Eventually, ancient seas dried up and dry basins remained, called

sedimentary basins. Deep under the basin floor, the organic

material was compressed between Earth’s mantle, with very high

temperatures, and millions of tons of rock and sediment above.

Oxygen was almost completely absent in these conditions, and

the organic matter began to transform into a waxy substance

called kerogen. With more heat, time, and pressure, the kerogen

underwent a process called catagenesis, and transformed into

hydrocarbons.
 FORMATION OF

PETROLEUM
Petroleum reservoirs can be found beneath land or the ocean

floor. Their crude oil is extracted with giant drilling machines.

Crude oil can appear very fluid, volatile liquids and also viscous,

semisolid materials. It is usually black or black with a greenish

tinge in color. Sometimes it can be reddish, greenish-yellow, light

yellow, or transparent. Natural gas is a colorless and odorless gas.

 PRODUCTS OF

PETROLEUM

AND THEIR USES

Petroleum products are obtained as a result of refining

crude oil in oil refineries

 GASES
Gaseous products obtained from the refinery are hydrogen, fuel

gas, ethane, propane, and butane. Propane and butane are

collectively known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), which is a

portable and suitable fuel for light industrial use and domestic

heating (cooking).
 GASOLINE
Gasoline uses include application in internal combustion engines,

commonly used in private and commercial vehicles.

 DIESEL
It is commonly used in trucks, buses and public transport,

locomotives, farm and heavy equipment. Diesel has greater energy

and power density than gasoline.

 KEROSENE
It is used extensively globally in cooking and space heating. It is also

the basic fuel for modern jet engines.

 FUEL OIL
It can be used as a power source of lamps, heaters, stoves, engines

and lanterns typically at home in furnaces and boilers. The

machinery of farming, mining or quarrying machinery or even

bunkering ships uses fuel oil.

 The origin and

occurrence of coal

and petroleum
 COAL
-is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is

combusted and used to generate

electricity. Mining techniques and

combustion are both dangerous to

miners and hazardous to the

environment; however, coal accounts for

about half of the electricity generation

in the United States.

 PETROLEUM

- also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like

coal and natural gas, petroleum was

formed from the remains of ancient

marine organisms, such as plants, algae,

and bacteria. Over millions of years of

intense heat and pressure, these

organic remains (fossils) transformed

into carbon-rich substances we rely on

as raw materials for fuel and a wide

variety of products.
 ORIGIN OF COAL AND

PETROLEUM
Coal and petroleum are formed as a result of degradation of

ancient plant life which lived millions of years ago. These

dead plant matter started to pile up, eventually forming a

substance called peat. Over time, heat and pressure from

geological processes transformed these materials into coal.

 ORIGIN OF COAL AND

PETROLEUM
The petroleum industry is first encountered in the

archaeological record near Hit in what is now Iraq. Hit is on

the banks of the Euphrates river and is the site of an oil

seep known locally as The Fountains of Pitch. There asphalt

was quarried for use as mortar between building stones as

early as 6000 years ago

 ORIGIN OF COAL AND

PETROLEUM
Oil and gas had already been used in some capacity, such

as in lamps or as a material for construction, for thousands

of years before the modern era, with the earliest known oil

wells being drilled in China in 347 AD.

 OCCURRENCE OF COAL

AND PETROLEUM
They are obtained in igneous and metamorphic rocks

at the cracks, crevices, faults, or joints. In sedimentary

rocks, several minerals like Coal, petroleum, and some

forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of

deposition, accumulation, and concentration for long

periods under great heat and pressure.

 CHEMICAL

STRUCTURE
 COAL
As for its chemical composition,

coal is a mixture of high-

molecularweight polycyclic

aromatic compounds, such as

benzene C6H6, toluene

C6H5CH3, xylene C6H4(CH3)2,

naphthalene C10H8, anthracene

C14H10, pyrene C16H10 and

their derivatives with high mass

fraction of carbon, as well as of

water and volatile substances.

PETROLEUM
Chemically, petroleum consists

principally of hydrogen and

carbon, but also contains small

percentages of oxygen,

nitrogen, sulfur, and traces of

metals, such as vanadium,

cobalt, and nickel. The common

organic compounds include

alkanes (paraffins), naphthenes,

aromatics, and

heterocompounds.
DEPOSITS OF COAL AND

PETROLEUM
Three mineable coal areas: Unong, Himalian and Panian, are

located in Semirara island, with the mineable reserves given as

16.70 million tons each, with a strip ratio of 7.5 m³/ton, 37.50

million tons with a strip ratio of 11.3 m³/ton and 45.80 million tons

with a strip ratio of 8.4 m³/ton, respectively.

DEPOSITS OF COAL AND

PETROLEUM
Venezuela is the leading country in terms of oil reserves, with

over 304 billion barrels of oil beneath its surface. Saudi Arabia is
a close second with 298 billion, and Canada is third with 170

billion barrels of oil reserves.

THANK

YOU!
Do you have any questions?