CHAPTER 3

POWERPOINT PRESENTATION SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the discussion, the students should be able to:
1. Define Mineralogy and Minerals
2. Explain the elementary knowledge on symmetry elements of crystallographic system
3. Discuss the characteristics of minerals
4. Explain the different rock forming minerals such as Quartz family, Feldspar family,
Augite family, hornblende, Biotite.
5. Discuss chemical properties and process of formation of minerals
6. Discuss the Importance of Mineralogy and Minerals

Mineralogy
Mineralogy is a scientific discipline that is concerned with all aspects of minerals, including their
physical properties, chemical composition, internal crystal structure, and occurrence and
distribution in nature and their origins in terms of the physicochemical conditions of formation.

Minerals
Minerals are an important part of our everyday life and make up most of the earth. They are
defined as naturally occurring substances that have a crystalline structure.
3.1 Elementary knowledge on symmetry elements of crystallographic systems

Crystallography
Crystallography is a branch of science that studies the organization and bonding of atoms in
crystalline solids, as well as the geometric structure of crystal lattices. It is also the experimenta l
study of how atoms are arranged in solids. The word "crysta llography" derives from the Greek
words crystallon “cold drop / frozen drop”, and grapho “to write.”

Crystal
A crystal is any solid material in which the component atoms are arranged in a definite pattern and
whose surface regularity reflects its internal symmetry. Crystals are made of minerals, and rocks
are also made from minerals or sediments, but they are different. All crystals are minerals, but not
all minerals are crystals

.
Unit Cell
The smallest portion of a crystal component is defined as a unit cell. A collection of atoms, ions,
or molecules that are organized in a pure manner to form the crystal. The unit cells are organized
in three-dimensional space, describing the bulk organization of the crystal's atoms.

Symmetry
Symmetry is a fundamental property of crystalline solids atom arrangements that is used in
crystallography. It is used to describe crystals, identify recurrent components in molecules, and
to simplify practically all computations and data collecting. The majority of symmetry types in
crystallography can be explained in terms of an apparent movement of the object, such as a
rotation or translation.
Symmetry Elements

● Plane of Symmetry
When an imaginary plane is passed through a crystal such that the portion of the crystal
on one side of the plane is a reflection, or mirror image, of the portion on the other side of
the plane, the plane is a plane of symmetry (often called a mirror plane).

● Center of Symmetry
If an imaginary straight line can be drawn through a crystal from any point on its surface,
so that the point of entrance and exit are the same, the crystal has a center of symmetry.
● Axis of Symmetry
A crystal has an axis of symmetry when an imaginary line can be passed through it and
the crystal can be rotated 360° around the line to occupy the same space two, three, four,
or six times.
○ Diad axis
○ Triad axis
○ Tetrad axis
○ Hexad axis
Crystal System
A Crystal System is one of the many different types of crystals, space groups, and lattices. In
crystallography, the lattice system and the crystal system are related with a little difference.

● Cubic System
The isometric or cubic system is the first and most basic crystal system. It has three axes
that are all the same length. The three axes in the isometric system all intersect at 90º to
each other. Because of the equality of the axes, minerals in the cubic system are singly
refractive or isotropic.

● Tetragonal System
It consists of three axes. The primary axis might be either short or long. The two axes are
in the same plane and have the same length. Tetragonal crystal structures include double
and eight-sided pyramids, four-sided prisms, trapezohedrons, and pyrite.
● Hexagonal System
It is made up of four axes. The three axes a1, a2, and a3 are all contained inside a single
plane (called the basal plane) and are all at 120°. They make a sixty-degree angle with
each other. At right angles, the fourth axis intersects the other axes. Double Pyramids,
Double-Sided Pyramids, and Four-Sided Pyramids are crystal forms of hexagonal
systems. Beryl, Cancrinite, Apatite, Sugilite, and other minerals are examples.

 Orthorhombic System
It has three axes that are at right angles to each other. There are various lengths. The
orthorhombic system contains a variety of crystal structures based on its Rhombic
structure, including pyramids, double pyramids, rhombic pyramids, and pinacoids.
Topaz, Tanzanite, Iolite, Zoisite, Danburite, and other orthorhombic crystals are frequent.
● Monoclinic System
It has three axes, two of which are at right angles to each other and one of which is
inclined. The lengths of the three axes vary. The monoclinic system contains basal
pinacoid and prisms with inclined end faces based on their inner structure. Diopside,
Petalite, Kunzite, Gypsum, Hiddenite, Howlite, Vivianite, and other minerals are
examples.

● Triclinic System
It has the most asymmetrical crystal structure. All three axes are inclined towards each
other and are of the same length. Based on the three inclined angles the various forms of
crystals are in the paired faces. Some standard Triclinic Systems include Labradorite,
Amazonite, Kyanite, Rhodonite, Aventurine Feldspar, and Turquoise.
3.2 Characteristics of Mineral

3.2.1 Two Main Types of Minerals

- Minerals are classified based on their crystal form and chemistry. Minerals are divided into two
types namely metallic and non-metallic.

Metallic Minerals
- Metallic minerals exhibit luster in their
appearance and consist of metals in their
chemical composition. These minerals serve
as a potential source of metal and can be
extracted through mining. Examples of
metallic minerals are Galena, Malachite and
Hematite.

Metallic minerals are divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals.

Ferrous Metallic Minerals

Metallic minerals that contain iron.

Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals

Metallic minerals that do not contain iron.

Non-Metallic Minerals
Non-metallic minerals are minerals which either show a
non-metallic luster or shine in their appearance.
Extractable metals are not present in their chemica l
composition. Limestone and mica are examples of non-
metallic minerals.
3.2.2 Physical Properties of Mineral

Physical properties are any features that you can use your 5
senses (see, hear, feel, taste, or smell) to aid in identifying an unknown
mineral.

Mineral physical properties are generally organized in a

mineral key and the proper use of this key will allow us to name the
unknown mineral sample.

Major Physical Properties of Minerals

Luster
Luster is the way that a mineral reflects light.
● Metallic Luster - Metallic luster refers to minerals that are opaque, translucent, and have
the appearance of polished metal. Different pyrites, which are used to produce coins, gold
nuggets, and copper, are common examples.

Non-Metallic Luster - non-metallic applied to the luster of a mineral which reflects light from its
surface but does not shine like a metal. 'Non-metallic' may be further qualified as 'glassy' or
'vitreous', 'silky', 'waxy’, ‘dull or earthy’, ‘pearl’, and ‘adamantine’
Streak
A mineral’s streak is the color of its powder when the mineral is rubbed on a square of porcelain
called a streak plate. The color of the streak can help to identify the unknown mineral.

Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is determined by scratching the mineral with a material of known
hardness. The materials that Geologist’s use to test mineral hardness are a set of minerals of known
hardness called the Mohs Hardness Scale.
Cleavage and Fracture

Cleavage
Cleavage is the property of a mineral that
allows it to break smoothly along specific
internal planes (called cleavage planes) when
the mineral is struck sharply with a hammer.

Fracture
Fracture is the property of a mineral breaking
in a more or less random pattern with no smooth
planar surfaces.

Crystal Form
Crystal form refers to the geometric shape of mineral crystals. Crystal form is caused by the
symmetrical, three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside the mineral. Not all minerals form
perfect visible crystal shapes. Some crystals are too small to see.

Types of mineral cleavage fragments and their proper names.

a. Cleavage in one direction (example: muscovite; basal cleavage)

b. Cleavage in two directions at right angles (example: feldspar; prismatic cleavage)

c. Cleavage in two directions not at right angles (example: hornblende; prismatic

cleavage)

d. Cleavage in three directions at right angles (example: galena; cubic cleavage)

e. Cleavage in three directions not at right angles (example: calcite; rhombic cleavage)

f. Cleavage in four directions (example: fluorite; octahedral cleavage)

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (relative density) of a mineral is its weight compared to the weight of an
equal volume of water; thus, a mineral with a specific gravity of 4 is four times heavier than
water. Special instruments are needed to measure specific gravity.

Color
Color is generally considered a poor criterion for mineral
identification. Most minerals, when absolutely pure, are either clear
or white. But absolutely pure minerals are a rare find in nature.
Special Properties

There are numerous physical properties that are useful for recognizing either individual minerals
or small groups of minerals. These are known as “special properties” and a few are listed below:

● Magnetism - Because of their extremely high metal content (notably cobalt, iron or nickel)
a very few of the over 4000 known minerals can stick a magnet.
● Elasticity/Flexibility - Elasticity is the ability for a mineral to snap back like a rubber band.
● Striations - Small parallel lines on the surfaces of some crystals and on some cleavage
fragments as a result of the way the mineral formed.
● Opacity - Minerals that will let light travel through them and you can see an image through
them are known as transparent minerals. Those that will allow light to pass through, but
you cannot see an image through are called translucent minerals. Those that will not let
light pass through them are called opaque minerals.
● Smell - Minerals with a high sulfur content will give off the odor of rotten edges when
rubbed.
● Taste - A small group of minerals known as ‘salt’ have a salty taste (table salt is a minera l
‘salt’).
● Feel - Minerals with a Mohs hardness of 1 have either soapy or greasy feel when rubbed
because of their extreme softness.

3.2.3 Chemical Properties of Minerals

Ability to react to acid: Acid reaction, often known as effervescence, is a property used to
identify minerals. It occurs when a mineral reacts with acid. Based on their chemical reactivity
with acids, particularly diluted hydrochloric acid (HCl), this feature aids in the differentiation of
minerals.
Ability to burn: Unlike organic materials, such as wood or paper, which can burn, minerals are
often not thought of as combustible. Since most minerals are inorganic and lack the carbon-
hydrogen (C-H) bonds required for conventional combustion reactions, they cannot support
burning. Rather, interactions between minerals and other elements and compounds through
physical and chemical processes are what determines the chemical characteristics of minera ls.

Ability to rust: The propensity to rust is a trait of specific metals, especially iron and its alloys,
rather than a characteristic of minerals. When iron combines with oxygen and moisture in the
presence of an electrolyte. Rust, also known as iron oxide, is created. Reddish-brown iron oxide
compounds are created when iron rusts as a result of an oxidation reaction.

Ability to change color: Multiple substances, such as impurities, exposure to light, heat, or
chemical reactions, can cause minerals to change color.
3.3 Study of Rock-Forming Minerals

Exploring the world of geology, we venture into the fascinating realm of rock-forming
minerals. These foundational components of our planet's crust hold the key to understanding the
diverse landscapes and geological formations we encounter. These unassuming yet profoundly
influential components of the Earth's crust have played an enduring role in shaping our
landscapes and underpinning our understanding of geological processes. In this part, we'll delve
into the intriguing characteristics of eight essential rock-forming minerals: Quartz, Feldspar,
Augite, Hornblende, Biotite, Muscovite, Calcite, and Garnet. Each of these minerals contributes
uniquely to the composition, texture, and origin of rocks, painting a vivid picture of Earth's
geological history.

● Quartz - is a versatile and abundant mineral known for its diverse range of colors and
crystal structures, from the clear, glass-like variety to smoky and colorful gemstones like
amethyst and citrine. Composed mainly of silicon and oxygen, it's a fundamental
component of the Earth's crust and is found worldwide.

● Feldspar - a group of minerals encompassing species like orthoclase and plagioc lase
(Orthoclase and plagioclase are two distinct types of feldspar minerals that belong to
the same mineral family but have different chemical compositions and properties.)
forms an essential part of Earth's rock composition. These minerals are crucial in the
formation of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Feldspar is commonly found within granite,
pegmatites, and different sedimentary rocks.

● Augite - belonging to the pyroxene group of minerals, is characterized by its dark, black
or greenish appearance and prismatic crystal structure. Augite's composition includes
calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum. It can be found on volcanic rocks and basalt..

● Hornblende - is a mineral group encompassing a variety of amphibole minerals, often

appearing as dark green to black prismatic crystals. Comprising elements like calcium,
magnesium, iron, and aluminum, hornblende plays a key role in the formation of igneous
and metamorphic rocks. It can be found in various geological settings, including volcanic
and plutonic rocks.

● Biotite - a silicate mineral of the mica group, sometimes known as black mica. Pegmatites,
granites, and other intrusive igneous rocks, as well as regional and contact metamorphic
rocks, are rich in it.
 ● Muscovite - this abundant silicate mineral with potassium and aluminum content is also
known as common mica, potash mica, or isinglass. Muscovite is the most common member
of the mica family. Because of its immaculate cleavage, it may form thin, translucent sheets
that are robust.

● Calcite - is a common mineral that plays an important role in the development of rocks in
sedimentary environments. It is found in a variety of sedimentary rocks and is an essential
component of limestones. It can also be found in igneous, metamorphic, and hydrother ma l
rocks.

● Garnet - are minerals that can be found as single crystals, pebbles, or clusters of intergrown
crystals and range in color from opaque to transparent to translucent. Garnets are most
commonly seen in reddish colors, although they can also be orange, yellow, green, purple,
brown, blue, black, pink, and colorless. Blue garnets are quite rare.

3.4 Properties, process of formation of minerals

Main properties of minerals:

A Geologist can define and identify the type of mineral a specimen is by using these qualities:
● Crystallography: Specializes in the atomic and molecular structure of minerals, as well
as their geometric arrangement within crystals. Understanding mineral crystallography is
critical for mineral identification, classification, and interpretation of physical and
chemical properties.

● Electrical Conductivity: It's an important property in mineralogy as well as a variety of

scientific and industrial uses. Minerals' electrical conductivity is affected by a variety of
elements, including their chemical composition, crystal structure, temperature, and
contaminants.

● Radioactivity: Indicates that a mineral's structure contains naturally occurring radioactive

isotopes. During the processes of their decay, these radioactive isotopes release radiation,
such as alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays.
Process of formation of minerals
Mineral formation involves several geological processes that vary based on the type of minera l
and the specific geological circumstances. Here's an in-depth description of the steps involved in
mineral formation:

● Sublimation- Sublimation is the process by which a substance moves directly from a

solid to a gas state without first going through a liquid stage. While sublimation is less
prevalent in minerals than the more common solid-to-liquid-to-gas phase shifts, it can
occur in particular circumstances for specific minerals.
● Crystallization- Mineral crystallization is a geological and chemical process that causes
minerals to form solid, highly structured structures known as crystals. This process happens
naturally under a variety of settings and is responsible for the formation of a diverse
spectrum of minerals, many of which comprise the Earth's crust.

● Evaporation- Mineral evaporation is a natural process in which dissolved minera l

substances get concentrated and finally precipitate out of a solution as a result of the
solution's water evaporating. This mechanism is especially common in dry or semi-arid
environments with high evaporation and low precipitation.
3.5 Importance of Mineralogy and Minerals

3.5.1 Three main functions of minerals?

Resource Exploration: Mineralogists are frequently involved in the exploration and

identification of mineral resources such as ores and gemstones, which are necessary for a
variety of sectors such as mining, metallurgy, and jewelry.

Material Science: Minerals are also employed as raw materials in a variety of industr ia l
operations, including the production of electronics and sophisticated materials as well as
ceramics and building supplies. Optimizing the performance of materials requires a
thorough understanding of their properties.

Mineralogical Museums: Mineralogists collect and exhibit mineral collections at

museums, allowing people of all ages to learn about and enjoy the beauty and diversity of
minerals. Rare and valuable specimens are frequently included in these displays.

3.5.2 Why do we used to study mineralogy?

- Mineralogy is an important topic of study in the earth sciences because the structure,
chemistry, and physical properties of the constituent minerals are critical for the
appropriate characterization and usage of rocks and ores. We need minerals to make
tractors, houses, concrete roads, computers, appliances, jewelry, fertilizer, and electrical
transmission lines. Without mineral resources, industry would fail, and living conditions
would deteriorate.

3.5.3 Importance of Minerals

- Minerals found in the Earth's geological formations are one of our fundamental needs to
sustain our daily life. They have vast contributions to various sectors, including industry,
construction, agriculture, and energy production. These minerals are not only essentia l for
human civilization but also for the planet's geological processes, serving as a testament to
the intricate interplay between geology and our daily lives. In other words, minerals are
like Earth's hidden gems. We depend on them for things we use every day, from our homes
to our gadgets, and even the food we eat and the electricity that powers our lives. They're
not just important for us; they're also a big deal in how our planet works.
 Definition of Coal and Petroleum.
What is Coal?

Coal is a black or brownish-

black sedimentary combustible deposit
composed predominantly of carbon
that was formed after being
compressed over millions of years.

Coal is mostly carbon with

variable amounts of other elements,
chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and
nitrogen.

Different varieties of coal arise because of differences in the kinds of plant

material (coal type), degree of coalification (coal rank), and range of impurities
(coal grade).

What is Petroleum?

Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid

found in geological formations.

It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of different molecular weights,

along with other organic compounds. The name petroleum translates to "rock
oil", derived from the Greek word "petra" meaning rock and the Latin word
"oleum" meaning oil.
 Brief History of Coal and Petroleum.
History of Coal

• Prehistoric

The discovery of the use of fire helped to distinguish humans from other
animals. Coal has been used for heating since the cavemen in the needs of heat,
light, and cooking. Archeologists have also found evidence that the Romans in
England used it in the second and third centuries. (100-200).

• Ancient China

The earliest references of coal mining come from China with a coal mine
being opened over 3,000 years ago. By 200BC the Chinese were using coal for
heat and as a trading commodity. It was also vital to China’s metallurgy
industry that first began to flourish around 120BC.

Due to the huge demand for fuel for forges and furnaces, China faced
issues from deforestation as forests were felled to provide fuel. As the crisis
deepened, an alternative fuel source was found in coal.

• Discovery from the west

The first recorded mention of coal in the west was made by the Greek
philosopher, Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle. He wrote about strange
stones found in Italy that were used by blacksmiths to fuel their forges.

• The Roman Empire

It was the Romans who were first recorded as using coal fairly extensively.
After they invaded Britain in 43 AD, they discovered coal fields and realized that
coal provided superior heat than wood and charcoal. During the Roman
Occupation, coal was used as fuel to heat baths, as ornaments and for iron
forging.
 • The Industrial Revolution

The use of coal exploded in the 1700 during the Industrial Revolution. Iron
and steel plants needed coal because it burns hotter, cleaner, and longer than
wood (24 megajoules/ hour).

Coal powering steam engines lead to a boom in transportation both by rail and
the sea.

• The modern world

Coals fuel nearly 30% of the world’s energy.

History of Petroleum

• Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times.

More than 4300 years ago, bitumen was mentioned when the Sumerians
used it to make boats1. The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347
AD2.

• The modern history of the oil and gas industry started in 1847, with a
discovery made by Scottish chemist James Young.

One of the earliest instances of this is the refining of paraffin from crude
oil. Abraham Gesner developed a process to refine a liquid fuel (which he would
later call kerosene) from coal, bitumen and oil shale.

• The world’s first refineries and modern oil wells were established in the
mid-19th century.

While petroleum industries developed in several countries during the

nineteenth century, the two giants were the United States and the Russian
Empire.

• The use of the internal combustion engine for automobiles and trucks in
the turn of the 20th century

It was a critical factor in the explosive growth of the industry in the United
States, Europe, Middle East and later the rest of the world.
 Coal and Petroleum in the Philippines
Coal in the Philippines

• The Philippines is a small coal producer with a number of coal-fired power

stations.

• Coal was first discovered in the Philippine islands in 1827 in the island of Cebu.

• Philippines has 28 coal power plant.

• According to the department of energy as of 2022, the Philippines produced 14.3

metric tons of coal, 315 million metric tons of coal reserve and 25.48 million
metric tons of consumed.

• In 2016, the Philippines holds 348 million tons of coal reserve and become
ranked 47th. 13.3 million produced and 22.3 million consumed.

• One of the largest coal producer in the Philippines is the semirara mining
corporation which first operated in 1984 and it's loacted in the Island of Caluya,
Antique where it iis divided in three areas which are Unong, Himalian and
Panian. Truck and shovel operations can produce 14-16 million metric tons of
coal per year.

• It is mainly sources of electricity in the Philippines. Some of it are for the cement
industries and kthe industries such as alcohol, sinter, rubber boots, paper and
chemical manufacturing, etc.
Petroleum in the Philippines

• Petroleum exploration in the Philippines dates back to 1896 with the drilling of
Toledo-1 well in Cebu Island by Smith & Bell. Widespread exploration activities
were carried out from the 1950s to 1970s.

• The first oilfield, Nido, was discovered in the offshore areas like the Northwest
Palawan Shelf. Several small fields, all located offshore Northwest Palawan,
were subsequently discovered and produced.

• In 1989, a relatively large field was discovered in offshore Northwest Palawan

when Occidental Philippines drilled the Camago-1 Well1.

• This was followed by the discovery of West Linapacan field by Alcorn Philippines
in 19901. In 1991, Shell Philippines Exploration B.V. and Oxy drilled the

• Malampaya gas field which became, so far, the largest gas discovery in the
country with proven reserves of 2.7 to 3.2 Trillion cubic of gas (Tcf).

• The natural gas from Malampaya provides clean fuel for five power plants in
Batangas1. However, as of 2022, the Middle East was the only source of crude
oil imported to the Philippines.
 Resources/ Formation of Coal and Petroleum

Coal’s formation

• Coal begins its life as a giant plant in a prehistoric swamp 300 million years ago
before even the dinosaurs roamed the earth.

• As the plants, and many others around it, die and become submerged in the
swampy environment, 100 years ago, geological forces subject them to heat and
pressure over time. This causes the dead plant matter to transform.

• What began as a moist and low carbon form of peat has transformed into an
energy and carbon dense coal.

Petroleum’s Formation

Petroleum is formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms such as plants,
algae, and bacteria. Here is a brief overview of the process:

1. Death of Marine Organisms:

When these organisms die, they sink to the bottom of the sea or ocean.
Over time, they form a layer of organic material on the seafloor.

2. Sedimentation:

Over millions of years, these organic layers get covered by layers of silt
and sand. The weight of these layers compresses the lower layers, forming
sedimentary rock.

3. Transformation into Petroleum:

The intense heat and pressure over millions of years break down the
organic material into hydrocarbons, which is the main component of petroleum.
 Locations of Major Coal and Petroleum Deposits
Coal

Coal can be found on every continent. The largest coal reserves are in the
United States, Russia, China, Australia, and India.

Coal can be found in what we called coal seam or coal bead. It is a dark
brown or black banded deposit of coal that is visible within layers of rock. These
seams are located underground and can be mined using either deep mining or
strip mining techniques depending on their proximity to the surface.

Petroleum

Petroleum it’s found in geological formations beneath land or the ocean

floor. Large reserves of petroleum are located in the Middle East, particularly in
Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates. Other major
petroleum-producing countries include Russia, the United States, Canada, and
China.
 Mining Process of Coal and Petroleum
Mining processes of coal

Coal miners use 2 primary methods to remove coal.

• Surface mining

It is often used when coal is less than 200 feet underground. In surface
mining, large machines remove the topsoil and layers of rock known as
overburden to expose coal seams. Mountaintop removal is a form of surface
mining where the tops of mountains are removed to access coal seams. After the
coal is removed, the disturbed area may be covered with topsoil for planting
grass and trees.

• Underground mining

It is sometimes called deep mining, is used when the coal is more than
200 feet below the surface. Some underground mines are thousands of feet
deep, with tunnels that may extend out from the vertical mine shafts for miles.
Miners ride elevators down deep mine shafts and travel on small trains in long
tunnels to get to the coal. The miners use large machines to dig out coal.
Petroleum’s mining processes

Petroleum, or crude oil, is extracted from the ground using various methods
depending on the geology and location. Here’s a brief overview of how petroleum is
mined:

1. Conventional Oil Extraction:

This method is used for extracting oil that can flow naturally to the earth’s
surface. It involves traditional drilling and pumping methods. Conventional oil is a
liquid at atmospheric temperature and pressure, so it can flow through a wellbore
and a pipeline.

2. Unconventional Oil Extraction:

This method is used for heavier oil that does not flow on its own or oil found in
geological formations that make it more difficult to extract. Advanced extraction
techniques, such as oil sands mining and in situ development, are used1. Light
tight oil (LTO) is found deep below the earth’s surface, primarily within low-
permeability rock formations including shale, sandstone, and mudstone
reservoirs. This kind of oil extraction uses horizontal drilling and hydraulic
fracturing.

3. Offshore Drilling:

In some cases, petroleum is also mined by drilling holes into the seabed.
Refining a Petroleum

Refining is a process of separating the various constituents and petroleum is a

mixture of various constituents such as Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil,
paraffin wax etc. Refining petroleum is done by using the fractional distillation
method.

Refining petroleum, or crude oil, is a complex process that involves several steps:

1. Separation:

The crude oil is heated and sent to a distillation tower, where it is

separated into different components, called fractions, according to their boiling
points. The lightest fractions, including gasoline and liquefied refinery gases,
vaporize and rise to the top of the distillation tower, where they condense back to
liquids1. Heavier liquids, called gas oils, separate lower down in the distillation
tower.

2. Conversion:

After distillation, heavy, lower-value distillation fractions can be processed

further into lighter, higher-value products such as gasoline1. This process is
called cracking because it uses heat, pressure, catalysts, and sometimes
hydrogen to crack heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones1. Other
refinery processes rearrange molecules rather than splitting molecules to add
value.

3. Treatment:

The final step in refining involves treating the fractions to remove

impurities and improve the quality of the end products.
 Categories/ Different Types of Coal & Petroleum.

Categories of coal

• Lignite (25-35% Carbon) / Uses: [Electricity, Synthetic Natural Gas]

Lignite contains 25-35% carbon and is the least energy dense form of
coal. Lignite is the youngest category of coal, with an age of approximately 60
million years.It is high in moisture therefore it also has a sub-optimal heating
value. It is mostly used to generate electricity but it can also be converted into a
form of synthetic natural gas.

• Sub-bituminous coal (35-45% Carbon) / Uses: [Electricity]

Sub-bituminous coal bumps the carbon up a notch with a 35 to 45%

quantity. The average age of this variety of coal is at least 100 million years old,
but averages a very elderly 251 million years of age. It is mostly used for
electricity generation.

• Bituminous (45-86% Carbon) / Uses: [Electricity, Raw Material of Coking coal]

With a density of 45 to 86%, aside from being used to generate electricity,

it is also a raw material for making the fifth category of coal, which doesn’t exist
naturally, called the coking coal. Coking coal is made use of as a fuel in smelting
iron ore in a blast furnace.

• Anthracite (86-97%) / Uses: [Metallurgy, Heating, and Electricity]

Anthracite contains 86 to 97% carbon and has the highest heating value
among all ranks of coal, it is also smokeless and pollutes the least, it is mainly
used for metallurgical purposes and can also be used as a heating fuel.

Types of Petroleum

Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and

other organic compounds. It comes in various forms, each with its own unique
properties and uses. Here are some of the different types of petroleum:

• Crude Oil:
 o This is the unrefined liquid form of petroleum extracted from underground
reservoirs. It varies in color from yellow to black and is used to produce a
wide range of products after refining.
• Natural Gas:

o This is a type of petroleum that exists in gaseous form. It's primarily

composed of methane and is used for heating, cooking, and electricity
generation.

• Asphalt

o This is a semi-solid form of petroleum that is used for road construction,

roofing materials, and waterproofing.

• Bitumen

o This is a highly viscous or semi-solid form of petroleum that's used in road

construction and roofing.

• Gasoline:

o This is a refined product of crude oil that is used as fuel in internal

combustion engines.

• Kerosene:

o This is another refined product of crude oil that's used for jet fuel and
heating.

• Diesel Fuel:

o This is a type of refined petroleum used as fuel in diesel engines.

• Fuel Oil:
o This is a fraction obtained from petroleum distillation that can be used as
fuel for buildings, ships, and power plants.

• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

 o This is a type of petroleum gas, including propane and butane, that has
been liquefied for ease of transport and storage.

• Petrochemicals

o These are chemical products derived from petroleum. The most common
petrochemical classes are olefins (including ethylene and propylene) and
aromatics (including benzene, toluene, and xylene isomers).

Components of Coal & Petroleum

Components of Coal:

The organic compounds in coal are composed of the elements carbon 75%,
sulfur 0.5%, nitrogen 1.5%, hydrogen 5%, oxygen 8

%, and ash 10%.

Components of Petroleum:

Analyzing petroleum samples collected from around the world would show that
their elemental compositions vary over only a narrow range: 82–87% carbon, 11–
15% hydrogen, with the balance being oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Oxygen and
nitrogen seldom exceed 1.5% each, but sulfur can amount to as much as 6% in
extreme cases Schobert (2013).
 Different test in Coal and Petroleum.
Coal

Coal testing are utilized mainly for characterization, commercial grading or

assigning ranks, and deciding the utilization for different purposes.

Proximate analysis

• Commonly used chemical analysis conducted on coals and the simplest to

perform which to determining the moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed
carbon content. It is also to ascertain the rank of coal and establish the ratio
of combustible to incombustible constituents.

Moisture

• Moisture occurs in a range of forms in coal. Further, as coal is heated

additional moisture is driven from the coal’s structure. The following described
how moisture yield increases as coal is heated.

• Surface moisture
Water held on the surface of coal particles or macerals

• Hydroscopic moisture
Water held by capillary action within the micro-fractures of the coal.

• Decomposition moisture
Water held within the coal's decomposed organic compounds

• Mineral moisture
Water which comprises part of the crystal structure of hydrous silicate
such as clays.

• Volatile matter
Defined as the gases driven off when coal is heated to 950°C (1742°F) in
the absence of air under specified conditions
 Ultimate analysis

• Determining the elemental constituents of coal. It determines the amount of

carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), sulfur (S) and other elements
within the sample. These elements are reported in terms of percentage by mass
of the coal sample.

Petroleum

Petroleum testing provides insight into crude oil, refined fuels, and other
petroleum-derived products' specific features, from viscosity and density to
sulphur content. Some of the most widely used American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) methods (Petro Industry News, 2022):

ASTM D5185-18:

o Standard Test Method for Multielement Determination of Used and

Unused Lubricating Oils and Base Oils by Inductively Coupled Plasma
Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES) is used to calculate
concentrations of contaminants such as calcium, sulphur and zinc in
samples.

ASTM D2887-19ae2:

o Standard Test Method for Boiling Range Distribution of Petroleum

Fractions by Gas Chromatography is used to calculate the boiling range
distribution of petroleum products with a maximum boiling point of 538 °C
or lower.

ASTM D93-20:

o Standard Test Methods for Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Cup

Tester is a useful tool for petroleum analysis.

ASTM D287-12b:

o The Standard Test Method for API Gravity of Crude Petroleum and
Petroleum Products (Hydrometer Method) measures how light or heavy
petroleum is compared to water.
 Pollutants and Negative Impacts of Coal and Petroleum
Coal

Destruction of Landscapes and Habitats

• Strip mining involves removing earth and rocks to access coal, often
damaging mountains blocking coal seams, causing landscape scarring
and disrupting ecosystems and wildlife habitats.

Deforestation and Erosion

• Clearing land for coal mines leads to destruction of land, soil erosion, and
flooding. Trees are cut down, plants are uprooted, and topsoil is scraped,
causing harm to wildlife and waterways.

Contaminates Ground Water

• Minerals from disturbed earth can seep into groundwater, contaminating

water sources with hazardous chemicals. Acid Mine Drainage, for
example, occurs when sulphuric acid from abandoned coal mines flows
into rivers and streams.

Emissions from burning coal

Sulfur dioxide (SO2), which contributes to acid rain and respiratory illnesses
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), which contribute to smog and respiratory illnesses
Particulates, which contribute to smog, haze, and respiratory illnesses and lung
disease
Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is the primary greenhouse gas produced from
burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas)
Mercury and other heavy metals, which have been linked to both neurological
and developmental damage in humans and other animals
Fly ash and bottom ash, which are residues created when power plants burn
coal

Displacement of Communities
 • All of these negative effects force people to move to other places as their
air and water gets polluted and expanding coal mines make use of more
and more of their habitat.

Petroleum

Petroleum refining is a significant element of an economy. However, refineries

could pose environmental problems, raising concerns among nearby
communities.

Air Pollution Hazard:

• Burning petroleum fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other

greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming
and climate change. The major source of criteria air pollutants includes:

Particulate matter (PM): emitted during the combustion of petroleum products

Nitrogen oxides (NOx): produce when petroleum products are burned
Carbon monoxide (CO): produce when petroleum products are burned in cars
and trucks.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Petroleum often contains sulfur compounds that can be
released into the atmosphere during combustion

Water Pollution Hazard:

• The hazardous compounds in petroleum include benzene, toluene, and

xylene. These may infiltrate water and harm aquatic life and the food chain.

Soil Pollution Hazard:

• Petroleum spills contaminate soil. The hydrocarbons in gasoline, diesel,

and oil may seep into the ground, making plant growth insufficient and
causing harm to ecosystems.
 Importance and Benefits of Coal and Petroleum
Importance and Benefits of Coal
It may have been discussed that Coal is the primary source of Electricity, Synthetic
Natural Gas, and contributes a lot to Metallurgy. We can’t deny that there are still a
lot of sectors where it could be beneficial to, and those are;

• Industrial Use- Coal provides around 90% of the energy consumed by

cement plants around the world. The cement industry consus around 4% of
global coal production. Cement is an important commodity for building
Infrastructure, and one the most commonly used construction materials
around the world.

• Pharmaceutical Use- With the use of Bituminous coal and chemical

activation with potassium hydroxide and zinc chloride, we can produce a
series of Activated Carbon. This activated carbon is being used in Kidney
Dialysis Machines.

• Automobile Manufacturing- Due to coal combustion, carbon fibers are

being produced. These carbon fibers are an extremely strong but melight-
weight reinforcement material that are being used in airplane and automobile
manufacture, and even in the construction of mountain bikes.

• Military use- With the help of decomposing coal tar pitch in a closed vessel
at high temperature under high pressure, Carbon foams are typically
produced. These Carbon foams are designed to meet growing demand for
ultra-high performance engineering materials in the military, and aerospace
commercial products.

• Commercial Use- Submerging quartz with carbon source such as coal in a

superheated furnace, it can produce Silicon Metal. This Silicon metal is
used to make lubricants, water repellents, resins, cosmetics, hair shampoos
and toothpastes.

Importance and Benefits of Petroleum

Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is a crucial resource in our modern world.
Here are some reasons why it is so important:

• Transportation:
 Petroleum is the primary source of fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and jet
fuel, which power cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and other vehicles.

• Power Generation:

A fossil fuel power station uses petroleum or natural gas to produce

electricity.

• Lubricants:

Petroleum is commonly used in the production of lubricants, which are

essential for reducing friction in various machinery and equipment.

• Agriculture:

Petroleum has several general uses in agriculture, primarily related to

providing energy for various agricultural processes and machinery

• Chemical Industry:

Petroleum by-products are used by many chemical companies as raw

materials. They are used in the manufacture of chemical fertiliser, synthetic fiber,
and so on.

• Domestic Uses:

Many household products such as detergents, vaseline, wax, and others

are derived from petroleum.
I. INTRODUCTION

The atmosphere is the first and lightest shell with its own set of layers. At the bottom
of the atmosphere there is the earth’s crust. This is composed of minerals (inorganic
or naturally occurring chemical compounds with a crystalline structure) and rocks
(solid collections of minerals that we find on the planet today).

II. Petrology
 Scientific study of rocks that deals with their composition, texture, and structure; their
occurrence and distribution; and their origin in relation to physicochemical conditions
and geologic processes.
 Petrology aids our understanding of the lager Earth system in many ways.
 It is a branch of Geology, which deals with the study of rocks, and includes:
Pedogenesis, origin and mode of occurrence as well as natural history of rocks.
Petrography dealing with classification and description of rocks. The branch of
petrology dealing with the study of stones alone is called ‘lithology’. Stones include
the rocks that are necessarily hard, tough and compact.

A. Branches of Petrology

a) Igneous Petrology
Igneous rocks are rocks formed when magma or molten rock is crystallized to form
granite or basalt. About 95 percent of the earth’s crust is made up of igneous
rocks. However, these rocks do not readily appear on the surface because they
are covered by a thin extensive layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
b) Sedimentary Petrology
They are formed when particles derived from other rocks are bound together to
form a matrix. These pieces of rock particles together with deposits of chemical
and biological properties coalesce to produce a fine rock material.
c) Metamorphic Petrology
Initially, sedimentary or igneous rocks undergo mineralogical, textural and
chemical changes because of extreme pressure or temperature, and in some
cases due to both. Due to high pressure and temperatures, the igneous or
sedimentary rocks are transformed into metamorphic rocks.
d) Experimental Petrology
Experimental petrology involves the study of natural or synthetic materials when
subjected to conditions of high pressure and high temperature. This helps to
establish the phase relations and geochemical properties of the materials.

4
B. How can petrology help us understand questions in other sub-disciplines?

a) Structural geology is concerned with the

physical and mechanical properties of natural
rocks.
- In determining the rock’s condition: its
measurement, reconstruction and
deformation due to its history and stresses,
petrology is a great help for structural
geologist.

b) Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that

Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of
large tectonic plates that have been slowly
moving since about 3.4 billion years ago.
- In petrology, petrologic data helps in
determining and explaining plate tectonics
structures. Example is determining earth’s
fractured zones or faults.

c) Ore deposit is an economically significant

accumulation of minerals within a host rock.
- Ore deposits can be magmatic and
hydrothermal ore deposits. Petrology assists
business related to mining in discovering
mineral resources.

d) Geophysics is a natural science that studies

the physical processes and properties of the
Earth and its surrounding space
environment, and uses quantitative methods
to analyze them.
- People who study petrology may conduct
analysis and investigation in rocks extracted
from the Earth. Example is the rock materials
extracted from a volcanic activity.

5
C. Significance of Petrology in Civil Engineering

a) Strength and durability

Petrology as a study of rocks and its composition; Rocks in general are one of the
foundation of the materials used for buildings, roads, bridges, and other structures
which is greatly relative in the field of Civil Engineering. Therefore, studying rock
properties in order to determine the endurance and durability of construction materials
are significant.
b) Interpretation of properties of rocks
Studying rock properties enables civil engineers working with geotechnical
engineers to select the suitable materials to use in construction. It helps for the
determination and analysis of the land area of where the construction establishment
is to be built.
c) Discovery and development of resources and principles.
Petrology is relative to construction and Civil engineering for it ensures the
durability and strength of construction materials. It is important because it tells about
earth history. It is key to the discovery and development of mineral resources and
fundamental principles and lessons learned from petrology have application in
modern industry.

D. Rock Cycle

 A construct which magnificently encapsulates a huge breath od geological

phenomena. All three types of rocks are slowly changed from one type to another
in this process which we refer to as the rock cycle. This involves the formation
and destruction of rock throughout geologic history.
 This shows that earth continuously recycles geologic material.

6
 a) Processes of rock cycle that changes rock from one form to another:

i. Cooling and crystallization

 Magma that reaches Earth’s surface is called lava. The magma may reach
Earth’s surface by a huge explosion through a volcano, or sometimes it
comes out slowly through the cracks. As magma cools, crystals grow to form
igneous rock. If the magma cools slowly, the crystals grow larger, as it
happens if magma remains deep within the Earth.
 When the magma cools rapidly, the crystal’s form will be very small. The
formation of crystals from magma is called crystallization.
ii. Rock Melting
 It is the opposite of cooling and crystallization. It is when a metamorphic rock
is in great contact with heat, it will melt and become magma. Igneous rocks
can also melt when in-contact with intense heat and become magma.
iii. Weathering and erosion
 Over a period of time, wind, water, and ice can break larger rocks into
sediments. The method of breaking down of rocks is called weathering.
Moving water, wind, and glaciers carry these pieces of rocks from one place
to another. This process is known as erosion.
iv. Lithification (Compaction and Cementation)
 The sediments are deposited and dropped somewhere. This process is
known as sedimentation. Then the sediments may be compressed and
glued together (Compaction + cementation = Lithification), and this forms
a sedimentary rock.
v. Metamorphism
 Metamorphism means “to change form”. Within the crust, when the rock
gets exposed to extreme conditions of heat and pressure, it undergoes
metamorphism. The complete rock does not melt with metamorphism, the
rock changes due to extreme conditions of heat and pressure. A
metamorphic rock may contain new structures or the texture of a mineral.

E. Classification of Rocks

a) Igneous rock
 Igneous rocks (from the Latin word for fire) form when hot, molten rock
crystallizes and solidifies. The melt originates deep within the Earth near
active plate boundaries or hot spots, then rises toward the surface. Igneous
rocks are divided into two groups, intrusive or extrusive, depending upon
where the molten rock solidifies.

7
 SIGNIFICANCE OF IGNEOUS PETROLOGY
Igneous petrology is important because they provide a record of how the earth's crust has
evolved over time. They also provide clues about how magma or lava was generated
from the earth's mantle.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF MAGMA IN PETROLOGY

1. Basaltic magma is high in iron, magnesium, and calcium but low in potassium
and sodium.
2. Andesite magma is intermediate in iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and
potassium.
3. Rhyolitic magma is high in potassium and sodium but low in iron, magnesium,
and calcium.
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCK
i. Intrusive igneous rock (plutonic igneous rock)
 It forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth. Great globs of
molten rock rise toward the surface. Some of the magma may feed
volcanoes on the Earth's surface, but most remains trapped below, where
it cools very slowly over many thousands or millions of years until it
solidifies. Slow cooling means the individual mineral grains have a very
long time to grow, so they grow to a relatively large size. Intrusive rocks
have a coarse grained texture.
EXAMPLES OF INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK
1) Syenite
DEFINITION: is a coarse-grained intrusive
igneous rock with a general composition
similar to that of granite, but deficient in
quartz.
PROPERTIES: It consists of alkali
feldspar with less than 5% quartz and/or
feldspathoid.
Mohs Hardness: 5.5-6
Colors: Gray, and Pale White
Compressive Strength is 150.00 N/mm²

OCCURRENCE: The formation of syenites can be theorized to be from the melt

of granitic or igneous protolith to a fairly low degree of partial melting.
DISTRIBUTION: It can be found in some part of Russia(Kola Peninsula), USA
(Montana and Arkansas)
USES: Dimension Stone, Countertops, Flooring, Sculptures, Ornamental Uses

8
 2) Pegmatite
DEFINITION: It is a common plutonic rock,
of variable texture and coarseness, that is
composed of interlocking crystals.
PROPERTIES: the pegmatites consist of
the feldspars, quartz, and muscovite.
Mohs Hardness: 7
Color: colourless, white, or pink.
Compressive Strength: 178.54 N/mm2

OCCURRENCE: It occurs in all parts of the world and are most abundant in rocks
of relatively great geologic age
DISTRIBUTION: Pegmatite are found in Brazil, Madagascar, Russia, and the
United States
USES: Pegmatite Mica are used to make components for electronic device, circuit
boards, and optical filters

3) Dolerite
DESCRIPTION:
(also known as Diabase) It is fine to
medium-grained, intrusive igneous rock.
Dolerite is found within dykes, however, it
may also occur in sills.
PROPERTIES: The main components are
calcic plagioclase and clinopyroxene.
Mohs Hardness: 6-7
Color: Dark Gray,and Black

OCCURRENCE: It occurs from molten magma from the Earth's mantle, which
forced its way to the surface through cracks in the rock layers.
DISTRIBUTION: Dolerites have a very wide distribution, as they are found
wherever basalts occur in any number.
USES: Doler is used extensively for road stone, the rock fragments that are mixed
with asphalt in “tarmac”.

9
 4) Gabbro
DESCRIPTION: Gabbro is a dense,
coarse-grained, dark-colored mostly
plutonic, or intrusive igneous rock.
PROPERTIES: It is characterized by its
mineral composition of pyroxene and
plagioclase feldspar.
Mohs Hardness: 6
Color: dark gray to black

OCCURRENCE: It generally occurs as batholiths and laccoliths and is often found

along mid-ocean ridges or in ancient mountains composed of compressed and
uplifted oceanic crust.
DISTRIBUTION: It is mined in central Madagascar for use as a semi-precious
stone.
USES: Gabbro is widely used as crushed stone for concrete aggregate, road base
material, and railroad ballast.

5) Granite
DEFINITION: It is a light-colored igneous
rock with grains large enough to be visible
with the unaided eye.
PROPERTIES: It consists of coarse grains
of quartz (10-50%), potassium feldspar,
and sodium feldspar.
Mohs Hardness: 7
Color: pink, white, variations of grey and
black.
Compressive Strength: 90 to 210
N/mm2.

OCCURRENCE: Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by

a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels.
DISTRIBUTION: Granitic rock is widely distributed throughout the continental
crust. It is commonly found in mountainous areas.
USES: It is used to make countertops, floor tiles, paving stone, and cemetery
monuments.

10
 6) Diorite
DEFINITION: It is an intrusive igneous
rock with phaneritic or coarse-grained
texture, it mostly has black or dark and
whitish speckles
PROPERTIES: It is composed of
plagioclase feldspar, amphibole, and
pyroxine minerals.
Mohs Hardness: 5.5-6
Color: light gray to dark gray,

OCCURENCE: Diorite occurs in small bodies such as sills, dikes, stocks, and
or as more irregular masses associated with gabbro and batholiths
DISTRIBUTION: Diorite is found in mountain-building belts (orogens) on the
margins of continents.
USES: Diorite’s modern uses include construction aggregate, curbing, usage as
dimension stones, cobblestone, and facing stones.

ii. Extrusive igneous rock (volcanic igneous rock)

 It is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very near) the Earth's
surface. These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and oozing
fissures. The magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the surface,
cools and solidifies almost instantly when it is exposed to the relatively cool
temperature of the atmosphere. Quick cooling means that mineral crystals
don't have much time to grow, so these rocks have a very fine-grained or
even glassy texture. Hot gas bubbles are often trapped in the quenched
lava, forming a bubbly, vesicular texture.
EXAMPLE OF EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK
1) Basalt
DEFINITION: Its is a black
volcanic(extrusive) rock with less than
about 52 weight percent silica (SiO2).
PROPERTIES: It is composed of grains
of plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene,
olivine, biotite, hornblende and <20%
quartz.
Mohs Hardness: 6
Color: dark gray to black
Compressive Strength: 150- 185
N/mm2.

11
 OCCURRENCE: Basalt is one of the most common rock types on Earth and can
be found in various locations around the world, both on land and under the ocean
floor.
DISTRIBUTION: It formed in the Isle Royale-Keweenaw region because of the
Midcontinent Rift.
USES: Basalt is used in construction (e.g. as building blocks or in the groundwork),
making cobblestones (from columnar basalt) and in making statues.

b) Sedimentary rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are one of three main types of rocks, along with igneous
and metamorphic. They are formed on or near the Earth’s surface from the
compression of ocean sediments or other processes. The most important
geological processes that lead to the creation of sedimentary rocks are
erosion, weathering, dissolution, precipitation, and lithification.
 Sedimentary rocks can be organized into two categories: detrital rock,
which comes from the erosion and accumulation of rock fragments,
sediment, or other materials—categorized in total as detritus, or debris;
chemical rock is produced from the dissolution and precipitation of
minerals.
EXAMPLES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
i. Sandstone
DESCRIPTION: It is composed of sand-
size grains of mineral, rock, or organic
materials. It contains a cementing
material or clay particles that which
occupy spaces between sand grains and
binds the sand grains together.
Mohs Hardness: 6 – 7
Density: 1.61 – 2.76 G/CM^3
Color: Commonly appears to be tan,
brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and
black.
Texture: Its surface has visible sand
grains that has a rough and granular
texture.

OCCURRENCE: Mainly forms in desert, deep-sea basins, and mountain regions

through sand grain build ups, compaction, and cementation.

12
DISTRIBUTION: Sandstones generally can be found in deserts, coastal zones,
and canyonlands.
USES: Sandstone is used as a building material for walls, flooring, sculptures, and
decorative purposes due to its strength and durability.

ii. Limestone
DESCRIPTION: A sedimentary rock that
forms by both chemical and biological
processes.
Mohs Hardness: 3-4
Density: Has a density of 1.5 to 2.7
g/cm^3
Color: common variants of limestone
has white, beige, and cream color.
Texture: has a earthy texture and clastic
texture features.

OCCURRENCE: Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of

water containing dissolved calcium, which can take place through both biological
and nonbiological processes. Biogenic sedimentation takes place when sea
organisms leave their shell and skeletal debris gathering calcium carbonate that
later forms limestone.
DISTRIBUTION: Often deposists within shallow marine environments, caves,
continental slopes, and deep sea environments. Environments of tropical regions
has high productivity of calcium carbonate for limestone.
USES: Usually used as a building stone such as for cement, aggregate for the
base of roads, decorative addition for floorings, walls, and buildings.

iii. Shale
DESCRIPTION: a fine-grained
sedimentary rock that rich in silt or mud
that was deposited in an aquatic
environment and compacted and
cemented into hard rock.
Mohs Harness: 2 - 3
Density: SHALE Has a density of 2.4 -
2.8 g/cm^3
Color: COMMON VARIANTS OF
SHALE HAS GRAY, BLACK, AND
BROWN.

13
 Texture: shale has a fine-grained to
smooth texture.

OCCURRENCE: Shale forms through the compaction of silt and mineral particles
from muddy deposits that settle out in slow moving water, such as in deltas or
along continental shelves.
DISTRIBUTION: It forms in very slow moving water environment and bodies of
water such as lakes, rivers, and floodplains.
USES: Usually used to make bricks, tiles, and pottery. Some shales contain
organic material that sometimes breaks down to form natural gas or oil.

iv. Conglomerate
DESCRIPTION: a fine-grained
sedimentary rock that rich in silt or mud
that was deposited in an aquatic
environment and compacted and
cemented into hard rock.
Mohs Harness: 2 - 3
Density: a conglomerate rock Has a
density of 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm^3
Color: depends on the types of clasts
and materials present on the rock.
Usually red, brown, gray, black, etc.
Texture: it HAS A course grained to
clastic texture.

OCCURRENCE: Conglomerate is formed by fast flowing water environment such

as river movement or ocean wave action. The cementing agents that fill the spaces
to form the solid rock conglomerate are silica, calcite, or iron oxides.
DISTRIBUTION: Conglomerate is a coarse-grained rock that is often formed in
riverbeds. It forms in an aquatic environment, usually a river or coastline, where
there is strong currents.
USES: Usually used to make bricks, tiles, and pottery. Some shales contain
organic material that sometimes breaks down to form natural gas or oil.

14
 v. Breccia
DESCRIPTION: A type of sedimentary
rock that consisting of angular fragments
that are filled of smaller mineral cement
and smaller particles binded together.
Mohs Harness: 6 - 7
Density: breccia Has a density of 2.85 to
2.99 g/cm^3
Color: depends on the clast and
composition usually redish, brown, gray,
black.
Texture: it HAS A Coarse-grained and
clastic texture.

OCCURRENCE: Breccia is formed by larger fragments of of preexisting rock which

are cemented together after experiencing weathering, erosion, and deposition.
Events such as volcanic eruptions and ground movements. Eventually fragments
solidifies and cementation takes place.
DISTRIBUTION: OFTEN FOUND IN ENVIRONMENTS THAT ARE PRONE TO
near landslide and mudslide zones, fault zones, coral reefs, volcanic activity,
meteoroid impacts, etc.
USES: Used for architectural stones such as windows sills and tiles.

- Breccia vs Conglomerate -

Breccias have angular fragments. In other words, Breccia has angular

clasts. Fragments are much more rounded in conglomerates. In other
words, Conglomerate has rounded clasts. This difference in grains is due
to transportation of fragments, also because of the impact of transporting
material (water). Breccias are formed as a result of violent situations where
the rocks are broken and not transported well from their source. For
example, landslides. Conglomerates are formed when the transporting
energy such as water is high enough to move large rock particles.

c) Metamorphic rocks
 Metamorphic rocks are created when pre-existing rocks, known as parent
rocks, undergo significant changes in response to high temperatures,
immense pressure, or the presence of chemically active fluids.

15
 i. Categories of Metamorphic Rocks
1) Foliated rocks
 Are formed from the reorganization of mineral grains under pressure,
resulting in a layered or banded appearance. Examples of foliated rocks
include slate, schist, and gneiss.
EXAMPLES OF FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCK
a. Slate rock
DESCRIPTION: It has a fine-grained
texture and is characterized by its ability
to split easily into thin, smooth sheets.
Mohs Hardness: 2 to 4
Color: shades ranging from gray to
black.
Uses: Roofing material for its durability
and resistance to weather. Flooring and
paving due to its non-slip surface and
longevity.

DISTRIBUTION: Found worldwide, with significant deposits in Europe (Spain,

Wales, Portugal), North America (United States, Canada), Asia (India, China), and
South America (Brazil)

b. Gneiss rock
DESCRIPTION: Gneiss is a type of
metamorphic rock that forms when
existing rock undergoes intense heat and
pressure deep within the Earth's crust. Its
name comes from an old German term
meaning "sparkling," which refers to the
shimmering appearance of the rock's
minerals.
Properties: Variable colors depending
on mineral composition, ranging from
light gray to dark green or black.
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 7
Uses: Widely used in construction for
countertops, flooring, walls, and

16
 decorative facades due to its durability
and appealing appearance.

DISTRIBUTION: Found globally, including Europe (Alps, Scandinavia),etc

c. Schist rock
DESCRIPTION: Schist is a type of
metamorphic rock that forms from the
metamorphism of pre-existing rock,
which can include breccia. It undergoes
intense heat and pressure, causing the
minerals within the rock to recrystallize
and align, resulting in the formation of
schist.
Mohs Hardness: 4
Properties: Foliated texture with distinct
mineral layers.
Color: shades of gray, green, brown, and
black minerals.
Uses: Building stone for walls, facades,
and decorative elements. Artistic carving
and sculptures.

OCCURRENCE: Develops in regions undergoing regional metamorphism with

high temperature and pressure.
DISTRIBUTION: COMMONly it is found at Appalachian Mountains (North
America) and Scottish Highlands (Europe).

2) Non-foliated rocks
 On the other hand, lack any visible layering or banding and are
typically composed of only one mineral. Marble and quartzite are
common examples of non-foliated rocks.
EXAMPLES OF NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCK
a. Marble
DESCRIPTION: Marble, as a material, is
a metamorphic rock that is commonly
used in construction and sculpture. It is
known for its distinctive veined patterns
and can come in a variety of colors, such
as white, gray, green, and pink.

17
 Color: ranging from pure white to vibrant
reds, greens, and blues.
Mohs Hardness: High density and
hardness (around 3-4 on theMohs scale).

OCCURRENCE: Predominantly forms in mountainous regions with tectonic

activity.
DISTRIBUTION: This magnificent stone can be found in various parts of the world,
with notable marble quarries in countries like Italy, Greece, Turkey, and India.The
widespread distribution of marble allows it to be used in diverse applications, both
indoors and outdoors.

b. Quartzite
DESCRIPTION: Rock that forms from the
metamorphism of sandstone. It is known
for its beautiful composition and
durability. In fact, due to its high quartz
content, quartzite is extremely hard and
resistant to heat and pressure.
Mohs Harness: 7
Properties: High hardness (around 7 on
Mohs scale).
Uses: Countertops for kitchens and
bathrooms ETC.

DISTRIBUTION: It is commonly found in mountainous regions where there has

been extensive tectonic activity. It can be found on all continents, with notable
deposits in places such as Brazil, the United States, South Africa, India, and
Norway.

18
1. Attitude of beds

Attitude of beds refers to the three-dimensional orientation or

positioning of a given geological feature, such as a bed, a joint, a fold,
etc.

Strike and dip are a measurement convention used to describe

the plane orientation or attitude of a planar geologic feature.

If we had to designate one set of measurements that is fundamental to all geology, it would
have to be Dip and Strike. These simple measures define uniquely the orientation (compass
bearings and angles) of a planar surface – any plane: bedding, faults, axial planes, mineralized
veins, dykes and sills. Armed with dips and strikes, a geologist can project planes and the rocks
they encompass across valleys, through mountains and deep beneath the Earth’s surface. They are
fundamental to deciphering Earth structures.

Strike is the compass direction of a hypothetical horizontal line crossing a plane. There
are an infinite number of strike lines with different bearings but the same dip (zero) if the plane is
flat. The bearing may change gradually over a folded surface if the plane is curved (such as a
plunging fold).

Dip is the inclination angle calculated from a horizontal line perpendicular to strike. By
aligning a compass with the line of dip and turning the inclinometer until the spirit level reads
horizontal, the angle is determined.

In general: Dip is the angle of inclination of a bed from the horizontal plane, whereas
strike is the compass direction of a horizontal line on an inclined surface.
Together, strike and dip offer a precise way to describe the orientation of
geological features.

Fold may be defined as undulations or bends that are developed in

the rocks of the Earth’s crust, as a result of the stresses.

Fault a rock fracture or a fracture surface along which relative

movement due to internal shearing stresses between the fractured parts
occurs
Joints defined as cracks or fractures present in the body of a rock,
along which there has been no relative movements as happen in the case of
faults.

3
1.1 The principle of superposition

• States that, in a series of undisturbed layers, the oldest layer

is on the bottom and each overlying layer is progressively
younger with the youngest layer on the top. When the
outcrop lines are parallel, the beds are conformable and have
the same amount of dip.
• a key stratigraphic principle that states that the oldest layer
in a sequence of sedimentary rock layers is at the bottom and
that the layers get progressively younger as they move up the
sequence. However, on occasion, deformation might have caused the crustal rocks
to tilt, possibly to the point of being overturned. Furthermore, it might not be at all
obvious which edge of a given layer is the original top and which is the original
bottom if erosion has muddled the record by removing significant amounts of the
deformed sedimentary rock.

Nicolaus Steno

• A.k.a. Danish Niels Steensen or Niels Stensen

• (Born January 1 [January 11, New Style], 1638,
Copenhagen, Denmark
• Died November 25 [December 5], 1686, Schwerin
[Germany]),
• Geologist and anatomist whose early observations greatly
advanced the development of geology.
• De Solido Intra Solidum Naturaliter Contento Dissertationis
Prodromus (The Prodromus of Nicolaus Steno’s
Dissertation Concerning a Solid Body Enclosed by Process
of Nature Within a Solid)

1.2 Topics Related to Attitude of Beds

Structural Geology

A key concept in structural geology, which examines the deformation and arrangement of
rocks in the Earth's crust, is the attitude of beds. Geologists can infer the pressures and processes
that have shaped the Earth's crust over millions of years by examining the orientation of the beds.
Using this data, they map faults, folds, and other geological features that affect seismic activity,
groundwater movement, and the distribution of mineral resources.

4
Geological History

Bed orientation offers vital hints about a region's geological past. In a lake or on a shallow
seafloor, for example, horizontal strata indicate that the rocks were produced in calm, undisturbed
conditions. Tilted or folded beds, on the other hand, show that tectonic forces or compression have
had an impact on the rocks after they were deposited. Geologists can reconstruct the historical
conditions and events that formed a place using these hints.

Engineering and Construction

It's crucial to understand bed attitudes when working with engineering and building
projects. To create secure foundations for structures such as buildings, bridges, and infrastructure,
engineers must have a thorough understanding of the subsurface geology. It may affect the stability
of structures if, for instance, a bed is inclined at a sharp angle or contains weak rock layers.

Environmental Geology

Environmental geologists evaluate geological risks such landslides, rockfalls, and

groundwater contamination using their understanding of bed attitudes. Knowing how rocks are
oriented might assist forecast future dangers and reduce risks in vulnerable locations.

2. Outcrop

• Outcrop is defined as exposed bedrock or an unconsolidated deposit to the surface of

the ground.

• Outcrops are generally found along riverbanks, along the slopes of deep gorge and also
on the crests of ridges.

• Outcrops are formed by the action of natural agents like rivers action, wind action,
glaciers action.

• Outcrops are not exposed on the surface. They are mostly bedrock or superficial
deposits which are covered by the soil and vegetation and cannot be seen and examined.

• Outcrops are seen at places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion or
tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out.

5
 Australian Granite Outcrop Sandstone Outcrop of Hilbre
Island in Europe

2.1 Why do we Study the Outcrops?

• The study of outcrop is widely used by Geologist in geological surveying.

• Outcrop exposures allow direct observation and sampling of the bedrock in site for
geologic analysis and creating geologic maps.

• Outcrops are very important for understanding the geologic time scale of earth history.

• Outcrops are important for studying structural features of rocks such as orientations of
bedding planes, fold axes, foliation, depositional features orientations, paleomagnetic
orientations.

• Outcrops are also important for understanding fossil assemblages, and paleo-environment.

2.2 Effects of Structures on the Outcrop

The different structures in the outcrop rocks like, folds, faults, joints, bedding planes and
etc. effects the physical properties of rocks.

A. Effects of folds on outcrops

• In the rock folds are mainly formed due to the tectonic forces and as a result, the rock
outcrops get deformed, distorted or disturbed. Therefore, sedimentary strata, which were
originally horizontal get inclined in some direction and are bent upward or downward.

6
 • In the construction of roads and railway tracks along hill slopes of the folded hills, the
stability of the ground depends on the relation of the dip of beds and surface slope of the
area. If slope of surface and dip of beds occur in the same direction, the ground is unstable
and landslide may occur.

The Folds of The Rocks at Postion Slump Folds, Oligocene Carbonate

Apoplystra between The Village of St. Sediments Exposed on The Ionian Island
Paul And Sandhills (Greece) of Antopaxos, Greece.

B. Effects of faults on the outcrops

• Faulting causes the rupturing and displacement of the rocks along the plane of rupture.
The effects may cause changes in the elevation of the ground, omission of some strata
and repetition of some strata in the region.

• Faulted and highly jointed outcrops are not safe and stable for the foundation works.
Faults cause the fracturing and shattering of rocks along fault zones that means they are
not compact or strong. Such places have very weak grounds therefore not fit for the
foundations sites of the various structures.

Deformation Of Rocks in Pennsylvanian Honaker Trail

Hawaii Formation Near Moab, Utah

C. Effects of joints on the outcrops

• The outcrops which are highly fractured and jointed are unstable. The active faults become
earthquakes prone and cause shaking of the groundwater. This shaking in the area may
cause damage of civil engineering structures. Faults and joints also effect the movement of

7
 surface water. In some cases when dip direction of the fault plane and the surface slope
occur in the same direction landslides may occur in such areas.

Jointed Mountain at Usa

Conjugate Joint Rocks at San,
Diego

3. Geological Maps
o Geological maps are maps that represent the distribution and properties of rocks and
geological features on the Earth’s surface.
o Geological maps can be used to understand the geology of an area, identify natural
resources, plan engineering projects, and more.
o A geological map is a specialized type of map that displays the distribution of geological
features and materials on or below the Earth’s surface.
o It is typically created by geologists and other earth scientists to represent the geology of a
particular area, and can show the location, type, and age of rock formations, as well as the
presence of faults, folds, mineral deposits, and other geological features.
o Geological maps are an essential tool in geological research, mineral exploration, and
natural resource management, as they provide valuable information about the structure and
composition of the Earth’s crust.

3.1 Purpose of a geological map

The primary purpose of a geological map
o To provide a visual representation of the distribution of different rock types, structures, and
other geological features across a particular area. This information is essential for many
different types of geological studies, such as mineral exploration, oil and gas exploration,
groundwater management, and engineering geology.
o Geological maps can also be used to identify potential hazards such as landslides,
earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. By understanding the geological history and structure

8
 of an area, scientists can make predictions about the likelihood of these hazards occurring,
and take steps to mitigate their potential impact.

3.2 History
The history of geological maps can be traced back to
the late 18th century, when geologists began to map out the
geology of various regions. One of the earliest geological
maps was created by William Smith in 1815, which depicted
the rock layers and coal seams in England and Wales.

William Smith

England and Wales

During the 19th century, geological maps became more sophisticated, and were used to
study the structure and distribution of rocks and minerals around the world. One notable example
is the geological map of France, created by Élie de Beaumont and colleagues in the 1840s, which
showed the complex folding and faulting of the rocks in the region.

Geological map of France (1840s)

In the early 20th century, advancements in technology, such as aerial photography and
seismic surveys, allowed geologists to create more accurate and detailed geological maps. The
development of computers in the latter half of the 20th century further revolutionized the field,
allowing for the creation of digital geological maps and 3D models of the subsurface.
Today, geological maps are an essential tool for geologists and other earth scientists,
providing crucial information about the distribution of rocks, minerals, and resources, as well as
the potential for earthquakes, landslides, and other natural hazards.

9
3.3 Types of Geological Maps
There are several types of geological maps, each designed to provide specific information about
the geology of a particular area. Some of the most common types of geological maps include:
o Bedrock maps: These maps show the location and
distribution of different types of rock formations at
or near the Earth’s surface. Bedrock maps can be
used to identify the age, composition, and structure
of rocks in an area, as well as their potential for use
as natural resources.

o Surficial maps: These maps show the distribution of

different types of surficial materials, such as soils,
sediments, and glacial deposits. Surficial maps can be
used to study the history of climate change, the location
of natural resources like water and minerals, and the
potential for soil erosion and landslides.

o Structural maps: These maps show the orientation and

location of different types of geologic structures, such as
faults and folds. Structural maps can be used to study the
history of tectonic activity in an area, as well as the
potential for earthquakes and other natural hazards.

o Mineral maps: These maps show the location and

distribution of different types of minerals and mineral
resources in an area. Mineral maps can be used to study
the geology of an area, as well as the potential for
economic development through mining and other
resource extraction.

10
 o Geologic hazard maps: These maps show the potential for
natural hazards, such as earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic
eruptions, in an area. Geologic hazard maps can be used to
identify areas that are at risk for these types of events, as well as
to develop strategies for mitigating their effects.

3.4 Components of Geological Maps

The components of geological maps typically include:
o Legend/key: A list or diagram that explains the symbols and colors used on the map,
including rock formations, geological structures, and other features.

Geological
Hazard

Surficial Structural

Minerals
Bedrock

o Scale: A ratio or bar scale that indicates the relationship between distances on the map and
actual distances on the ground.

11
 o North arrow: A symbol that shows the orientation of the map,
usually pointing to the north.

o Contour lines: Lines that connect points of equal elevation, used to

depict the topography of the area.

o Geologic formations: Different rock units that are shown using distinctive colors or
patterns, with each formation labeled according to its age and type.

o Structural features: Faults, folds, and other features that show how the rock layers have
been deformed over time.

o Cultural features: Roads, buildings, and other man-made features that are included on the
map.

o Grid lines: Lines that divide the map into sections to help with navigation and
measurement.

o Marginal information: Additional information about the map, such as the date it was
created, the name of the geologist who made it, and the source of the data used to create it.

o Explanatory notes: Additional information about the geology of the area, including the
geological history, mineral resources, and other relevant details.

3.5 Interpreting Geological Maps

Interpreting geological maps is an important skill for geologists, engineers, and anyone
working with the Earth’s surface. Here are some of the key components and techniques used in
interpreting geological maps:
o Legend: The legend of a geological map provides the key for interpreting the various
symbols and colors on the map. This includes symbols for rock types, geological features,
and man-made structures.

o Stratigraphy: Understanding the stratigraphy of an area is essential for interpreting a

geological map. This includes the age, composition, and arrangement of the rock layers in
the area.

12
 o Topography: Topographic features, such as hills, valleys, and ridges, are important in
interpreting geological maps. These features can provide information about the geologic
history of an area, as well as its current geological processes.

o Structural geology: Understanding the structural geology of an area is also important for
interpreting geological maps. This includes the orientation and geometry of faults, folds,
and other structural features in the rocks.

o Cross sections: Cross sections are often included on geological maps and provide a vertical
slice through the geology of an area. They can help to visualize the geologic features and
relationships in three dimensions.

o Field observations: Field observations are an important part of interpreting geological

maps. This includes examining the rock types, structures, and features in the field and
comparing them to what is shown on the map.

o Geologic history: Interpreting geological maps also involves understanding the geologic
history of an area. This includes understanding the processes that have shaped the
landscape, such as erosion, deposition, and tectonic activity.

Overall, interpreting geological maps requires a combination of knowledge and skills,

including understanding of geology, topography, and structural geology, as well as field
observations and the ability to visualize geologic features in three dimensions

4. Study of Structures
4.1 Importance of Structural Geology
o The study of Structural geology has a primary importance in economic geology, both
petroleum and mining geology. The main target of structural geology is to use
measurements to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and
geometries.

13
4.2 History
o Structural geology made considerable progress in the first half of the twentieth century,
often as a result of studies of metamorphic rocks. In the early 1930s, Bruno Sander and
Walter Schmidt initiated ‘petrofabric analysis’: the study of spatial relations, including
those between the individual minerals making up a rock, and the movements that could
have produced these relations. The methods were used to investigate rock deformation and
were taken even further to consider the genesis of both sedimentary and igneous rocks.
Thus a special field of structural petrology was born, dealing with deformed rocks and
their tectonic History.
o Analysis of thin-sections using the ‘universal stage ’allowed the determination of the three-
dimensional orientations of mineral grains relative to the original positions of rock
specimens recorded in the field, and their representation on stereograms. This led to the
recognition of various phases of deformation by workers such as Coles Philips and
Lamoral de Sitter.

4.3 Study of Folds

Folds are wavelike deformation patterns in rock layers or other geological materials that
result from the application of stress over a period of time. This process causes the originally flat
or layered rocks to bend and deform, creating folds that can take on various shapes and sizes.

Folds are a common feature in many geological settings and are important in understanding
the deformation history of rocks and the tectonic processes that have shaped the Earth’s crust.

4.3.1 Importance of folds in Structural Geology

1. Deformation History: Folds are evidence of past tectonic activity and deformation, which
can provide important insights into the geological history of a region. The shapes and
orientations of folds can be used to reconstruct the deformation history of rocks and to infer
the type and direction of stresses that were applied.
2. Mineral Deposits: Folds can also be associated with the formation of mineral deposits,
such as gold, silver, and copper. Mineral deposits can occur in folds due to changes in the
physical and chemical conditions caused by folding.
3. Hydrocarbons: Folds can be also associated with the accumulation of hydrocarbons, such
as oil and gas. Hydrocarbons can accumulate in the crests of folds where the rocks are
compressed and where there is a reduction in pore space and permeability.
4. Engineering Applications: Understanding folds is important in engineering and
construction projects. Folded rocks may have different strengths and properties in different
directions, which can affect the stability and strength of structures built on or in them.

Overall, studying folds is important when it comes to understanding the geological history of a
region, because it can help us identify and find the potential mineral and hydrocarbon deposit, and
can ensure the stability and safety of engineering projects.

14
4.3.2 Classification of Folds

Folds can be classified based on several criteria, including its shape and geometry, the
relative orientation of the axial plane and fold axis, and the nature of the fold hinges. Here are
some common classifications of folds.

Based on Shape and Geometry:

• Anticline: A fold in which the limbs dip away from the axis of the fold, and the oldest
rocks are at the core of the fold.
• Syncline: A fold in which the limbs dip towards the axis of the fold, and the youngest rocks
are at the core of the fold.
• Dome & Basin: A dome is a special type of anticline in which the beds dip away from the
central point, in all directions a basin is a special type of syncline in which the beds dip
towards the central point.

Based on Position of Axial Plane

• Symmetrical Fold: A fold in which the two limbs are mirror
images of each other
• Asymmetrical Fold: A fold in which the two limbs are not
mirror images of each other.
• Overturned Fold: A fold in which one limb has been tilted
beyond the vertical.
• Recumbent Fold: These are extreme types of overturned
folds, in which the axial plane acquires an almost horizontal
position.

Based on the relative orientation of the axial plane and fold axis:

• Horizontal Fold / Non-Plunging fold: The axial plane is

horizontal, and the fold axis is vertical.
• Plunging Fold: The axial plane is inclined, and the fold axis is
inclined as well.

15
Based on the nature of the fold hinges:

• Tight Fold: The hinge of the fold is sharp and the limbs are
close together.
• Open Fold: The hinge of the fold is gentler and the limbs are
farther apart.
• Isoclinal Fold: The limbs are parallel and the hinge is tight.

4.3.3 Geometry of Folds

The geometry of folds is defined by several elements, including the fold axis, the axial plane, and
the limbs. These elements can vary in orientation and shape depending on the type of fold. Here
are some common geometric features of folds:

1. Fold Axis: The fold axis is a line drawn along the crest of the fold, which represents the
maximum curvature of the fold. The orientation of the fold axis can vary from horizontal
to vertical, and can be inclined at different angles depending on the type of fold.
2. Axial Plane: The axial plane is a hypothetical plane that divides the fold into two limbs.
The axial plane is perpendicular to the fold axis and bisects the angle between the limbs.
The orientation of the axial plane can vary from horizontal to vertical, and can be inclined
at different angles depending on the type of fold.
3. Limbs: The limbs are the two sides of the fold that are separated by the axial plane. The
limbs can have different shapes and orientations depending on the type of fold. In general,
the limbs dip away from the axis in an anticline and towards the axis in a syncline.
4. Fold Plunge: The plunge of a fold is the angle between the fold axis and the horizontal
plane. A fold can give different types of plunges, such as horizontal, vertical, or plunging
at a specific angle.

A fold axis (also known as the hinge line, which is the line that runs along the nose of the
fold), the axial plane (an imaginary plane that contains the hinge line and generally bisects
the fold), and limbs on either side of the fold axis

In short, the geometry of the fold can provide important information about the type and intensity
of deformation that rocks have undergone. For example, the orientation and shape of folds can
indicate the direction and magnitude of tectonic forces that have acted on the rocks.

16
4.3.4 Example of Folds

Appalachian Swiss Alps Archean Rocks,

Mountains, Usa Canada
4.3.5 Causes of Folding

• Tectonic Causes of Folding Tectonic are those which are produced due to the forces
operating within the Earth’s crust, such as: (i) lateral compression caused by shrinkage;
(ii) igneous intrusions; and salt intrusions.

• Lateral Compression. The stresses are developed within the Earth’s crust due to
shrinkage, resulting from the differential cooling of the initial hot molten Earth.

• Igneous Intrusions, Intrusions of magma from beneath may result in the folding of the
overlying strata. The anticline folds may, thus develop easily during the formation of
laccoliths.

• Salt Intrusious. The upward movements of salt bodies under pressure (i.e. intrusions)
from beneath may also result in the arching up of the strata.

• Non – Tectonic Causes of Folding. These include all those rock-folding effects which
are effective over the ground surface, resulting mainly under the influence of
gravitational force. A few of these causes include: (i) land sliding; (ii) creeping; (iii)
differential compaction; (iv) iso-static setting; (v) subsidence into solution cavities; and
(vi) glaciations.

• Landsliding, Land sliding may sometimes produce folding, when large parts of rock
beds slide down the slopes and get buckled upon folded because of compression
produced during their coming to rest.

4.4 Study of Faults

o Due to the stresses developed within the Earth’s crust, the rock formation of the Earth may
either get folded or fractured. Folding is generally favored by the development of
compression stresses within the crust; whereas, fracturing is favored by the shearing
stresses. A rock fracture or a fracture surface along which relative movement due to
internal shearing stresses between the fractured parts occurs, is called a fault. The
phenomenon of development of such fractures and occurrence of the relative displacement
of blocks is known as faulting.

17
4.4.1 Fault Terminology
o Fault Plane. The surface along which fracture occurs in the rock body ; and there occurs
a relative movement between the so formed rock-parts, is termed as fault plane or fault
surface.
o Fault trace or Fault outcrop or Fault line. This may be defined as the line of intersection
of a fault plane with the ground surface.
4.4.2 Types of Faults in Tectonic Earthquakes
o Normal dip-slip faults: are produced by vertical
compression as Earth’s crust lengthens. The hanging wall
slides down relative to the footwall. Normal faults are
common; they bound many of the mountain ranges of the
world and many of the rift valleys found along spreading
margins of tectonic plates.
o Rift valleys are formed by the sliding of the hanging walls downward many
thousands of meters, where they then become the valley floors.
o Reverse dip-slip faults: result from horizontal
compressional forces caused by a shortening, or
contraction, of Earth’s crust. The hanging wall moves up
and over the footwall.
o Thrust faults are examples of reverse faults that dip
less than 45º. Thrust faults with a very low angle of
dip and a very large total displacement are called
overthrusts or detachments; these are often found in intensely deformed mountain
belts.
▪ Large thrust faults are characteristic of compressive tectonic plate
boundaries, such as those that have created the Himalayas and the
subduction zones along the west coast of South America.
o Strike slip fault: (also called as Transcurrent, wrench, or
lateral) faults are similarly caused by horizontal
compression, but they release their energy by rock
displacement in a horizontal direction almost parallel to the
compressional force. The fault plane is essentially vertical,
and the relative slip is lateral along the plane.

18
 o Terrestrial examples include;
o The San Andreas Fault
o The San Francisco earthquake of 1906
o Izmit earthquake of 1999
o Oblique-slip faults: A fault that has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-
slip movement is termed an oblique-slip fault. Nearly all faults will have some component
of both dip-slip and strike-slip, so a fault that is classified as oblique requires both dip and
strike components to be significant and measurable.
o Example:
o Sierra Nevada/Owens Valley
o Basin & Range Faults
4.5 Study of Joints
o Joints, in geology, is a brittle-fracture surface in rocks along which little or no
displacement has occurred. Present in nearly all surface rocks, joints extend in various
directions, generally more toward the vertical than to the horizontal. Joints may have
smooth, clean surfaces, or they may be scarred by slickensides, or strations. Jointing does
not extend to a very great depth in the Earth’s crust, because at about 12 kms (7.5mi) even
rigid rocks tend to flow plastically in response to stress.
o Joints occur in all types of rocks. They may be vertical, inclines or even horizontal. Their
dip and strike are measured in the same way as that of sedimentary strata. Joints are formed
as a result of contraction due to cooling or consolidation of rocks. They are also formed
when the rocks are subjected to compression or tension during earth movements.
4.5.1 Classification of Joints
(A) On the basis of the origin joints may be classified into. Two groups.
o Tension joints : Tension joints are those, which are formed
as a result of tension forces. These joints are relatively
open and have rough and irregular surfaces.

o Shear joints: are those, which are due to shearing

stresses involved in folding and faulting of rocks.
These joints are rather clear-cut and tightly closed.
Shear joints occur in two sets and intersect at a
high angle to form a “conjugate joint system”

19
(B) On the basis of their altitude and geometry they may be classified as follows:
o Strike Joints: Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks.

o Dip Joints: Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks.

o Oblique Joints: Joints, in which it runs in a direction that lies
between the strike and dip direction of the rock beds.
o Bedding Joints: Joints that are parallel to the bedding planes
in a sedimentary rock.

o Master Joints: In sedimentary rocks the joints usually run in

two directions at nearly right angles. One set of joints runs
parallel to the dip direction and the other parallel to strike
these one set of joints commonly more strongly developed
than the other and extends for long distances. Such as well-
developed joints called ‘Master Joints’.
o Mural Joints: Granites show three sets of joints mutually at
right angles, which divide the rock's mass into more or less
cubical blocks. Such joints are called ‘Mural Joints’.

o Sheet Joints: Joints that are often seen in the exposures of

granites. These joints run in the horizontal direction and form
tension cracks during cooling of the rock. These joints are
somewhat curved and essentially parallel to the topographic
surface. They are more conspicuous and closer together near
the ground surface.
o Columnar Joints: Joints that are formed in tabular igneous masses such as dykes,
sills and lava flows. These joints divide the rock into hexagonal columns, which are
arranged at right angles to the chief cooling surface. In lavas and sills, the columns
are vertical, while in dykes they are more or less horizontal.

20
5. Physical Properties and Mechanical Properties of Rocks

Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregates or masses of minerals, mineraloids, or

organic material that make up the Earth’s crust. They are composed of one or more minerals, which
are crystalline solids with a specific chemical composition and a defined atomic structure. Rocks
can vary greatly in size, shape, color, texture, and composition, and they are classified into three
main types based on their formation process: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Rocks are an essential component of the Earth’s crust and provide important clues about
the geologic history, processes, and environments of our planet. They are used by geologists to
study the Earth’s structure, composition, and history, and they also have practical applications in
various industries, such as construction, mining, and energy production.

There are two ways of identifying rocks: the physical properties and the mechanical
properties of rocks. The physical properties, also known as index properties, describe the physical
structure of rocks. On the other hand, mechanical properties are also known as strength properties,
as they give information about the performance of rock materials when subjected to a certain
loading system.

5.1. Classification and Formation of Rocks

Rocks can be categorized into three primary groups depending on how they're created:
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. These distinct rock types possess unique qualities
and come into existence through various geological processes.

Igneous rocks form from magma or lava cooling and come in two main types: intrusive and
extrusive.
• Intrusive Igneous Rocks: These form beneath the Earth's surface and have a coarse-
grained texture. Example: Granite.
• Extrusive Igneous Rocks: These form on the Earth's surface and have a fine-grained
texture due to rapid cooling. Example: Basalt.

21
 Composition: Different mineral composition of Igneous rocks
• Felsic: Rich in feldspar and silica.
• Intermediate: Moderate in feldspar and silica.
• Mafic: Rich in magnesium and iron.
• Ultramafic: Very low in silica.

Characteristics of Igneous Rocks:

• The igneous form of rocks does not include any fossil deposits. If there are any chances
of fossil deep inside the crust, it erupts out of the Earth’s surface and gets destroyed due
to the sheer heat these rocks produce.
• Most igneous forms include more than one mineral deposit.
• They can be either glassy or coarse.
• These usually do not react with acids.
• The mineral deposits are available in the form of patches with different sizes.
Example of Igneous Rocks:

Importance of Igneous Rocks in Engineering

Igneous rocks are crucial in engineering for several reasons. Their high strength, durability,
and low porosity make them ideal for construction materials, particularly in projects requiring
resistance to heavy loads and environmental stresses. They offer excellent heat and abrasion
resistance, are dimensionally stable, and exhibit resistance to chemical weathering, making them
versatile for various applications. Their availability, geological stability, and natural radiation
shielding properties further enhance their significance in construction and engineering, making
them valuable materials for foundations, infrastructure, and structures subjected to diverse
challenges and environmental conditions.

Sedimentary rocks form in a few ways: from particles piling up and getting squished
together, minerals settling out of water, or the compaction of organic material. They're categorized
by texture, composition, and where they form.

Texture: Sedimentary rocks have different textures:

1. Clastic: Made of mineral and rock fragments compacted together. Examples are sandstone
and conglomerate.

22
 2. Chemical: Formed when minerals precipitate from water. Examples include limestone and
rock salt.
3. Organic: Created from compacted organic material, like coal.

Composition: Sedimentary rocks can be classified by what they're made of:

1. Siliciclastic: Rich in silicate minerals.
2. Carbonate: Dominated by carbonate minerals.
3. Evaporite: Contains minerals that form when water evaporates.
• Formation Environment: Sedimentary rocks also reveal where they were created, like in
the sea, lakes, rivers, deserts, or glaciers.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks:
• These rocks are made up of particles of various sizes.
• These rocks are mostly formed under water and have marks of waves and mud cracks.
• They are found in horizontal layers.
• These rocks are softer than igneous rocks.
• Between the layers, these rocks also contain remains of plants and animals, called fossils.
Fossil fuels like petroleum are obtained from these rocks.
• Deposited at the earth's surface by wind, water, glacier ice, or biochemical processes
• Typically deposited in strata (layers) undercool surface conditions. This is in contrast to
stratified volcanic rock (tuff), which has a hot origin.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks:

Importance of Sedimentary Rock in Engineering:

Sedimentary rocks are important in engineering for their versatile roles in construction,
resource extraction, water management, and environmental applications. These rocks, including
sandstone, limestone, and shale, serve as building materials for structures and roads, and some
have strong load-bearing capacity, making them suitable for foundations. They also host valuable
resources like coal, oil, and natural gas, which are essential for energy production. Furthermore,
sedimentary rocks are used in erosion control, retaining walls, and embankments, highlighting
their significance in engineering applications.

23
 Metamorphic rocks form from changes in existing rocks due to heat, pressure, and chemical
processes, without melting. They're categorized by texture, mineral makeup, and metamorphic
intensity.
Texture: Metamorphic rocks come in two textures:
1. Foliated: Have a layered or banded look, like schist and gneiss.
2. Non-foliated: Show a random arrangement of mineral grains, as seen in marble and
quartzite.
Mineral Composition: These rocks can also be classified by their minerals:
1. Mica-rich: Abundant in mica minerals.
2. Quartz-rich: Dominated by quartz.
3. Calcite-rich: Rich in calcite.
• Metamorphic Grade: This indicates how intense the metamorphic changes were. It's
categorized as low-grade, medium-grade, or high-grade, depending on the temperature
and pressure conditions during metamorphism.
Characteristics of Rocks:
• Formed from existing rocks (igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks).
• Changed by heat and pressure deep within the Earth's crust.
• Can have unique patterns, textures, and minerals.
• Often harder and more compact than their original form.
• Examples include marble (from limestone) and schist (from shale).
Examples of Metamorphic Rock:

Importance of Metamorphic Rocks in Engineering:

Their ability to withstand extreme environmental conditions, resistance to weathering, and
resistance to chemical corrosion are essential qualities for applications ranging from architectural
designs to foundations. Additionally, their decorative and aesthetic appeal, along with good
dimensional stability, makes them valuable in precision engineering and geotechnical applications.
In summary, metamorphic rocks offer a diverse set of properties that make them valuable materials
in various engineering and construction contexts.

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5.2. Rock Cycle
The rock cycle is a fundamental concept in geology
that explains how rocks continually change and cycle through
different forms on Earth. It involves various geological
processes that lead to the creation of igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks. Here's a simplified overview:
1. Formation of Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks are
born from the cooling and solidification of molten
rock called magma (below the surface) or lava (on the
surface). Common examples are granite, basalt, and
obsidian.
2. Weathering and Erosion of Igneous Rocks: Once at the surface, igneous rocks are
exposed to weathering (breaking down) and erosion (transportation) by natural forces like
water, wind, and ice.
3. Deposition and Lithification of Sedimentary Rocks: Weathered particles from various
rocks, including igneous ones, are carried by rivers, wind, or glaciers and deposited
in basins. Over time, these particles compact and harden into sedimentary rocks like
sandstone, limestone, and shale.
4. Burial and Diagenesis of Sedimentary Rocks: As sedimentary rocks accumulate; they
may get buried deeper. Increased pressure and temperature cause compaction and
diagenesis (physical and chemical changes). Further burial can lead to metamorphism,
resulting in metamorphic rocks.
5. Metamorphism and Formation of Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks form when
existing rocks (whether sedimentary or igneous) undergo changes due to heat, pressure,
and chemical processes. This transforms their minerals and textures. Examples include
marble, slate, and schist.
6. Melting and Formation of Magma: Under extreme heat and pressure, metamorphic rocks
can melt, forming magma. This magma may rise to the surface through volcanic activity
or cool underground to create new igneous rocks.
7. Uplift and Exhumation of Rocks: Geological forces like tectonic movements and erosion
can uplift rocks from deep within the Earth's crust, exposing them to weathering and
erosion once more. This process restarts the rock cycle.
In essence, rocks go through a never-ending cycle of change, transitioning between these
three major types based on geological processes and environmental conditions.

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5.3. Physical Properties of Rocks
Mineralogic Composition, Structure, and Texture
• Mineralogic Composition: This refers to the types and proportions of minerals that make
up a rock. Rocks are composed of various minerals, and their mineralogic composition can
vary significantly. For example, granite is primarily composed of minerals like quartz,
feldspar, and mica. Understanding the mineralogic composition helps geologists identify
and classify rocks.

• Structure: The structure of a rock describes how its minerals or mineral grains are
arranged and interact with each other on a larger scale. There are several types of structures
in rocks:
o Bedding or Stratification: In sedimentary rocks, layers or
beds of different materials may be visible, reflecting the
sequential deposition of sediments over time.

o Foliation: This is a prominent feature in many metamorphic

rocks, where minerals align into distinct layers or bands due to
directed pressure and heat. Examples include slate and schist.

o Jointing and Fracturing: Rocks can have cracks, joints, or

fractures that result from stress and geological processes. These
features can affect the rock's strength and permeability.

• Texture: Texture describes the size, shape, and arrangement of

mineral grains or crystals within a rock on a microscopic or fine
scale. Common rock textures include:
o Coarse-Grained: Rocks with large mineral grains or
crystals are called coarse-grained. Granite, for example,
has visible crystals.

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 o Fine-Grained: In contrast, rocks with small or microscopic
mineral grains are fine-grained. Shale is an example of a fine-
grained sedimentary rock.

o Porphyritic: Some igneous rocks have a mix of large and small

mineral crystals. These are termed porphyritic textures.

o Glassy: Rocks with no visible mineral grains, like obsidian, have

a glassy texture.

o Vesicular: Igneous rocks with visible gas bubbles or vesicles, like

pumice, have a vesicular texture.

Specific Gravity and Density

• Density: The density of rocks refers to the mass of a rock per unit volume and is typically
expressed in units like grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m³). It quantifies how much material is packed into a given space within the rock. The
density of rocks varies widely based on their mineral composition, porosity, and other
factors. For instance, denser rocks like granite have a higher density, while less dense rocks
like pumice have a lower density. Understanding rock density is important in geology, civil
engineering, and various scientific disciplines as it provides insights into rock
classification, identification, and assessment of their physical properties.
o Calculation: Mass / Volume
• Specific gravity: Specific gravity (SG), also known as relative density, is a dimensionless
value that compares the density of a substance (in this case, a rock) to the density of water
at a specific temperature. It indicates how many times denser or lighter the substance is
compared to water.
o Calculation: Specific Gravity = (Density of Rock / Density of Water at a Specific
Temperature).

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Permeability and Porosity
• Permeability: For groundwater to be able to get into a
rock with good porosity it must also have good
permeability. For a rock to be permeable and for water
to move through it, the pore spaces between the grains
in the rock must be connected. Permeability is therefore
a measure of the ability of water to move through a rock.

• Porosity: Rocks are made up of grains or crystals that

fit together. In cases where the fit is very tight and there
are no gaps or pore spaces between the grains or
crystals, we say that this rock has no porosity. At the
other end of the scale, some rocks have lots of pore
space between grains and so there is room for air, water
or other liquids and gasses.

Electrical and Thermal Properties

• Conductivity and Resistivity: Rocks can conduct or resist the flow of electricity. The
electrical conductivity of rocks depends on their mineral composition, moisture content,
and pore structure. Conductive rocks allow the flow of electric current more easily than
resistive rocks.
• Thermal Conductivity: Thermal conductivity measures a rock's ability to conduct heat. It
depends on factors like mineral composition, porosity, and moisture content. Some rocks
conduct heat well (high thermal conductivity), while others insulate against heat transfer
(low thermal conductivity).
Moisture Content and Degree of Saturation
• Moisture content: Moisture content in rocks refers to the amount of water or moisture
present within the rock's pore spaces or fractures, expressed as a percentage of the rock's
total weight.
• Degree of Saturation: The degree of saturation represents the ratio of the volume of water
occupying the pore spaces of a rock to the total pore space volume when the rock is fully
saturated with water.

5.4. Mechanical Properties of Rocks

Hardness
The hardness of rocks is a measure of their resistance to abrasion, scratching, or
deformation when subjected to mechanical forces.

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 • Mohs Scale: The Mohs scale of mineral
hardness is a widely used qualitative scale that
ranks minerals and rocks based on their scratch
resistance. It was developed by Friedrich Mohs
in the early 19th century and consists of ten
minerals, with talc being the softest (ranked as 1)
and diamond being the hardest (ranked as 10).
Geologists use this scale to compare the relative
hardness of minerals and rocks.

Elasticity and Plasticity

• Elasticity: Elastic behavior in rocks refers to their ability to deform reversibly under an
applied load and then return to their original shape once the load is removed. When rocks
are subjected to small stresses within their elastic limit, they respond with linear
deformation. Hooke's Law is often used to describe this behavior, where stress is directly
proportional to strain. Elastic deformation is temporary and non-permanent, making it a
key property for materials like rocks to store and release energy. Elasticity is crucial in
understanding seismic waves, rock mechanics, and engineering design.
• Plasticity: Plastic behavior in rocks involves the ability to undergo non-reversible
deformation when subjected to stress. Beyond the elastic limit, rocks may start to deform
plastically, meaning they change shape permanently without recovering their original form
when the stress is removed. Plastic deformation can result from a variety of factors,
including high stress, temperature, or pressure. Rocks that exhibit plasticity are generally
considered less stable and can experience permanent deformation or failure.
Strength testing of rocks is conducted either in a controlled laboratory setting using intact rock
samples or in the field for rock masses. There are two main approaches for assessing strength:
1. Direct Methods: These methods involve directly calculating strength values in a lab
environment.
2. Indirect Methods: These methods provide approximate strength values either in the lab or
directly at the field location.
In essence, scientists and engineers use these approaches to determine the strength of rocks,
whether it's through precise laboratory tests or more practical estimations in the field.
Types of Strength

1. Compressive Strength
a. The compressive strength of a material is a measure of its ability to resist uniaxial
compressive loads without yielding or fracture.

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 b. Uniaxial Compressive Strength is given by the ratio of load at failure or rupture
to cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Direct Methods
• Uniaxial Compression Test: Applying compressive load until failure occurs in the core
by a fracture in the middle using high-capacity Compressive testing machinery verifies the
Uniaxial Compressive Strength of rock material and deformation behavior under loading.
• Triaxial Compression Test: Triaxial Compressive Strength is the strength exhibited by a
rock specimen when it is subjected to confining pressure in addition to vertical pressure.
Typically, at least 5 specimens are tested, each at a different confining pressure, to
determine the peak strength. The Mohr’s envelope can also be used to determine shear
strength parameters of rock materials using this test.
Indirect Methods
• Point Load Test: The point load test is a quick and simple laboratory or field-based
method used to assess the strength of rocks. In this test, a cylindrical rock specimen is
placed between two platens, and a concentrated force is applied at a specific point on the
sample's surface. The test measures the load (force) required to fracture the rock at that
single point. By calculating the point load index (Is) using the load and the diameter of the
specimen, geologists and engineers can estimate the rock's compressive strength. The point
load test is particularly useful for quickly assessing the strength of rock samples, especially
when larger, traditional uniaxial or triaxial tests are impractical.
• Schmidt or Rebound Hammer Test: A non-destructive testing method used to estimate
the compressive strength of rocks and concrete. In this test, a handheld instrument called a
rebound hammer is pressed against the rock's surface, and a spring-loaded plunger impacts
it. The rebound distance of the plunger is then measured, which is correlated with the rock's
hardness and compressive strength. A harder rock will result in a higher rebound value.
This test is valuable in assessing the in-situ strength of rock masses, helping engineers and
geologists make preliminary strength assessments during field investigations or
construction projects without the need for destructive sampling.

2. Tensile Strength
a. Refers to their resistance to being pulled apart or stretched when subjected to tensile
forces. Unlike compressive strength, which measures a rock's resistance to being squeezed
or compressed, tensile strength evaluates how well a rock can withstand forces that attempt
to stretch or separate it. Tensile strength is typically lower than compressive strength in most
rocks, as natural flaws and fractures within rocks can facilitate the propagation of cracks and
ultimately lead to tensile failure. Understanding tensile strength is crucial for assessing rock
stability in situations where tensile forces play a significant role, such as in the design of
underground openings, slopes, or the evaluation of rockfall hazards.

30
 Direct Method
• A rock sample is subjected to an axial tensile force, attempting to pull it apart along its
weakest axis or plane. This method is challenging to apply directly to intact rocks because
rocks are generally much stronger in compression than in tension. Therefore, direct tensile
testing is more commonly conducted on rock-like materials, such as concrete or rock bolts,
where specimens can be prepared to simulate tensile conditions. The test measures the
force required to fracture the specimen under tension and is valuable for understanding
how materials or rock-like structures behave when subjected to stretching or pulling forces,
helping engineers design safe and durable structures in rock-related applications.
Indirect Method
• Involve estimating this property without directly subjecting a rock specimen to tensile
forces, which can be challenging due to the brittleness of rocks. One common indirect
method is the Brazilian Test, where a circular rock specimen is loaded diametrically,
inducing tensile stresses along the diameter until it fractures. The tensile strength is then
calculated using the load applied and the specimen's dimensions. Another indirect approach
involves using other mechanical properties, like compressive strength, and empirical
relationships to estimate tensile strength. Indirect methods are often employed in practical
situations where conducting direct tensile tests on rocks is difficult or impractical,
providing useful estimates for engineering and geotechnical applications.

3. Shear Strength
a. Refers to their resistance to sliding or undergoing deformation along internal planes or
fractures when subjected to parallel forces acting in opposite directions. It is a critical
mechanical property that helps assess the stability of rock slopes, the behavior of rock
masses in response to tectonic forces, and the potential for faulting or sliding in geological
formations.
Shear Strength Test
• The shear strength test of rocks is a laboratory experiment used to assess a rock's resistance
to sliding or shearing along specific internal planes or fractures. In this test, a cylindrical
rock specimen is prepared with a known orientation of the intended shear plane. The
specimen is then subjected to gradually increasing lateral stresses until it fractures or slips
along the predetermined plane. The force required to cause this failure is measured,
providing valuable information about the rock's shear strength. Shear strength tests help
engineers and geologists evaluate the stability of rock masses in various applications, such
as in slope stability assessments, foundation design, and understanding fault behavior in
geological studies.

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 DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
• Dynamic properties of rocks, such as modulus, damping, and wave
velocity, are important for geotechnical engineering applications such as
seismic design, foundation analysis, and slope stability.
• Dynamic properties are utilized to create mathematical models for the
behavior of the system.
• These are assessed in the field through seismic methods (refraction,
surface waves), borehole logging, and dynamic cone penetration and mostly
talks about the effects of the vibration to the material or to the rocks.
• Natural frequencies, damping, and mode shape are some examples of
how dynamic properties of structures describe a system.

MODAL ANALYSIS
- Modal analysis is the evaluation of dynamic qualities. The process of
creating a mathematical model for a system's dynamic behavior by
ascertaining its innate dynamic properties, such as natural frequencies,
damping factors, and mode shapes, is known as modal analysis. Modal
analysis gives a broad picture of a system's response bounds.

EXPERIMENTAL MODAL ANALYSIS

- Applying a known force to the system under study is known as
experimental modal analysis. Vibrations produced by applying force with
an impact hammer or shaker are recorded. Smaller structures or individual
components benefit greatly from the controlled environment and reliable
results that Experimental Modal Analysis offers. It is predicated on the
measurement’s excitation and vibration response.
THEORETICAL MODAL ANALYSIS
- A physical model of a dynamic system that includes its mass, stiffness,
and damping qualities serves as the foundation for the theoretical modal
analysis. These characteristics could be provided as partial differential
equations.
ELONGATION
- is a measurement that indicates the percentage of the original dimensions
that a material can be stretched before breaking. The amount a material
will plastically and elastically deform up to fracture is measured and is also
known as percent elongation. It is a quantitative indicator of a material's
ductility, or how readily it deforms under stress.

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

1. MODULUS OF DEFORMATION – YOUNG’S MODULUS – E
- a measure of the ability of a material to withstand changes in length when
under lengthwise tension or compression. Sometimes referred to as the
modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress
divided by the strain.
 2. MODULUS OF RIGIDITY – SHEAR MODULUS – G
- the measure of the rigidity of the body, given by the ratio of shear stress to
shear strain. It is often denoted by G sometimes by S or μ.

3. MODULUS OF VOLUME EXPANSION – BULK MODULUS – K

- defined as the proportion of volumetric stress related to the volumetric
strain of specified material while the material deformation is within the &
nabs elastic limit.

POISSON’S RATIO – µ
- the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in
the direction of the stretching force.
BULK DENSITY – Ρ
- Bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction. It is calculated as the dry
weight of soil divided by its volume. This volume includes the volume of
soil particles and the volume of pores among soil particles.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – ΣC
- the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce
size (as opposed to tensile strength which withstands loads tending to
elongate). The compressive strength of a material is usually stated as the
maximum compression that the material can stand before failure.

TENSILE STRENGTH – ΣT
- the ability of plastic material to withstand a maximum amount of tensile
stress without failure. It is defined as a stress, which is measured as force
per unit area.
TYPES OF WAVE THEORY
WHAT IS A WAVE?
- A wave is a disturbance or oscillation that travels through space and time,
transferring energy without transferring matter. Waves can take various forms
and occur in different mediums, such as air, water, or solids. There are many
types of waves, including mechanical waves, electromagnetic waves, and
matter waves (in quantum mechanics).
HOW DO WAVES ARE FORMED?
- Waves are most commonly caused by wind. Wind-driven waves, or surface
waves, are created by the friction between wind and surface water. As wind
blows across the surface of the ocean or a lake, the continual disturbance
creates a wave crest.
- Waves form on both oceans and lakes as wind energy is transferred to the
water. The size of the waves depends on the strength, duration, and the
expanse of the wind over the water. Key wave parameters include
wavelength, amplitude, and velocity. In the context of earthquakes, energy
released is partly transformed into heat, used in breaking and deforming
rocks along the fault, and the remaining energy is emitted as seismic waves
from the earthquake's focus.
Wavelength - distance between identical points (adjacent crests) in the adjacent
cycles of a waveform signal propagated in space or along a wire.
Amplitude - the distance from the center line (or the still position) to the top of a
crest close crest the top most part of a wave or to the bottom of a trough close
trough the bottom most point of a wave.
Wave Velocity - refers to speed, although, properly, velocity implies both speed
and direction.
Crest – uppermost part of a wave.
Trough – lower middle part of two crest.

SEISMIC WAVE
- Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of materials within the
Earth, such as slip along a fault during an earthquake. Volcanic eruptions,
explosions, landslides, avalanches, and even rushing rivers can also cause
seismic waves. Seismic waves travel through and around the Earth and can
be recorded with seismometers.
1. BODY WAVE
- It is a type of seismic wave that is traveling through the interior of the Earth,
body waves arrive before the surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These
waves are higher frequency than surface waves.

a.) P WAVE (PRIMARY WAVE)

- The P in P-waves stands for primary, because these are the fastest
seismic waves and are the first to be detected once an earthquake has
occurred. P-waves are compressional waves that cause particles to move
in the same direction as the wave is traveling. They are the fastest seismic
waves and can travel through solids, liquids, and gases. P-waves are
longitudinal waves, meaning they compress and expand the material in
the direction of wave travel.

The speed at which P-waves travel through material is determined by:

• Rigidity - how strongly the material resists being bent sideways
and is able to straighten itself out once the shearing force has
passed - the more rigid the material, the faster the P-waves.
• Compressibility - how much the material can be compressed into
a smaller volume and then recover its previous volume once the
compressing force has passed; the more compressible the
material, the faster the P-waves.
• Density - how much mass the material contains in a unit of volume;
the greater the density of the material, the slower the P-waves.

b.) S WAVE (SECONDARY WAVE)

- The S in S-waves stands for secondary, because they are the second-
fastest seismic waves and the second type to be detected once an
earthquake has occurred. S-waves are shear waves that cause particles
to move perpendicular to the direction of the wave. Slower than P-waves,
S-waves can only travel through solids and are blocked by liquids and
gases. S-waves are transverse waves, causing a side-to-side motion of
particles.
 The speed at which S-waves travel through material is determined only
by:
• Rigidity - how strongly the material resists being bent sideways
and is able to straighten itself out once the shearing force has
passed - the more rigid the material, the faster the S-waves
• Density - how much mass the material contains in a unit of volume
- the greater the density of the material, the slower the S-wave.

2. SURFACE WAVES
- Surface waves travel more slowly through Earth material at the planet’s
surface and are predominantly lower frequency than body waves. They
are easily distinguished on a seismogram. Surface waves travel along the
Earth's surface and have both vertical and horizontal motion. Slower than
both P-waves and S-waves, surface waves are responsible for the
majority of the damage during an earthquake. Surface waves include Love
waves, which have horizontal motion, and Rayleigh waves, which have
both vertical and horizontal motion.

a.) LOVE WAVE

- One kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after
British mathematician Augustus Edward Hough Love, who worked
out the mathematical model for this wave type in 1911. Love waves
produce entirely horizontal motion. The amplitude is largest at the
surface and diminishes with greater depth.
 b.) RAYLEIGH WAVE
- The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named
for John William Strutt, known as Lord Rayleigh, who
mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in
1885. A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground with a more
complex motion than Love waves. Although Rayleigh waves
appear to roll like waves on an ocean, the particle motion is
opposite of ocean waves. Because it rolls, it moves the ground
up and down, and forward and backward in the direction that the
wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is
due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the
other waves. Like Love waves, the amplitude of the wave
decreases dramatically with depth.

FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY

WAVE VELOCITY
- Wave velocity refers to the speed at which a wave propagates through a
medium. The velocity of a wave is a fundamental property that depends on
the characteristics of both the wave and the medium through which it travels.
FACTORS INFLUENCING WAVE VELOCITY
1. WAVELENGTH
- Wavelength is the measure of a complete wave cycle.
- It can be measured as the distance from crest to crest or from
trough to trough. It is inversely proportional to frequency. This
means the longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency.

2. FREQUENCY
- Fundamental characteristic of a wave.
- It is the measure of the number of waves passing through a point
in a unit time. The velocity of wave is the distance travelled by a
point on the wave. In general, for any wave the relation between
frequency and velocity is proportionate.

3. MEDIUM
- Waves travel through a medium
- A medium is any substance or region through which a wave is
transmitted.
- The speed is constant in a given medium.
- As waves travel through a medium two properties affect wave
speed;
- Density- the higher the density the slower the wave.
- Elasticity- waves travel faster through materials that are more
elastic.
 4. TEMPERATURE
- The speed of waves increases as temperature increases. This is
due to the increased of kinetic energy of the air molecules and
decrease in density.
- Temperature is also a condition that affects the speed of sound.
Heat, like sound is a form of kinetic energy. Molecules at higher
temperatures have more energy, thus they can vibrate faster, sound
waves travel more quickly.

STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODULE OF ELASTICITY

WHAT IS MODULUS OF ELASTICITY?
- The modulus of elasticity, also known as elastic modulus or simply elasticity,
is a material property that measures its ability to deform under stress and
return to its original shape when the stress is removed.

TYPES OF ELASTIC MODULI

Elastic moduli can be categorized into three main types:
1. YOUNG'S MODULUS (E): Young's modulus is a measure of the
stiffness of a material and is defined as the ratio of stress to
strain within the elastic limit. It quantifies how much a material
will deform under tensile or compressive loading.
2. SHEAR MODULUS (G OR Gʹ): Shear modulus reflects a
material's resistance to deformation under shear stress. It is the
ratio of shear stress to shear strain and is particularly relevant in
understanding a material's behavior when subjected to forces
parallel to its surface.

3. BULK MODULUS (K): Bulk modulus measures a material's

response to uniform compression or volume changes. It is a
measure of the ability of a substance to withstand changes in
volume when under compression on all sides. When an element
is subjected to equal stresses in three.
TYPES OF YOUNG’S ELASTIC MODULUS
1. STATIC MODULI
- Static moduli refer to measures of a material's stiffness or
rigidity when it is not moving or experiencing dynamic forces.
These moduli describe how a material responds to static
(stationary or unchanging) loads and deformation. The most
common static moduli include Young's Modulus (for tension and
compression), Shear Modulus (for shear stress and strain), and
Bulk Modulus (for uniform compression or volume changes).
2. DYNAMIC MODULI
- The dynamic moduli of a rock are figures derived from the
rock's elastic wave speed and density. Dynamic modulus
specifically measures the relationship between stress and strain
when the rock is vibrating. This calculation is based on data
gathered from tests where the rock is subjected to either natural
vibrations or intentionally induced vibrations. This is important,
especially in designing roads. Think of it as a key number that
helps us make roads that last, and many smart people have
studied it to make roads better.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODULUS
- Static modulus addresses responses to stable or slowly changing forces,
while dynamic modulus explores reactions to dynamic or vibratory forces.
Both play crucial roles in various fields, from civil engineering to material
science, providing essential data for designing structures that can effectively
withstand the diverse forces they may encounter.

GROUTING
GROUTING
- used to fill gaps, cracks in concrete structures. It is the process of injecting
material into cavities or cracks in concrete, masonry, structure, coil, rock-
mass to increase the structure’s load-bearing capacity.
APPLICATION OF GROUTING
• Grouting is used to fill gaps, cracks in concrete structures.
• Used for repairing footpaths and the ground under foundations.
• Defects in masonry and cracks in concrete are repaired by grouting.
• Used in soil stabilization.
• Used to control water leakage in mines, tunnels, dams, underground
structures.
TYPES OF GROUTING
1. CEMENT GROUTING
- also called as Cementitious grouting. A process in which a
fluid cementitious grout is pumped under pressure to fill
form, voids and cracks.
2. CHEMICAL GROUTING
- is a process used on sands with low fine content. This
procedure creates a sandstone like mass that gives strength,
allows for excavation, and lessen the groundwater migration
on soils.

3. RESIN GROUTING
- is made of epoxy resins combined with a filler powder. This
makes it waterproof and almost completely resistant to
stains. It also makes it more durable than regular grout,
making it the ideal choice for splash backs, floors and high-
traffic areas.
 4. BENTONITE GROUTING
- a common grout mix used to protect aquifers from ground
or cross contamination and ensure good contact between
loop and surrounding soil.

5. BITUMEN GROUTING
- is a special type of grouting where melted bitumen is used
as grouting material. Hot-Bitumen grouting is often used to
cut off high magnitude, subterranean water inflows.

ADVANTAGES OF GROUTING
• Grouting can be done in any ground condition.
• Suitable for limited space and low headroom application.
• It helps to control groundwater flow, seepage and hazardous waste
material type and its process.
• Has a high rate of strength development.
DISADVANTAGES OF GROUTING
1. INCREASING THE COMPLEXITY AND UNCERTAINTY OF
THE DESIGN AND EXECUTION.
• Thorough site investigation- workers and even engineers
are in need to consider grouting to add up to the initial
plan of any construction because of the benefits that
grouting bring. In every site investigation, different and
even several problems arouse and needs attention.
• Grout selection- with over countless types of grout, only
those professionals with grouting can choose what type
of grout is needed in a specific type of construction.
• Injection parameters- The injection of the grout should
also be considered since grout injection is a process that
involves vibrations, a specific time for it to dry and many
more.

2. CAN INCREASE THE RISK OF ADVERSE EFFECTS ON THE

SURROUNDING STRUCTURES AND ENVIRONMENT
• Excessive ground movements – because of the grouting
process, it can cause ground movements and may affect
surrounding structures.
• Vibrations and noise- loud noise and vibrations is caused
by the grouting process.

Instruments needed:
- Air Compressor
- Cement mixture
- Grout
- Grout mixer
- Grout pumps
HOW IS GROUTING RELATED TO CIVIL ENGINEERING?
1. GROUND WATER – ground water is one of the major
concerns for civil engineers since ground water sips right
through floors and different infrastructure that will eventually
lead to the decrease of strength of infrastructures.
2. INCREASING LOAD BEARING – The goal of every civil
engineer is to always increase every infrastructure’s load
bearing and to create everything very stable.
3. STRUCTURAL WORKS- since grouting increases load
bearing and providing a more stable result, it is also included
in the field of civil engineers and a useful skill and knowledge
to be used in this field.
4. FOUNDATION – grouting increases the stability of any
foundation since it major goal is to sip right through any
space and provide a more stable foundation.