Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

S.Y. 2022-2023

GROUP 2

“MINERALOGY”

Leader:
Advincula, Jhosua F.

Members:
Avilles, Royette
Besa, Dan Robert A.
Castillo, Mark Ansel L.
Dela Rosa, Hans Micko
Fajardo, Ranz
Jose, Lhord Franz
Mas, Ryza mae
Newton, John Tuscano
Perez, Alexa
Sanchez , Dgillian Veronica

Professor:
Mrs. Rosel Verdadero Babalcon
 MINERALOGY
It is a branch of geology that focuses on the analysis of the chemical composition,
crystal structure, and physical characteristics of minerals and other mineralized
artifacts, particularly their optical qualities. Mineralogy-specific research includes
examinations of the origin and development of minerals as well as their
classification, distribution, and uses.
In addition, according to the last discussion, it deals with the study of minerals.
Minerals are basic units with different rocks and ores of the earth are made up of.
Details of the mode of formation, composition, occurrence, types, association,
properties used, etc. of minerals form the subject matter of mineralogy.

Georgius Agricula
Known as ‘The Father of Mineralogy’ , was born on March 24, 1494, Glauchau,
Saxony (Germanydied). Died in November 21, 1555, Chemnitz. He provided the
foundations for the study of the Earth (and its rocks, minerals, and fossils), in a
systematic, recorded, way. Agricula spent a lot of time studying and observing
mining operations. His famous books about minerals are De Re Metallica , De
natura fossilium , and De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum

IMPORTANCE OF MINERALOGY TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Mineral properties are just as important as properties of construction materials.
Construction materials for general purpose buildings are supposed to perform for a
period of at least 50 years, (unless explicitly designed for alternative age or the
purpose is explicitly defined). Corrosion is a grave factor which most engineers
overlook/undermine. The basic chemistry between atmospheric gases and concrete
surfaces/exposed steel surfaces is very crucial.

❖ ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY OF

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS

SYMMETRY
Observing the symmetry of a crystal is often a way to distinguish one mineral
from another. Symmetry is a fundamental property of crystalline solids' atom
arrangements that is used in crystallography. It is used describe crystals, find
recurring elements in molecules, and to make almost all calculations and data
collection easier. The majority of symmetry types in crystallography can be
explained in terms of an apparent movement of the object, such as a rotation or
translation. These apparent movements are called symmetry operation. The locations
where the symmetry operations occur such as a rotation axis, a mirror plane, an
inversion center, or a translation vector are described as symmetry elements.
There are two distinct methods of describing rotational symmetry operation.
the Hermann-Mauguin nomenclature and Schonflies nomenclature. The Carl
Hermann-Charles Mauguin system is typically used to describe crystals and
crystallographic symmetry. The Arthru Schonflies convention is primarily used to
describe symmetry in discrete molecules, in optical spectroscopy, and in quantum
mechanics.

What is a crystal structure?

Crystal Structure is obtained by attaching atoms, groups of atoms or
molecules. This structure develops as a result of the constituent particles' inherent
tendency to arrange themselves in symmetrical patterns. Crystals are defined as
solids that have an atomic structure with long-range, 3-dimensional order. A lot of
crystals have one or more directions that can be cleanly cut. The majority of the time,
samples that are inherently spherical or have a conchoidal fracture pattern are
characterized as having no apparent, long-range 3-D order. Even while the crystals
may vary in size, when you examine numerous crystals made of the same substance,
you will quickly see that they all have the same habit or shape. Particularly, there
will be similar angles between specific pairs of faces in distinct crystals. Nicholas
Steno made this observation for the first time in 1669, and it later came to be known
as the law of constancy of interfacial angles. Steno’s law states that the angles
between two corresponding faces on the crystals of any solid chemical or mineral
species are constant and are characteristic of the species. It is measured between
lines drawn perpendicular to each face. No matter how big or small, where they are
found, or whether they are man-made or natural, any two crystals are subject to the
law. The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes this repeating
pattern is the unit cell of the structure.
UNIT CELLS
All crystalline minerals fit into one of the thirty-
two crystal classes that are spread throughout
seven different crystal systems. A crystal can be
represented diagrammatically by an orderly
stacking of unit cells, the smallest component of
a crystal lattice. It is the simplest repeating unit
in a crystal structure. A unit cell is the building
block of the crystal structure and it also explains
in detail the entire crystal structure and symmetry
with the atom positions along with its principal
axes. Each unit cell is defined in terms of lattice points. Lattice constants or lattice
parameters are the length, edges of major axes, and angle between unit cells. Each
point group corresponds to one of the possible combinations of rotations, reflections,
inversions, and improper rotations; with the inclusion of translational elements, 230
space groups are produced.

CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
Crystal systems describes the classes of crystals, space group and lattices.
Crystals and space groups are grouped into seven crystal systems based on their
point groups. The Seven Crystal Systems is a method for classifying crystals based
on their atomic structure and lattice. The atomic lattice is a series of atoms that are
organized in a symmetrical pattern. With the help of the lattice, the appearance and
physical properties of a stone will be determined leading to identifying on which
crystal system they belong to.
 THE SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEM

Triclinic System - It is the most unsymmetrical crystal system.

In the triclinic system, all the axes are different lengths. None of
them meet at 90º. Based on the three inclined angles the various
forms of crystals are in the paired faces. Labradorite, Amazonite,
Kyanite, Rhodonite, Aventurine Feldspar, and Turquoise are a
few examples of common triclinic systems.

Kyanite Labradorite Amazonite Rhodonite Aventurine

Feldspar

Monoclinic System – Monoclinic System has three axes, two

of which are at right angles to one another and one of which
is inclined. All these three axes vary in sizes. Minerals that
form in the monoclinic system include azurite, brazilianite,
crocoite, datolite, diopside, jadeite, lazulite, malachite,
orthoclase feldspars, staurolite, sphene, and spodumene.

Lazulite Malachite Brazilianite Crocoite Datolite Diopside

Datolite Azurite Orthoclase Staurolite Sphene Spodumene

Feldspars

Jadeite

Orthorhombic System - In this system there are three axes, all

of which meet at 90º to each other but it has different lengths.
Based on their Rhombic structure the orthorhombic system
includes various crystal shapes namely pyramids, double
pyramids, rhombic pyramids, and pinacoids. Some common
orthorhombic crystals include Topaz, Tanzanite, Iolite, Zoisite,
Danburite and more.
 Topaz Tanzanite Iolite Zoisite Danburite

Hexagonal System – In hexagonal systems, crystals have six

sides. The three angles 1, 2, and 3 are all contained in single
plane called basal plane and are at 120 degrees. These three
are equal in length and meet at 60º to each other. Crystal
shapes of hexagonal systems include Double Pyramids,
Double-Sided Pyramids, and Four-Sided Pyramids. Examples
include sugilite, apatite, beryl, and cancrinite.’

Sugilite Apatite Beryl Cancrinite

Trigonal System - Mineralogists sometimes divide the

hexagonal system into two crystal systems, the hexagonal and
the trigonal, based on their external appearance. At the base of
a hexagonal system (ross-section of a prism), there will be six
sides. In the trigonal system (base cross-section) there will be
three sides. Crystal shapes in a trigonal system include three-
sided pyramids, Scalenohedral and Rhombohedra. Some
typical examples include Ruby, Quartz, Calcite, Agate, Jasper,
Tiger’s Eyes and more.

Ruby Quartz Calcite Agate Jasper Tiger’s Eye

Tetragonal System - The tetragonal system also has three

axes that all meet at 90º. The length of the primary axis might
be either short or long. The two axes are parallel and have the
same length. Tetragonal crystals can be found in trapezohedra,
pyrite, double and eight-sided pyramids, four-sided prisms,
and other geometries based on their rectangular core structure.
Cubic System - The isometric or cubic system of crystals is
the first and most basic. The lengths of all three angles are
equal and they connect at right angles. Because of the equality
of the axes, minerals in the cubic system are singly refractive
or isotropic. All garnets, diamond, fluorite, gold, lapis lazuli,
pyrite, silver, sodalite, sphalerite, and spinel are examples of
minerals that develop in an isometric system.

Diamond Flourite Gold Lapis Lazuli Pyrite

Sphalerite Spinel Silver Sodalite

❖ PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

TRIVIA:
Minerals generally named on basis of Physical property (magnetic
=magnetite), predominant element (Cr =Chromite, Ba =Barite), Locality (Franklin,
New Jersey =Franklinite) and, Colour (Albus (L.white)=Albite)

Physical properties of minerals

- In most circumstances, distinguishing physical characteristics of minerals can be
used to determine the its identity. Most minerals have distinct physical
characteristics that can be used to identify and categorize them, including hardness,
luster, color, streak, specific gravity, cleavage, fracture, and tenacity.

Physical Properties of Minerals as Identifying Tools

Isotropism -Minerals are categorized based on their physical characteristics, which
might vary depending on the direction.
Anisotropic - The mechanical and physical characteristics of a single crystal can
vary with orientation. Our models of the crystalline structure show that atoms should
be able to slide over one another or distort in respect to one another more easily in
some directions than others. An anisotropic material is one whose characteristics
change depending on the crystallographic orientation
Isotropic - Alternately, a material is said to be isotropic if its qualities are the same
in all directions. Before any processing (deformation) of the material is done, the
grain orientations of many polycrystalline materials are random. As a result, even if
the individual grains are anisotropic, the material as a whole is isotropic because the
disparities in properties tend to average out. An anisotropic material is one that has
grains that are typically deformed and stretched in one or more directions throughout
the formation process. We'll talk about material formation later, but for now, let's
continue our discussion of crystalline structure at the atomic level.

Polymorphism -The atomic structure, bonding forces, and chemical makeup of

minerals all have a direct bearing on their physical characteristics. The type of
elements and the spacing between them in a crystalline structure affect bonding
forces, which are electrical forces that exist between atoms and ions. This means that
multiple crystal structures can be seen in minerals with the same chemical
composition (as a function of changes in P & T or both). Polymorphism is the term
for the phenomenon of materials having diverse physical properties due to their
crystallization in various symmetry systems. It is claimed that certain minerals are
polymorphous. Depending on how many mineral species are present in a group, they
may be dimorphic, trimorphic, or polymorphic.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1. Hardness
➢ One of the most helpful characteristics for classifying minerals is their
hardness, or capacity to withstand being scratched. The ability of one
mineral to scratch another mineral determines its hardness.
➢ Federick Mohs- A German mineralogist used a group of ten common
minerals to create a hardness scale. The minerals are arranged on the scale
in ascending order of hardness. Any mineral with a lower number will
scratch any higher-numbered mineral.
2. Luster
➢ A mineral reflects light by having luster. The two main categories of luster
are described by the labels metallic and nonmetallic.
o Metallic luster: strictly pertains to opaque minerals, where
the surface totally reflects light. The majority of ore minerals
with a high metal concentration have a metallic sheen. Gal,
Mat, Pyt, etc. Sub-metallic, imperfect metallic shine.

o Non-metallic luster: Non-metallic luster is the collective name

for various additional luster kinds. It may be dazzling or dim
where there is poor reflection, which is brought on by light
scattering from the mineral surface.
3. Color
➢ The color of a mineral is among its most glaring characteristics. When
recognizing a mineral, color should be taken into account, but it should
never serve as the primary identifying feature.
➢ The properties of color are used to classify minerals into three primary
categories: idiochromatic, allochromatic, and pseudochro-matic.

o Idiochromatic- are "self colored" as a result of their

composition. The mineral's hue is a consistent and predictable
feature. Examples include the stones green Malachite, red
Cinnabar, and blue Azurite.

o Allochromatic- are "other colored" due to trace impurities in

their composition or defects in their structure. In this case, the
color is a variable and unpredictable property of the mineral.
Examples are the blue in Amazonite (orthoclase), yellow in
Heliodor (spodumene) and the rose in rose quartz.

o Pseudochromatic- are "false colored" due to tricks in light

diffraction. In these cases, color is variable but a unique
property of the mineral. Examples are the colors produced by
precious opal and the shiller reflections of labradorite.
4. Streak
➢ The color of the powdered mineral is known as the streak, and this color is
typically more helpful for identification than the color of the entire mineral
sample. A streak will appear if you rub the mineral across a streak plate. The
unglazed back of a white porcelain bathroom or kitchen tile can be used to
create a streak plate. Because they are harder than the streak plate, some
minerals won't streak.
➢ Example is distinguishing Gold (yellow streak), and Chalcopyrite (black
streak).

5. Specific Gravity
➢ Specific gravity is the ratio between the mass (weight) of a mineral and the
mass (weight) of an equal volume of water. A mineral's specific gravity (SG)
can be determined by dividing its weight in air by the weight of an equal
volume of water. For instance, quartz with a density of 2.65 is 2.65 times as
heavy as the same volume of water.
➢ SG= mineral mass/water mass
➢ Water has a specific gravity of 1.0. If a mineral has a specific gravity of 2.7,
it is 2.7 times heavier than water. Minerals with a specific gravity under 2
are considered light, between 2 and 4.5 average, and greater than 4.5 heavy.
Most minerals with a metallic luster are heavy. The specific gravity may
slightly vary within a mineral because of impurities present in the minerals
structure.
6. Cleavage
➢ The way in which a mineral breaks along smooth flat planes is called
cleavage. These breaks occur along planes of weakness in the mineral's
structure. However, if a mineral breaks along an irregular surface, it
does not have cleavage.
➢ Quality of Cleavage:
o Quality of cleavage can be categorized into five qualities:
▪ Perfect
▪ Good
▪ Poor
▪ Indiscernible (Indistinct)
▪ None
➢ Minerals with perfect cleavage will cleave without leaving any rough
surfaces; a full, smooth plane is formed where the crystal broke.
Minerals with good cleavage also leave smooth surfaces, but often
leave over minor residual rough surfaces. On minerals with poor
cleavage, the smooth crystal edge is not very visible, since the rough
surface is dominant. If a mineral exhibits cleavage, but it so poor that it
is hardly noticeable, it has "indiscernible" cleavage. Minerals with no
cleavage never exhibit any cleavage, thus broken surfaces are fractured
and rough.

7. Fracture
➢ If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along
random directions called fracture
o Conchoidal: smooth fracture (Qua,glass )
o Fibrous and splintery: sharp pointed fibers (Asbestos,
Serpentine),

o Uneven or irregular: rough and irregular surfaces,

o Even: more or less smooth surfaces, may resemble cleavage,

o Hackly: jagged fractures with very sharp edges (Mat).

8. Tenacity
➢ Tenacity describes the reaction of a mineral to stress such as crushing,
bending, breaking, or tearing. Certain minerals react differently to each
type of stress. Since tenacity is composed of several reactions to various
stresses, it is possible for a mineral to have more than one type of
tenacity. The different forms of tenacity are:

o Brittle - Mineral crushes to angular fragments (quartz).

o Malleable - Mineral can be modified in shape without breaking

and can be flattened to a thin sheet (copper, gold).

o Sectile - Mineral can be cut with a knife into thin shavings

(talc).

o Flexible - Mineral bends but doesn't regain its shape once

released (selenite, gypsum).
 o Elastic - Mineral bends and regains its original shape when
released (muscovite and biotite mica).

9. Other Diagnostic Characteristics

➢ Other characteristics may be useful in identifying some minerals:

o Transparency - Objects are visible when viewed through a

mineral.

o Translucency - Light, but not an image, is transmitted through

a mineral.

o Opaqueness - No light is transmitted, even on the thinnest

edges.
o Taste - Taste can be used to help identify some minerals, such
as halite (salt).

o Acid reaction - Object reacts to hydrochloric acid. The most

distinguishing characteristic of calcite is that it effervesces
when hydrochloric acid is applied. Dolomite shows a reaction
on a freshly broken or powdered surface. Testing for calcite,
limestone, or dolomite calls for 10% hydrochloric acid, but
strong white vinegar can be substituted for the acid.

▪ Example: Acid test is used to test gold with acid

concentrates. Gold is a noble metal and is resistant to
change by acid, corrosion, or oxidation. The acid test is
applied to rub any colored gold item on a black stone
which will leave a visible mark. By applying aqua fortis,
this mark is tested known as nitric acid which, except gold,
dissolves the mark of all colored gold items. Otherwise, it
dissolves if the remaining marks are tested by applying
aqua regia (nitric acid and hydrochloric acid).

o Magnetism - Magnetism is a distinguishing characteristic of

magnetite.
o Crystal shape - Cubic, rhombohedral (tilted cube), hexagonal
(six-sided), etc.
 ❖ Study of Rock-forming Minerals

What is a rock?
the solid mineral material forming part of the surface of the earth and other
similar planets, exposed on the surface or underlying the soil or oceans.

How rocks are formed?

Through the process of erosion, these fragments are removed from their source and
transported by wind, water, ice, or biological activity to a new location. Once the
sediment settles somewhere, and enough of it collects, the lowest layers become
compacted so tightly that they form solid rock.
Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance which
is usually solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature and inorganic.
There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are
formed from combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as “rock-forming
minerals”. The rock-forming minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas,
olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.

Here are are some examples of rock forming minerals:

Feldspars - Feldspar is the name applied to

a group of minerals that is the second most
common of all the minerals. All feldspars
are composed of aluminum, silicon, and
oxygen combined with varying amounts of
one or more metals, particularly potassium,
sodium, and calcium. Feldspars have a
hardness of 6, have a smooth, glassy or
pearly luster, and show good cleavages
along two planes at nearly right angles to
each other. Specific gravity is about 2.6. The streak is white, but the color of the
mineral is highly variable. Potassium feldspars (or K-feldspars) contain potassium,
and color is commonly pink to reddish, but otherwise white, gray, yellowish, or pale
green (amazonite variety). Plagioclase feldspars contain varying amounts of calcium
and/or sodium, and color is commonly white or gray. A diagnostic feature is fine
lines or striations seen with a hand lens on cleavage faces. It is also is used as flux
for glass and ceramic manufacture, abrasives, and fillers in paint and plastics.
Feldspar is an incredibly abundant mineral. It has been found on the moon and in
some meteorites. It also makes up roughly 60% of the Earth’s crust. Feldspars are
found in every section of the rock cycle. Many feldspars are igneous as they
commonly precipitate out in magma as it cools. Feldspars are essential minerals in
most crystalline igneous rocks. Their decomposition products are clay minerals that
are present in most soils. In Illinois, relatively small feldspar crystals can be found
associated with quartz and other minerals in granite and gneiss boulders, and larger
crystals occur in some pebbles in glacial drift.

How Feldspars Mineral transformed?

Feldspars transform though hydrolysis —to form clay minerals plus some ions in
solution. In other cases, the minerals dissolve completely, and their components go
into solution. For example, calcite (CaCO3) is soluble in acidic solutions.

The general information of Feldspar:

Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate
Chemical Formula: KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8
Streak: White
Mohs Hardness: 6-6.5
Crystal System: triclinic, monoclinic
Color: pink, white, gray, brown
Luster Vitreous
Fracture conchoidal, uneven
The top feldspars producing countries are Turkey, India and Italy.

Quartz - is one of the most famous minerals

on the earth. It occurs in essentially all
mineral environments, and is the crucial
constituent of many rocks. It is likewise the
maximum varied of all minerals, taking place
in all distinct habits, and colorings. There are
more range names given to Quartz than any
other mineral.It is the maximum abundant
and widely allotted mineral determined at
Earth’s surface. It is abundant all over the
arena. In any temperatures. It is abundant in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. It is highly resistant to both mechanical and chemical weathering. This
durability makes it the dominant mineral of mountaintops and the primary
constituent of seaside, river, and wilderness sand. It is ubiquitous, wide and durable.
Mineral deposits are determined at some stage in the world. Quartz is one of the
most common minerals in the Earth’s crust. As a mineral name, quartz refers to a
specific chemical compound (silicon dioxide, or silica, SiO2), having a specific
crystalline form (hexagonal). It is found in all forms of rock: igneous, metamorphic
and sedimentary. Quartz is physically and chemically resistant to weathering. When
quartz-bearing rocks become weathered and eroded, the grains of resistant quartz are
concentrated in the soil, in rivers, and on beaches. The white sands typically found
in river beds and on beaches are usually composed mainly of quartz, with some white
or pink feldspar as well.

How Quartz transformed?

With the temperatures above 867 °C (1,593 °F), beta-quartz changes into tridymite,
but the transformation is very slow because bond breaking takes place to form a
more open structure. At very high pressures alpha-quartz transforms into coesite and,
at still higher pressures, stishovite. Such phases have been observed in impact
craters.

The general information of Quartz:

Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate
Chemical Formula: SiO2
Streak: White
Mohs Hardness: 7
Crystal System: trigonal
Color: Pure quartz is clear. Color variance due to impurities: purple (amethyst),
white (milky quartz), black (smoky quartz), pink (rose quartz) and yellow or orange
(citrine).
Luster: vitreous, waxy, dull
Fracture: conchoidal

The top quartz producing countries are China, Japan and Russia.
 Garnet - is the name used for a large group of rock-
forming minerals. Theseminerals share a common
crystal structure and a generalized chemical
composition of X3Y2(SiO4)3. In that composition, "X"
can be Ca, Mg, Fe2+ or Mn2+, and "Y" can be Al, Fe3+,
Mn3+, V3+ or Cr3+.

These minerals are found throughout the world in

metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks. Most
garnet found near Earth's surface forms when a
sedimentary rock with a high aluminum content, such
as shale, is subjected to heat and pressure intense enough to produce schistor gneiss.
Garnet is also found in the rocks of contact metamorphism, subsurface magma
chambers, lava flows, deep-source volcanic eruptions, and the soils and sediments
formed when garnet-bearing rocks are weathered and eroded. The most commonly
encountered minerals in the garnet group include almandine, pyrope, spessartine,
andradite, grossular, and uvarovite. They all have a vitreous luster, a transparent-to-
translucent diaphaneity, a brittle tenacity, and a lack of cleavage. They can be found
as individual crystals, stream-worn pebbles, granular aggregates, and massive
occurrences. Their chemical composition, specific gravity, hardness, and colors are
listed below.

How Garnet transformed?

It is usually composed primarily of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica. When
granite is subjected to intense heat and pressure, it changes into a metamorphic rock
called gneiss.

The general information of Garnet:

Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate
Chemical Formula: X3Y2(SiO4)3 (Where X is often Ca or Mg, and Y is often Al
or Fe)
Streak: White
Mohs Hardness: 6.5-7.5
Crystal System: Isometric (meaning equality in dimension. For example, a cube,
octahedron, or dodecahedron)
Color: Generally brown, virtually all colors, blue very rare
Luster: Vitreous, resinous
Fracture: Conchoidal, uneven
The countries that produces the most garnet are Canada, Brazil and mali.

Augite is a rock-forming minerals that commonly

occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous rocks such
as basalt, gabbro, andesite, and diorite. It is found in
these rocks throughout the world, wherever they
occur. Augite is also found in ultramafic rocks and
in some metamorphic rock that form under high
temperatures. Augite has a chemical composition of

(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6 with many paths of

solid solution.
Commonly associated minerals include orthoclase, plagioclase, olivine,
and hornblende. Augite is the most common pyroxene mineral and a member of the
clinopyroxene group. Some people use the names "augite" and "pyroxene"
interchangeably, but this usage is strongly discouraged. There are a large number of
pyroxene minerals, many of which are distinctly different and easy to identify.
Augite, diopside, jadeite, spodumene and hypersthene are just a few of the distinctly
different pyroxene minerals. Augite is usually green, black, or brown in color with
a translucent to opaque diaphaneity. It usually exhibits two distinct cleavage
directions that intersect at slightly less than 90 degrees. A hand lens is often needed
to properly observe the cleavage, especially in fine-grained rocks. Light reflecting
from cleavage surfaces and crystal faces of augite produces a vitreous luster, while
light striking other surfaces produces a dull luster. Augite has a Mohs Hardness of
5.5 to 6. Its specific gravity of 3.2 to 3.6 is higher than most other minerals in the
rocks in which it occurs.

How Augite transformed?

An increase in magma water vapor and a decrease in temperature transforms augite
into hornblende.

The general information of Augite:

Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Pyroxene
Chemical Formula: 8[(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6]
Streak: Light green to colorless
Mohs Hardness: 5-6
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: Black, brown, greenish, violet-brown; in thin section, colorless to gray
Luster: Vitreous and dull
Fracture: Ranges from splintery to uneven
You can find augite anywhere in the world.

Hornblende is a field and classroom name used

for a group of dark-colored amphibole minerals
found in many types of
igneous and metamorphicrocks. These
minerals vary in chemical composition but are all
double-chain inosilicates with very similar
physical properties. A generalized composition for
the hornblende group is shown below.

(Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,F)2

Note that calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, silicon, fluorine and
hydroxyl can all vary in abundance. This creates a huge number of compositional
variants. Chromium, titanium, nickel, manganese, and potassium can also be part of
the complex composition and further indicates the generalization of the formula
given above.hornblende is a name used for a number of dark-colored amphibole
minerals that are compositional variants with similar physical properties. These
minerals cannot be distinguished from one another without laboratory analysis. A
small list of the hornblende minerals is given below with their chemical
compositions.
How Hornblende transformed?
At constant pressure of about 2kb, temperature decrease to near 950°C will cause
crystallization of hornblende to begin. If this is the first mineral to crystallize, this
curve also defines the maximum liquidus temperature for the system.

The general information of Hornblende:

Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate
Chemical Formula: Double chain SiO4 with other elements
Color: Generally dark black, sometimes brown
The countries with the most deposits of Hornblende are Norway, Sweden and Italy.

Biotite - is a name used for a large group of

black mica minerals that are commonly found
inigneous and metamorphic rocks. These
include annite, phologopite, siderophyllite,
fluorophlogopite, fluorannite, eastonite, and
many others. These micas vary in chemical
composition but are all sheet
silicate minerals with very similar physical
properties.

A generalized chemical composition for the

biotite group is:

K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2

The name "biotite" is used in the field and in entry-level geology courses because
these minerals generally cannot be distinguished without optical, chemical, or x-ray
analysis.Biotite is a rock-forming minerals found in a wide range of crystalline
igneous rocks such as granite, diorite, gabbro, periodate, and pegmatite. It also
forms under metamorphic conditions when argillaceous rocks are exposed to heat
and pressure to form schist and gneiss. Although biotite is not very resistant to
weathering and transforms into clay minerals, it is sometimes found in sediments
and sandstones.

How Biotite transform?

Biotite is black magnesium/iron-based mica of low commercial value. It appears in

the form of thin sheets which generally range from 0.003 mm to 0.1 mm in thickness.
Biotite first alters to interstratified biotiteto vermiculite in which the vermiculite is
hydroxy-Al interlayered. The kaolinization of biotite extends throughout the grain,
the pseudomorphs retaining the morphology of the biotite precursor but having the
optical and structural properties of kaolinite.

The general information of Biotite:

Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Mica
Chemical Formula: K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
Streak: White
Mohs Hardness: 2.5-3
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: Black
Luster: Vitreous, may be pearly
Fracture: Micaceous
You can find biotite in the United States of America, Canada and Norway.

Muscovite - is the most common mineral of

the mica family. It is an important rock-
forming mineral present in igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Like
other micas it readily cleaves into thin
transparent sheets. Muscovite sheets have a
pearly to vitreous luster on their surface. If
they are held up to the light, they are
transparent and nearly colorless, but most
have a slight brown, yellow, green, or rose-
color tint. The ability of muscovite to split
into thin transparent sheets - sometimes up to several feet across - gave it an early
use as window panes. In the 1700s it was mined for this use from pegmatites in the
area around Moscow, Russia. These panes were called "muscovy glass" and that
term is thought to have inspired the mineral name "muscovite”. Sheet muscovite is
an excellent insulator, and that makes it suitable for manufacturing specialized parts
for electrical equipment. Scrap, flake, and ground muscovite are used as fillers and
extenders in a variety of paints, surface treatments, and manufactured products. The
pearlescent luster of muscovite makes it an important ingredient that adds "glitter"
to paints, ceramic glazes, and cosmetics. Muscovite is easily identified because its
perfect cleavage allows it to be split into thin, flexible, elastic, colorless, transparent
sheets with a pearly to vitreous luster. It is the only common mineral with these
properties.

How Muscovite transformed?

Muscovite transforms into kaolinite through the intergrowths of two phases, mica
and kaolinite. A degradation series, muscovite → mica/montmorillonite →
montmorillonite → kaolinite also is observed

The general information of Muscovite:

Type: Mineral
Mineral Classification: Silicate
Chemical Formula: Lepidolite K(Li,Al)3(AlSi3O10) (O,OH, F)2, ; biotite K(Mg,
Fe)3(AlSi3O10) (OH)2; phlogopite KMg3(AlSi3O10) (OH)2; muscovite
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Mohs Hardness: 2.5-4 (lepidolite); 2.5-3 biotite; 2.5-3 phlogopite; 2-2.5 muscovite
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Color: purple, rosy, silver, gray (lepidolite); dark green, brown, black (biotite);
yellowish-brown, green white (phlogopite); colorless, transparent (muscovite)
Luster: pearly to vitreous
The countries with the most Muscovite deposits are India, Pakistan and Brazil.
 Olivine- The mineral olivine is
a magnesium iron silicate with the
chemical formula (Mg,Fe)2SiO4. It is a
type of nesosilicate or orthosilicate. The
primary component of the Earth's upper
mantle,[9] it is a common mineral in
Earth's subsurface, but weathers quickly
on the surface. For this reason, olivine
has been proposed as a good candidate
for accelerated weathering to sequester
carbon dioxide from the Earth's oceans
and atmosphere, as part of climate
change mitigation. Olivine also has
many other historical uses, such as
the gemstone peridot (or chrysolite), as
well as industrial applications
like metalworking processes. One of the
leading producers of olivine is Norway.

How Olivine transformed?

With increasing depth, olivine (α-phase) transforms to wadsleyite (β-phase), then to
the spinel structure (γ-phase) and then to perovskite + magnesio-wüstite. These
transformations occur at P and T conditions that match the 410 km, 520 km and 660
km discontinuities and are viewed as the cause of the seismic jumps

The general information of Olivine:

Category: Nesosilicate, Olivine group, Olivine series

Formula : (repeating unit),(Mg,Fe)2SiO4
IMA symbol: Ol[1]
Strunz classification: 9.AC.05
Crystal system: Orthorhombic
Space group: Pbnm (no. 62)
Color: Yellow to yellow-green
Crystal habit: Massive to granular
Cleavage: Poor
Fracture: Conchoidal
Tenacity: brittle
Mohs scale hardness: 6.5–7
Luster: Vitreous
Streak: colorless or white
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Specific gravity: 3.2–4.5[2][3][4][5]
Optical properties: Biaxial (+)
Refractive index
nα = 1.630–1.650
nβ = 1.650–1.670
nγ = 1.670–1.690
Birefringence δ = 0.040
 Calcite - calcite, the most common form of
natural calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a widely
distributed mineral known for the beautiful
development and great variety of its crystals. The
primary producers of calcite are Canada, the
United States, Britain, China, Namibia, Pakistan,
Belgium, Russia, Czech Republic, Slovakia,
Peru, Brazil, Iceland, and Romania. Many of the
finest colored specimens come from Mexico.

How Calcite transformed?

When calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium,
which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes. The
solubility of calcium carbonate ( CaCO 3) is controlled largely by the amount of
dissolved carbon dioxide ( CO 2) in the water. It will forms a Limestone.

The general information of Calcite:

Chemical Classification: Carbonate

Color : Usually white but also colorless, gray, red, green, blue, yellow, brown,
orange
Streak: White
Luster: Vitreous
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent
Cleavage: Perfect, rhombohedral, three directions
Mohs Hardness: 3
Specific Gravity: 2.7
Diagnostic Properties: Rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces
weakly in dilute HCl, curved crystal faces and frequent twinning
Chemical Composition: CaCO3
Crystal System: Trigonal
Uses: Acid neutralization, a low-hardness abrasive, soil conditioner, heated for the
production of lime

Pyroxene - Pyroxenes are the most significant

and abundant group of rock-forming
ferromagnesian silicates. They are found in
almost every variety of igneous rock and also
occur in rocks of widely different
compositions formed under conditions of
regional and contact metamorphism. One
country where you can find pyroxene is
Finland.

How Pyroxene transformed?

A speculative model is also presented whereby the occurrence of the garnet-

pyroxene transformation in blocks of eclogite which are sinking through the mantle
provides a mechanism for deep-focus earthquakes.
The general information of Pyroxene:

Chemical Classification: A single chain inosilicate

Color: Dark green, black, brown
Streak: White to gray to very pale green. Augite is often brittle, breaking into
splintery fragments on the streak plate. These can be observed with a hand lens.
Rubbing the debris with a finger produces a gritty feel with a fine white powder
beneath.
Luster: Vitreous on cleavage and crystal faces. Dull on other surfaces.
Diaphaneity: Usually translucent to opaque. Rarely transparent.
Cleavage: Prismatic in two directions that intersect at slightly less than 90 degrees.
Mohs Hardness: 5.5 to 6
Specific Gravity: 3.2 to 3.6
Diagnostic Properties: Two cleavage directions intersecting at slightly less than 90
degrees. Green to black color. Specific gravity.
Chemical Composition: A complex silicate. (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Uses: No significant commercial use.

Chlorite - chlorite, widespread group of layer

silicate minerals occurring in both macroscopic and
clay-grade sizes; they are hydrous aluminum
silicates, usually of magnesium and iron. The name,
from the Greek for “green,” refers to chlorite's
typical colour. You can find chlorite in Poland.

How Chlorite transformed?

Formation of the iron-rich chlorite in the lignite overburden shales probably resulted
from interactions between aluminous smectite and solutions rich in ferrous Fe.
Exposure of the overburden shales to oxidizing conditions may result in the
transformation of chlorite to smectite with precipitation of released Fe.

The general information of Chlorite:

Chemical Classification: Silicate

Color: Various shades of green. Rarely yellow, white, pink, black
Streak: Greenish to greenish gray
Luster: Vitreous, pearly, dull
Diaphaneity: Transparent, translucent, opaque
Cleavage: Perfect in one direction
Mohs Hardness: 2 to 3
Specific Gravity: 2.6 to 3.3
Diagnostic Properties: Color, hardness, foliated appearance, feels slightly greasy
Chemical Composition: A generalized formula: (X,Y)4-6(Si,Al)4O10(OH,O)8
The "X" and "Y" in the formula represent ions, which might include: Fe+2, Fe+3,
Mg+2, Mn+2, Ni+2, Zn+2, Al+3, Li+1, or Ti+4. The composition and physical
properties of chlorites vary as these ions substitute for one another in solid solution.
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Uses: Very few industrial uses. Used as a filler and as a constituent of clay.
 Serpentine - Serpentinite is a rock composed
predominantly of one or more serpentine
group minerals, the name originating from the
similarity of the texture of the rock to that of the
skin of a snake. Serpentinite has been
called serpentine or serpentine rock, particularly
in older geological texts and in wider cultural
settings. The most famous deposits are located in
Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the island of Cyprus,
the Alps, Cuba, and New Caledonia.

How Serpentine transformed?

Serpentinization is a geological low-temperature metamorphic process involves
chemical reactions which convert anhydrous ferromagnesian silicate minerals
(pyroxene, olivine) into hydrous silicate minerals (serpentine) plus some other
possibilities like brucite and magnetite.

The general information of Serpentine:

Chemical Classification: Silicate

Color: Usually various shades of green, but can be yellow, black, white, and other
colors.
Streak: White
Luster: Greasy or waxy
Diaphaneity: Translucent to opaque, rarely transparent
Cleavage: Poor to perfect
Mohs Hardness: Variable between 3 and 6
Specific Gravity: 2.5 to 2.6
Diagnostic Properties: Color, luster, fibrous habit, hardness, slippery feel
Chemical Composition: (Mg,Fe,Ni,Al,Zn,Mn)2-3(Si,Al,Fe)2O5(OH)4
Crystal System: Most serpentine minerals are monoclinic.
Uses: A source of asbestos, architectural stone, ornamental stone, gem material.

Staurolite - a mineral, basic iron aluminum silicate,

Fe2Al2O7(SiO4)4(OH), occurring in brown to black
prismatic crystals, which are often twinned in the form
of a cross. You can find strautolite in Canada; North
Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia, U.S.; Brazil;
Brittany, France; and Switzerland, especially along
the Saint Gotthard Pass

How Staurolite transformed?

Staurolite can alter to chlorite or sericite and to a mixture of clay minerals and iron
oxides during retrograde metamorphism and weathering. Staurolite and kyanite can
be found associated as epitaxial intergrowths, thanks to their closely related crystal
structure.
The general information of Staurolite:

Chemical Classification: Silicate

Color: Usually brown, reddish brown, yellowish brown, brownish black, black, dark
gray
Streak: Colorless (harder than the streak plate)
Luster: Vitreous, sometimes resinous
Diaphaneity: Translucent to opaque, rarely transparent
Cleavage: Poor
Mohs Hardness: 7 to 7.5
Specific Gravity: 3.7 to 3.8
Diagnostic Properties: Color, six-sided crystals that are frequently twinned, usually
found in schist and gneiss with muscovite mica and almandine garnet
Chemical Composition: (Fe,Mg)2Al9Si4O23(OH)
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Uses: Little industrial use

Epidote - a lustrous yellow-green crystalline mineral,

common in metamorphic rocks. It consists of
a hydroxyl silicate of calcium, aluminum, and iron.
You can find epidote in Austria.

How Epidote transformed?

Epidote is a very common hydrothermal alteration mineral. This alteration process,

if it happens with feldspars, is known as epidotization.

The general information of Epidote:

Chemical Classification: Silicate

Color: Usually yellowish green to pistachio green, sometimes brownish green to
black
Streak: Colorless
Luster: Vitreous to resinous
Diaphaneity: Transparent to translucent to nearly opaque
Cleavage: Perfect in one direction, imperfect
Mohs Hardness: 6 to 7
Specific Gravity: 3.3 to 3.5
Diagnostic Properties: Color, cleavage, specific gravity
Chemical Composition: Ca2(Al2,Fe)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH)
Crystal System: Monoclinic
Uses: Semiprecious gem.
 Zeolite - Zeolites are microporous,
crystalline aluminosilicate materials commonly
used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. They
mainly consist of silicon, aluminium, oxygen.
These positive ions can be exchanged for others in
the current contacting electrolyte solution. H+
exchanged zeolites are particularly useful as
solid acid catalysts. China is the biggest producer of
zeolite.

How Zeolite transformed?

The heat around 700 °C was sufficient to transform the natural zeolite to amorphous
metazeolite. Indeed, heating the zeolite material at 800 °C was suggested to decrease
performance. It is apparent that the activation of natural zeolite by thermal treatment
results in a wide range of outcomes.

The general information of Zeolite:

Composition: Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.xH2O
Mohs Hardness: 4.0 -5.0
Density: 2.0-2.1 g/ml
Refractive Index: 1.470-1.494
Color: white to reddish tabular monoclinic tectosilicate crystals
Gravity: 2.1 to 2.2.

Did you know?

Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust these are oxygen, silicon,
aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. The composition of
minerals formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the chemistry of the
parent body.
For example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form minerals such as olivine
and pyroxene (as found in basalt). Magma richer in silicon will form more silica-
rich minerals such as feldspar and quartz (as found in granite). It is unlikely that a
mineral will be found in a rock with dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike its own; thus
it is unlikely that andalusite (Al2SiO5) would be found in an aluminium-poor rock
such as a quartzite.
 ❖ Quartz family, Feldspar family, Augite, Hornblende, Biotite,
Muscovite, Calcite, Garnet

Quartz Family
- Quartz is a mineral composed of silicon and
oxygen, with a chemical composition of SiO2. It
is the most abundant mineral in Earth's crust and
is resistant to both chemical and physical
weathering. When rocks weather away, the
residual material usually contains quartz. This is
why the sand at most of the world's beaches is
quartz.

Feldspar Family
- The feldspars are a family of silicate minerals
which occur in igneous rocks. The feldspars are
complex aluminosilicate minerals containing K,
Na, and Ca, with some rarer types rich in Ba.
The structures of these species are very similar.
However, most feldspars crystallize from a melt
in igneous rocks. The structures at high
temperatures are different from those at low
temperatures. Feldspars crystallize from
magma as both intrusive and extrusive igneous
rocks and are also present in many types of
metamorphic rock. Rock formed almost entirely of calcic plagioclase feldspar is
known as anorthosite. Feldspars are also found in many types of sedimentary rocks.

Augite
- Augite is a rock-forming mineral that
commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate
igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro, andesite,
and diorite. It is found in these rocks throughout
the world, wherever they occur. Augite is also
found in ultramafic rocks and in some
metamorphic rocks that form under high
temperatures.
Hornblende
- A common rock-forming mineral found in
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Hornblende is
a field and classroom name used for a group of
dark-colored amphibole minerals found in
many types of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
These minerals vary in chemical composition
but are all double-chain inosilicates with very
similar physical properties.

Biotite
- Biotite is a group of black mica minerals found
in igneous and metamorphic rocks. Biotite is a
name used for a large group of black mica
minerals that are commonly found in igneous
and metamorphic rocks. These include annite,
phlogopite, siderophyllite, fluorophlogopite,
fluorannite, eastonite, and many others. These
micas vary in chemical composition but are all
sheet silicate minerals with very similar
physical properties.

Muscovite
- Muscovite, also called common mica, potash
mica, or isinglass, abundant silicate mineral that
contains potassium and aluminum. Muscovite is
pearlescent, which means it can add additional
shine to certain paints, ceramic glazes and even
cosmetics.
Calcite
- Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most
stable polymorph of calcium carbonate. It is a
very common mineral, particularly as a
component of limestone. Calcite defines
hardness 3 on the Mohs scale of mineral
hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison.

Garnet
- Garnets are a group of silicate minerals that
have been used since the Bronze Age as
gemstones and abrasives. All species of garnets
possess similar physical properties and crystal
forms, but differ in chemical composition.

❖ PROPERTIES, PROCESS FORMATION OF ALL

MINERALS

Process Formation of all Minerals

Physical and chemical condition s include factors such as temperature, pressure,
presence of water, pH, and amount of oxygen available. Time is one of the most
important factors because it takes time for atoms to become ordered. If time is
limited, the mineral grains will remain very small. The presence of water enhances
the mobility of ions and can lead to the formation of larger crystals over shorter time
periods.
Most of the minerals that make up the rocks around us formed through the cooling
of molten rocks, known as magma. At the high temperatures that exist deep within
earth, some geological materials are liquid. As magma rises up through the crust,
either volcanic eruption or by more gradual process, it cools and minerals
crystallized. If the cooling process is rapid (minutes, hours, days, or years), the
components of the minerals will not have time to become ordered and only small
crystals can form before the rock becomes solid. The resulting rock will be fine-
grained (crystals less than 1mm). If the cooling is slow (from decades to millions of
years), the degree of ordering will be higher and relatively large crystals will form.
In some cases, the cooling will be so fast (seconds) that the texture will be glassy,
which means that no crystals at all form.
Minerals form in all geologic environments and thus under a wide range of chemical
and physical conditions, such as varying temperature and pressure. The four main
categories of mineral formation are:

• Igneous, or magmatic - in which minerals crystallize from a melt.

Igneous rocks and minerals solidify from molten rock, called magma below
the Earth’s crust and lava when flowing above ground. These rocks and their mineral
components, presented below, are the result of processes that formed Earth and other
rocky planets. Igneous environments are integral to the recycling of Earth’s crust;
they produce the granite roots of the continental plates and basaltic rocks beneath
the oceans. For those studying our dynamic planet, igneous rocks and minerals are
windows into Earth’s deep processes.
A rock is a collection of minerals. Imagine a rock that becomes so hot it melts.
Many minerals start out in liquids that are hot enough to melt rocks. Magma is
melted rock inside Earth, a molten mixture of substances that can be hotter than
1,000oC. Magma cools slowly inside Earth, which gives mineral crystals time to
grow large enough to be seen clearly. Granite is rock that forms from slowly cooled
magma, containing the minerals quartz (clear), plagioclase feldspar (shiny white),
potassium feldspar (pink), and biotite (black).
 • Sedimentary - in which minerals are the result of sedimentation, a process
whose raw materials are particles from other rocks that have undergone
weathering or erosion.
Earth is always changing. As rocks and minerals become exposed at its
surface, the weathering process changes them through exposure to air, water, ice,
and life. Weathering is often accompanied by erosion, or the transportation of
weathered materials by flowing water, wind, ice, and gravity. Weathering
counteracts Earth’s dynamic building processes and, over millions of years, has
produced the clays, soils, and salts critical to the survival of life on Earth—including
our own.
Water on Earth, such as the water in the oceans, contains chemical elements
mixed into a solution. Various processes can cause these elements to combine to
form solid mineral deposits.
When water evaporates, it leaves behind a solid precipitate of minerals. When the
water in glass A evaporates, the dissolved mineral particles are left behind.

Water can only hold a certain amount of dissolved minerals and salts. When
the amount is too great to stay dissolved in the water, the particles come together to
form mineral solids, which sink. Halite easily precipitates out of water, as does
calcite. Some lakes, such as Mono Lake in California or The Great Salt Lake in Utah,
contain many mineral precipitates.

Tufa towers form when calcium-rich spring water at the bottom of Mono
Lake bubbles up into the alkaline lake. The tufa towers appear when lake level drops.

• Metamorphic - in which new minerals form at the expense of earlier ones

owing to the effects of changing, usually increasing of temperature or pressure
or both on some existing rock type.
 The minerals in the original rock were formed at one set of conditions, but
were then subjected to different conditions of heat, pressure, and H2O abundance in
Earth’s crust. They responded to that change by transforming to become minerals
stable under the new conditions. Metamorphic rocks and minerals record the history
of the dynamic Earth.
When magma erupts onto Earth’s surface, it is called lava. Lava cools much
more rapidly than magma when it is below the surface. In a cooling lava, mineral
crystals do not have time to form and are very small. The chemical composition will
be the same as if the magma cooled slowly. Existing rocks may be heated enough so
that the molecules are released from their structure and can move around. The
molecules may match up with different molecules to form new minerals as the rock
cools. This occurs during metamorphism.

• Hydrothermal - in which minerals are chemically precipitated from hot

solutions within Earth.
Hydrothermal processes require hot water, which dissolves minerals and
transports their components where the water goes, along fractures and through
porous rocks. As the water travels, it cools—or other conditions change—and the
dissolved materials can be deposited in spaces in the surrounding rocks, forming
veins or pockets of minerals.
Magma heats nearby underground water, which reacts with the rocks around
it to pick up dissolved particles. As the water flows through open spaces in the rock
and cools, it deposits solid minerals. The mineral deposits that form when a mineral
fills cracks in rocks are called veins.

Quartz veins formed in this rock

When minerals are deposited in open spaces, large crystals form.

Amethyst formed when large crystals grew in open spaces inside the rock. These
special rocks are called geodes.
The first three processes generally lead to varieties of rocks in which different
mineral grains are closely intergrown in an interlocking fabric. Hydrothermal
solutions, and even solutions at very low temperatures (e.g., groundwater), tend to
follow fracture zones in rocks that may provide open spaces for the chemical
precipitation of minerals from solution. It is from such open spaces, partially filled
by minerals deposited from solutions, that most of the spectacular mineral specimens
have been collected. If a mineral that is in the process of growth (as a result of
precipitation) is allowed to develop in a free space, it will generally exhibit a well-
developed crystal form, which adds to a specimen’s aesthetic beauty. Similarly,
geodes, which are rounded, hollow, or partially hollow bodies commonly found in
limestones, may contain well-formed crystals lining the central cavity. Geodes form
as a result of mineral deposition from solutions such as groundwater.

❖ COAL AND PETROLEUM

COAL AND PETROLEUM
Coal and petroleum are both products of the decomposition of prehistoric plant life
that existed millions of years ago. This decomposing vegetation began to
accumulate, resulting in the formation of peat. Geological processes generated heat
and pressure over time to convert these minerals into coal. These are also called as
fossil fuels.

COAL

Coal formation occurred millions of years ago, where plants completed their life
cycle and wilted. New plants replaced them, they went through a life cycle, and the
entire process repeated itself over the years, resulting in the accumulation of dead
plants on the earth's surface.

This resulted in the formation of a very thick layer of dead decomposed materials
that compressed plant matter and washed away all decayed materials. Over time,
physical and chemical changes occurred as a result of heat and temperature removing
all oxygen from plant layers, leaving only carbon-rich material, culminating in the
creation of coal.
TYPES OF COAL

Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight of carbon.
Coal formed can be of three types depending on the amount of oxygen, carbon and
hydrogen they contain. They are:
• Peat - First stage of transformation and it contains less than 40 to 55
percent carbon. It burns like wood, gives less heat, emits more smoke
and leaves a lot of ash.

• Lignite - aka brown coal, is the lowest grade coal with the least
concentration of carbon. Lignite has a low heating value and a high
moisture content and is mainly used in electricity generation. It contains
40-55 percent of carbon.
• Bituminous - Bituminous coal is a middle rank coal between
subbituminous and anthracite. Bituminous coal usually has a high
heating value and is used in electricity generation and steel making. It
contains 40-80 percent of carbon. It is dense, compact, and is usually
of black color. Its moisture and volatile content is 15 to 40 percent. Its
calorific value is very high due to high proportion of carbon and low
moisture.

• Subbituminous - coal has a lower heating value than bituminous coal.

It is a category of coal which appears as grey-black or dark brown. It
ranges from hard to soft as it represents an intermediate stage between
low quality lignite and higher quality bituminous coal. The carbon
content of sub-bituminous coal varies from 70-76%.

• Anthracite - The highest rank of coal. It is a hard, brittle, and black

lustrous coal, often referred to as hard coal, containing a high
percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. It
contains 80-95 percent of carbon. It ignites slowly and burns with a
short blue flame.
The Philippines has 19 coal districts. The largest total coal resource is estimated at
570 Mmt of subbituminous coal and is located in the Semirara coal district located
on Semirara Island. The smallest coal resource (at 0.7 MMT) is the lignite-
subbituminous coal in the Quirino coal district. The combined lignite and
subbituminous coal resources, using the classification by GCRDD and including
Semirara and Surigao coal districts, are about 1,899.2 MMT, which make up about
84 percent of the total coal resources of the Philippines. The remaining resources are
composed of bituminous and semi-anthracite coal.

PETROLEUM

Petroleum, also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural gas, petroleum
was formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as plants, algae, and
bacteria. Over millions of years of intense heat and pressure, these organic remains
(fossils) transformed into carbon-rich substances we rely on as raw materials for fuel
and a wide variety of products.

FORMATION OF PETROLEUM

The geological conditions that would eventually create petroleum formed millions
of years ago, when plants, algae, and plankton drifted in oceans and shallow seas.
These organisms sank to the seafloor at the end of their life cycle. Over time, they
were buried and crushed under millions of tons of sediment and even more layers of
plant debris. Eventually, ancient seas dried up and dry basins remained, called
sedimentary basins. Deep under the basin floor, the organic material was compressed
between Earth’s mantle, with very high temperatures, and millions of tons of rock
and sediment above. Oxygen was almost completely absent in these conditions, and
the organic matter began to transform into a waxy substance called kerogen. With
more heat, time, and pressure, the kerogen underwent a process called catagenesis,
and transformed into hydrocarbons.

Petroleum reservoirs can be found beneath land or the ocean floor. Their crude oil is
extracted with giant drilling machines. Crude oil can appear very fluid, volatile
liquids and also viscous, semisolid materials. It is usually black or black with a
greenish tinge in color. Sometimes it can be reddish, greenish-yellow, light yellow,
or transparent. Natural gas is a colorless and odorless gas.

PRODUCTS OF PETROLEUM AND THEIR USES

Petroleum products are obtained as a result of refining crude oil in oil refineries.

Gases - Gaseous products obtained from the refinery are hydrogen, fuel gas, ethane,
propane, and butane. Propane and butane are collectively known as liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG), which is a portable and suitable fuel for light industrial use
and domestic heating (cooking).
Gasoline -Gasoline uses include application in internal combustion engines,
commonly used in private and commercial vehicles.

Diesel - It is commonly used in trucks, buses and public transport, locomotives, farm
and heavy equipment. Diesel has greater energy and power density than gasoline.

Kerosene- It is used extensively globally in cooking and space heating. It is also the
basic fuel for modern jet engines.

Fuel oil - It can be used as a power source of lamps, heaters, stoves, engines and
lanterns typically at home in furnaces and boilers. The machinery of farming, mining
or quarrying machinery or even bunkering ships uses fuel oil.
❖ The origin and occurrence of coal and petroleum

Coal -is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is combusted and used to generate
electricity. Mining techniques and combustion are both dangerous to miners and
hazardous to the environment; however, coal accounts for about half of the
electricity generation in the United States.
Petroleum - also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural gas,
petroleum was formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as
plants, algae, and bacteria. Over millions of years of intense heat and pressure,
these organic remains (fossils) transformed into carbon-rich substances we rely
on as raw materials for fuel and a wide variety of products.

COAL PETROLEUM

ORIGIN OF COAL AND PETROLEUM

Coal and petroleum are formed as a result of degradation of ancient plant life
which lived millions of years ago. These dead plant matter started to pile up,
eventually forming a substance called peat. Over time, heat and pressure from
geological processes transformed these materials into coal.
The petroleum industry is first encountered in the archaeological record near Hit
in what is now Iraq. Hit is on the banks of the Euphrates river and is the site of
an oil seep known locally as The Fountains of Pitch. There asphalt was quarried
for use as mortar between building stones as early as 6000 years ago.
Oil and gas had already been used in some capacity, such as in lamps or as a
material for construction, for thousands of years before the modern era, with the
earliest known oil wells being drilled in China in 347 AD.
OCCURRENCE OF COAL AND PETROLEUM
They are obtained in igneous and metamorphic rocks at the cracks, crevices,
faults, or joints. In sedimentary rocks, several minerals like Coal, petroleum, and
some forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of deposition,
accumulation, and concentration for long periods under great heat and pressure.

CHEMICAL STRUCTURE
COAL - As for its chemical composition, coal is a mixture of high-molecular-
weight polycyclic aromatic compounds, such as benzene C6H6, toluene
C6H5CH3, xylene C6H4(CH3)2, naphthalene C10H8, anthracene C14H10,
pyrene C16H10 and their derivatives with high mass fraction of carbon, as well
as of water and volatile substances.
PETROLEUM - Chemically, petroleum consists principally of hydrogen and
carbon, but also contains small percentages of oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and traces
of metals, such as vanadium, cobalt, and nickel. The common organic compounds
include alkanes (paraffins), naphthenes, aromatics, and heterocompounds.

DEPOSITS OF COAL AND PETROLEUM

Three mineable coal areas: Unong, Himalian and Panian, are located in
Semirara island, with the mineable reserves given as 16.70 million tons each,
with a strip ratio of 7.5 m³/ton, 37.50 million tons with a strip ratio of 11.3 m³/ton
and 45.80 million tons with a strip ratio of 8.4 m³/ton, respectively.

About 25 percent is located in the Cagayan Valley in northeastern Luzon

while 13 percent is located in Mindanao. The remaining 10 percent is scattered
in the islands of Cebu, Samar, Mindoro, Negros, Polillo, Batan, and
Catanduanes. The bulk of Philippine coal is sub-bituminous in rank.

The Philippines has only two active petroleum fields: Galoc, an offshore field
in the Northwest Palawan Basin, and Alegria, an onshore field in the Province of
Cebu.
Venezuela is the leading country in terms of oil reserves, with over 304 billion
barrels of oil beneath its surface. Saudi Arabia is a close second with 298
billion, and Canada is third with 170 billion barrels of oil reserves.
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