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    H.C. Tneja 501-1000

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    ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferental Calcutus |485. soled Sao Sia] xd, since 55 + Oas 5-40. Wermast note that since # x «8 xf, thos while evaluating (0%) the onder of vectors @ and 3 must be maintained, Similarly while evaluating “(i51i, the eyce onder of vectors i, 5, and i mustbe maintained, Derivative of a vector function constant in magnitude, or direction only. A vector function changes f either its magnitade changes or its diction changes, or the direction and magnitude both change. ‘We find conditions under which a vector function will remain constant in magnitude, or in direction, or in both. Fiat, lt 8 (9 bea vector with constant magnitude, say [(9| ~ € Then we have B-B=|8HP=2 481) bf ae a Differentiating (81) wat we get SB +0. =0. Since the dot product is commutative this gives 5H 5.8 =o ‘Thus the derivative ofa vector function B(t) of constant magnitude i ether the aro vector o is pependicdar o 6(0. [Next let (bea vector with constant direction and et @ bea unitvectorin that direction, then. Bet ~83) where 9 =| From (8.3), we get ‘becomes, ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 486 Advanced Engineering Mathematics ox = a (85) ‘Thus the derivative ofa vector function ®t) of constant direction is either the 2ero vector or is parallel to Bt). In fact if (8) is constant vector, then 5(t-+ At) = 5(0), for all t which gives tien Bt A800 = 5 or =, 86) In particular, wehave a _g_a_; a5. 4%, 87) wham 7,7 ond fore tha on waco along in yan ar end pct. 8.1.3 Geometrical Interpretation of the Derivative of a Vector Function ‘Let 7() be the position vector of a point P with respect to the origin of reference O. As t varies ‘continuously P traces out acurve C as shown in Fig, 81. Thus a vector function 7(8) represents a curve in space. Parcansipe 9th vectod 7) =:ican T+ eka #]sipsenris en oposite ap ptane wet create gn an pal nn inte tno andy em), we ane soacont, Botan a b= then () epresertan decor radios « (The vector 1) = ai + 2st] represent the parabola y?= der, 10 in the ny plane et and 7+ 7 be the position vecorsof two neighbouring points Pand Qonthiscurve Cas shown in Fig, 82. Then, FG -00 -OP = @ + 87)-7 = 87. z ve Fig Qt ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferental Caicutus [487 Thane dheceslong on PO o6-10,0-7P the dard Ftc henge arveat Tas fo, = © a vector along the tangent tothe curve at P.1f7'(9 + 0, then 7”) iscalled a tangent vector to the curve Cat P because it has the direction of the tangent to Cat point P. The corresponding unit vector fs the ay. anit tn ede ittnget er given by EO, Both?”(f) andii{®) point inthe direction of increasing Hence, their sense depends on the cxiertation of C. ‘Suppose that scalar parameter {is replaced by s, the arc length from any convenient point Aon. the carve upto the point P, and bt AP =s, 7) =# + 6 so that e = FQ In thiscase 4” will bea ‘vector along the tangent at P and \ar| _, a chord PQ fel -ae -ge,SSoroe = 1 Etat ecg eget &2 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION. TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL ACCELERATION In this section we discuss the concepts of velocity and acceleration of a particle, The decomposition ‘of acceleration along the tangent and rormalis of great practical importance. 8.2.1 Velocity and Acceleration 1 the scalar # denotes the time and 7 is the positon vector of a moving particle P, then SE Sn rah aie a a Rain eee & TF on & represents the aeration 5) ofthe particle at P. For example, the vector function 7) =Reos wt! + Resin wtj,w>0 (83) represents a circle of radius R with centre at the origin in the xy-plane. lt describes the motion of a ‘particle P in the counterclockwise sense. The velocity of the particle at P is given by ay = i + Rew cos wt} 80) =F = Rosin wti + Recon wt} ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 488| Advanced Enginoaring Mathomatios 1s magnitude 91 = [2% = Rw 89) isconstant, and the direction i along the tangant to. ‘The angular speed is, fe =m, and the acceleration is (0 = 8 =- Ret conti = Roo? sin wt j =F (8.10) We observe that the acceleration is of constant magritude, | {@| = u?|7| = w?Rand is directed towards the origin. The acceleration it) is called the centripetal axeleration and results ‘from the fact thatthe vdocity vector is changing its direction at a constant rate. 822 Tangential and Normal Accerlerations [Next we study the decomposition of aacderation into a component in the direction of motion, ADVANCED ENGI RING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferental Calculus [495 9. very tetera # 9 40)= a 0+ HD, for iit) =507i +1} - Pk, and 3(t)=sinti - cost}, Find the parametric equation of the tangent line to the curve x= tone Find the unit tangent vector at any point on the curve x= 3cos fy =3sin 2=4t [ind the angle between the tangents tothe curve z= ,y=f,2= Pat t= 31. {A particle moves along the curve x = ¢ y= 2 co 3, x= 2ain 34, where { a the thne. ‘Determine its velocity and acceleration vectors and also the magnitudes af velocity and secdleration at /=0, ‘A pattice moves on the curve x = 27, y=? — 44, z= 3-5, whem f is the ime. Find the components of velecityand acceleration at time !=1 inthe direction 1-3) +2i ‘The positionvecor ofa moving patie atatimet is? = i - Pj + #4t.Find thetangential ard normal camponentsof Rsaceeleration atf=1. 16, The velocity of boat relative towaterisrepresented by3i +4] and thatof water relative tocarthis { ~3 j. Whatisthe velocity of the boat relative tothe earthif i and j represent ‘ne kman hour eset and north respectively? ‘Apperson travelling towards the north-east with a velocity of 6m per hour finds thatthe ‘wind appears toblow from the north but whenbe doubles his speed tseems tocome from direction inclined at an angle trv" 2 to the north of east. Show thatthe actual velocky of the wind is 3 kom. per hour towards the east ty=cos z= tat BRE 8 e n &3 SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS. GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD. DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES. In this section we discuss two kinds of functions: scalar and vector functions and their leds. In fact ‘some ofthe vector fields can be obtained from the scalar fields by applying’ gradient”. This concept is of great practical advantage since comparatively it iseasy to deal witha salar fields, and because of this, gradient finds applications in engineering and physical sciences 83.1 Scalar and Vector Point Functions A parable quantity which depends frit nalue an its postion only, that, upon the co-ordinate ofthe pats ‘ofa region, say (, y, 2) i space, i called a pond function. There are two types of point fanctions, as exphined below. ‘Scalar point function. Let Ebe aregion at each point Ps, y, 2) of which a scalar 6, y 2)is specifed, then we say that is a solar paint function and the region E defined 20, i called a scalar fed The scalar ppoint function does not depend upon the choice of co-ordinate system. tory depends on the point Inthe field. Forexample, the temperature distribution in a medium, the distribution of atmaspheric pressure in space, density of a body are all examples of scalar point functions. G MATHEMATICS 496) Advanced Enginearing Mathematics Vector point function. Let E be a region at each point P(x yz) of which « vector vis speified then we say that 3 is avectr paint furcton and We regon E defined s0is called a vector fd For ‘exampk, the veloaty of a moving fluid at any instant, the gravitation force, or electrical intersity are ll examples of vector point functions. Level surfaces. Let $e, y, 2) be single valued continuous salar pom fant definat at every point Pls, y. 2) ofE. Then the surface 4, , 2)= a constant, defines the equation ofa surface, ands called the ‘koe! surface ofthe function. For example, if (x,y, 2) represents temperature in a medium, then ‘44, y, 2) = c represents a surface on which the temperature is a constant c. Such surfaces are ’ and simularly for other axes, Maximum rate change of a scalar function. Wehave, Dylo)=¥4-b = [VO] |b | cose = [V9] cos, where 8 isthe angle between thevectors V9 and 8. Since -1 os 8 <1, somaximum value of Dy) ia Vgat 0=0, when b iealong V9, that ie b= N. This direction isthe direction ofthe normal, So the rate of change of at a point is maximuon along the normal tothe surface at that point When 6 =x, then D,(¢) =-1V6], gives the minimum value of the rate of change of ¢ tis along the direction opposite to that of V@, thatis along - Infact we may comment that the rector V¢ points in the direction in which @ increases mast rapidly and V6 points othe direction ot which ¢ decreases most mpidly. ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Differential Caicutss |499 835 Properties of Gradients Let ¢and y be any two scalar point functions. Then, 1. Ves w= Very 2 Viqgd+ ay) = a¥e+ qVy, where cc, are two arbitrary constants, 3. Vley)= oy we oof) 25% yo FO ene view =[i 2+] +t 2) oy =5 AD. j Med Med “feed legend eget = areas + oft B+7 8 +kB]- eye veo Conservative vector field. A vector fidd F is said to be conservative if the vector function F can be expressed as the gmaient of some scalar function @ that is, F = V9. In such a field the work done in ‘mowing a particle from a point A to a point 8 depends enly on the position of points A and B and is independent ofthe path along which the patticle is displaced from A to B. It is useful to mention ‘here that every vector field is not conservative. We shall discuss this concept further in Section 922 Example &9: Find grad @ at the point (1, 2,1) when @=In@?+ +2). £2) merrye sonution: vo=[i2 oj 20k wi Zineteve nye] Zine eyes kZ neeey ee) _2aityi+eh 1; 3 2+ ae ae og tt tO30 Example 810: Finda unitvectornormal tothe surface x? + y?+3uys = 3 atthe point (1,2, 1). Solution: Since the gradient of is normal tothe surface ¢= constant, therefore, the unit vector ‘normal to the surface ata point P(r, y, 2) is V6/ |V9|-We have, ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 500| Advanced Enginenring Mathematics ( drigside-yeans = (82? +3y2)i + (Gy? +3x0)] +3eyi = 3407+ yi +397 +22] +3xyi. ‘Thos Vo at(1,2,-1) 37 +97 +64 ;also {V6 at (1,2,-1) ie 3/98. ‘Thos the unit vector normal tothe given surface at (1,2, 1) ve Vo _-sis9fs6h_ 1 0: 35405 mae ari #3) +28) Example £11: Fd the divectional derivative of 6,2) 247+ 2% atthe point @, -1,1) in the direction of the vector i +2] +28 Solution: Wehave, Vg=i %+j | Thug Voat@-1,1) =i -3) -36. ‘The directional derivative of isthe componet of Vat the given point in the direction of the givenvector | +2) +28. Thusit is qual to ij +2k_ 1-6-6 _ 7403S Example 812: Find the angle between the surfaces" + y°+ 2 =9, and z= 27+ y*-3at Q,-1,2). Solution: Let 62, y,2)= +924 Zand ye,y.2)=2+ 7-2 ‘Thawfore, Vo=2xi +yj +2i),andVy=2xi +2yj - f.Thus ‘Vo at(2-1,2)=4i -2] +4&, and Vyat (2 -1,2)= 43 -2) - &. ‘Also, |Vo| at @,-1,2) = 16+4+16 =6,and | Vyl at @,-1,2)= fieeast = V2 ‘Let NY and. 1" be the unit vectors normal to the surfaces 9(x,y, 2) = ¢ and y(s, ys 2) = cy the angle between the two surfaces (2) =o, and ya 3) = at @, 1,2) then 3K) PNR) GLa) Sak (i -37-31)4 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Tharlor = ox'{ 5) Example 8.13: WP =24 97 +2, thenshow that Vy) = 2097 and hence oF aerwie, prove that ©) W=F & o2)--37 © We) =n 7 @ VJ rtar)= e087. Herer= 17 |. Solution: By definition Pui Sane Zanei Soo =inn de 19% + imo -voli Ej Zoe Z) aidayedwe ee es Pram Pa2eys 2 wehave,27% «25,072 = Fret iis von =f ajtoke]=2 L yin7. nike pei Raj zsj Lege atas @ ve PE sdE Tee phekt © )-F 50) 750) #30) FC 3)E IAS HCaE plis+itete]--37 © Take 6) = 7, then Va(n) = 2 YF, gives v= Lae ant, (@) Take 447) = | Par, sothate’(e) =P", then va = Liar. see rte) = ber =. Example 8.14: Wu=x+ y+z,0=2'+y'+25, w= ay+ yz + 2x,showthat Vu, Vo, Vware coplanar vector ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 502| Advanced Engineering Mathematics sect (4 26d +4) +2k) siejek 2p “E +f "2 av = (7247.88) = 7 y+ sys ferns tees vo = (ij EE) =i gras jerasiery ‘The vectors Vu, Vo, Ver, will be coplanar if their scalar triple product is zera, that is, if ‘Yu (Vox Vi) =0, crf 1404 1 1 4 tx ty 22 |=0 of| 2x wy z =01R +R iRd esyte xtyse reyes aa or, f(x+y*2)|2x 2y 22|=0, Lag ‘since the frst and thd rowsin the determinar¢ are the same. Thus, Vu, Vo, Vi are coplanar. Example 8.15: The temperature of a point in space is given by Ti, y,2)= 22+ ?-2. A mosquito located at (11,2) desires to fly in such a direction that it will get warm as soon as possible. In what direction should it fly? Solution: T= athe level surface, then VT gives the direction of maximum rate of change we have VT=2xi + 2yj -é,and VT at(1, 1,2)=21 +2]-% R should move in the direction of the unit vector normal along VT, that is, along arsyai +2} -i), Example 8.46: If fand J arerespectively the scalar and vector point functions, prove that the ‘components of the ater, normal and tangertial tothe surface f= 0, are ENY yg UXGx Wir wr a Solution: We mow that V/is normal othe level surface =0. Thus c ‘weare to find the componerts of j along and normal to Vf. z {at Obs the pint of rfeence and Fand G betwopointemuch =< _[ a that V/= OF and 7 = OG as shown in Fig, &7, and let OM be the ay projection of # along Vf a ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferertial Caiculus Thecomponent of along W/is=OM times the unit vector along Y= (¢ 19 Y= EW ‘The component of j normal to Vfis = MAG = OG -OM = FNM» CIN B Oey - SR, sch hat latch fete phan Sooty neler apetalaseeee in enpepedokeseciaae Solution: Let, =(x-aj?+y'+ Zand @= 27+ (y-1)" +2", Wehave Vani ej Be Ba -w i +29) +206 ve BMPR A ari ory nj oak theatre nah aap pt 2 wigne yeast ‘Recraction wil te perpendicular ‘wo apheres ata point of when tei normals te perpendicular to eat oer and fr that (26-03 +2yj + 22k M227 +2(y-1)+ 226 ]=0 x(x ~2) + 4y(y- 1) +4:2=0 «, Pt yt 2—ar-y=0, (824) ‘Also atany point Fy, 2) of intersection ofthe given spheres, we have Pe y+ 2-2er te 3=Oand 22+ yf +2?-2y=0, Adding these two and dividing by 2, we obtain Poype2-m-ys be Zao (825) From 2) ant (825) wecbtain - 30, of a= V5. Example 818: Show thatthe vector feld defined by F = xyyai + 23) + ay) is conservative, Solution: If the vector field defined by the given vector function F is conservative, then there ‘ects some salar fonction fauch that F = Vf R gives syle taj tayhy=1 Fo 7X oY Thisimpies % = 27, % -we, % ~2°y egrating Y =2/'? wrt x we get ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 504) Advanced Engineoring Mahematice Soya) = F272 +92) (826) Sutatuting for fin =P we pts Ha siye oe Bo, tat is 3-209. ‘Therefore, fram (8.26), we have fay) = V2 +96) -62 Substituting for fin % = 227, we gt Viz+ 28 =22V7,0r & =0,thatig.g=c.a constant Hence from 827), fe,3/2)= Fx 2 +6 ‘Thus there exists ascalar function flx, y,)such that F = Vf. EXERCISE 8.2 1. Find the gradient ofthe following scala fields. ©) Oe, y= s-dxy at (,2) OG, y,2)= 277+ ny - 7 atG,1,1) 2. Find aunit vector normal the surface @)ayr=2 2,-1.2) (Yxys2z=4 at Q-23), 3. Show that the equation of the tangent plane to the surface z= x? + y? at the paint (3, 4,5) ine +4y-52=0, 4. Show that the angle of intersection ofthe spheres + 2 + 2?=29 and 22+ y?+22 + 4r~ 6y ~82= 47at (4, -3, 2) is @ = cas (19/29). 5. Show thatthe angle between the tangent planes to thesurface xIn z= y*-1,24y=2-z atthe point (1, 1, 1) is cost (-1/ V50), 6. Find the directional derivative ofthe function (©) ffx, y,2) = 27 + ya! at the point @, - 1, 1) in the direction of the vector | +2] + 2k. (©) fiz y,2) = 422 3r'yz*at the point (2,-1,2) along za (0 fiz.y,2)=297 + y atthe point @,-1,1)in the directionof the normal to surfacex in zy? +4=0at1,2,1) (0 fe. ~ 29 +29 (2,1) inte ection of a nt wecr which males an angle of 1/3 7 ios mat alee 2) i the directional derivative of § = 24y! maximum and whatia its magnitude? ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferential Calculus 8. Find the constants 2 andj s0 that the surfaces 2x? jye'= (A+ 2}e and d?y +3 = 4 may intersect arthogprally atthe point (1, 1,2) 9. u= ux, ¥2,,2=20)-y= yl).2= 40), show that So (Fv )uwhee? =2i +yj oxi. 10. IF7 is the position vector of the point (x, y 2) and @ and # are constant vectom, prove that sof) 38-3 84 DIVERGENCE AND CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD ‘Theconceptsof divergence and curl of a vector fields, like that of gradient, are of wide applications in engineering and physics. We introduce these two in this section, 84.1 Divergence of a Vector Field Let F(.y.2) =e. yz)i +156. y2)j + Fala y.2) bea differentiable vector point function Then the dcergenceof te vectr fil F, denoted by dn, se defined ae & ‘We note that V-F is simply a notation and not a scalar product in the usual sense, since VF # BV. Infact, FV=F,2 +72 4,2 isa cab Forexample, shiedslai +h j+hi) 5.5.8. divF =V-F 2 o P= yt Fag, Ha malar operator while? = Fi + Sh + 3 ity} +2ty= 2 (9+ 2s 2ears141= fai +y) +ab)= Stays Sys Sear 9141-3 Asanother example if F =33037 + 2ryj yi, then div F =W-F=32 422-22, 842 Physical Meaning of the Divergence ‘To giv the plysical interpretation tothe divergence, consider the motion ofa fluid in a region R faving no source or sink in R, that is, there is no point in R at which the uid is produced oF disappears. Let 5 = vg(x, y, 2)i + v(x, ys 2)j + vx, ys2)h be the velocity of the fluid at a point P(x y,2). ‘Consider a rectangular parallelopiped of sides 6, by, 8: in the fluid as shown in Fig. 88. Consider that the fai i flowing in the positive direction ofthe y-axis. ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS oy Fig na ‘The amount of fluid entering the face PAB'C in a unittime =, 8: 6x. ‘The amount of fluid leaving the face PC'BA’ ina unit time=,.5, & Bx. “Therefore the rexutant fluid flow ant of these two paratlel faces ie = 4-8 Bebe = By, sing Taylor series and neglecting the terms of second and higher orders ‘Thisis called the fix ofthe vector field & through the area Sz 6x. ‘Accounting for the resultant fluid flows across the other two pals of faces, the total flux of through the sixfaces is 2, (B+ Se B yee Dividing by the volume i by 8, the fx per unitvolume ls glen by a, , ee ay ‘which is equal to div 8. Hence divergence gives ameasure ofthe outward flux per unit volume of Ue fou ata point 2). Similarly, if § represents an electric flux, then div @ is the amount of electric flux which diverges per unit volume in unit time. If & represents the hent flux, then div 3 is the rate at which heat is issuing from a point per unit volume. In general the divergence of a vector paint function, ssprrsping any plea quand gies a ach poet th rae pes unk ole a which the ‘physical quantity is issuing from that point. This justifies the name divergence of a vector point function, ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferertial Caicutus |507 the fluid isincampressble, then the balance of outflow and inflow fora given volume element is zero atany time and hence, div 6 = 0. This equation is known asthe condition of ncompressiiity ‘Glearly the assumption that the flow has no source or sink in the region is essential for this argument. for a vector point function 5, dio 5 = Oeveryahere then sucha pint function 5 called a solenoital ‘vector function and the fed represented by such avector function is called the solenidalfeld. 843 Curl of a Vector Field The cur ofa vector F, dented by cur Fe defined as mrcmereh FB) g-eE-Bh Wenote that Vx F isimply a notation and is nota vector product in the usual ene, since Vx Fa FV. Sometimes curt F kaso writen as “58-2 ‘where summation is over the cydic rotation ofthe unitvectors 7, j,k, the components Fy Fy F, ‘and the independent variables x,y,z For example, if tik F ayal +200) +26, hencus F=|2 z go onont ax 2 [Next we give physical interpretation to cur ofa vector function. 8.4.4. Physical Interpretation of the Curl Suppose a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis through the origin O with a uniform angular velocity i = wi +02) +wsk andlet7 =x/ + yj +z betheposition vector of any point P (x,y, 2) onthe body. ‘The linear velocity @ of the point P(z, y, 2) is given by (os: wy)! + (wy m2) j + (oy- wx) j. ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 508) Advanced Enginesring Mathematics k Fay opts ‘A =(o tm)! + (ort wy) j + (0+ wai = 2foyi taj + w9i)= 2m, «, B= jeune once, te angular velacty ofa unfonnly rotating body is equal to one- hal of te curl ofthe linear ‘Because ofthis interpretation sometimes the word rotation is also used in place of cur. hi “mechanics, if 5 is the velocity of a fluid, and curl 5 = 0, then @ is said to be irrotational ld and the comesponding motion is said to be irratational otherwise, rotational. Example 8.19: Find div F and cur F, when F = grad (2+ y?+2?-Sayz). Solution: Meee ‘Say Then Fepdun 1 B+ 73 +8 = G-m)i + 0-30] + 02-amnk ase scihcopssc eres -Zee- 50+ 5 OF Sea) + 2 00 Sey) =r + y+ Gelert y+ 9 a 4 3 = wy = (P— ya) HyP-22) 42 -; 3 P-a)-22¢9"-2)]+ j[2ee- wad ew] [ 2u7-29-a2e?-a] =i (ane an) + jays 39+ i (-a2 #39 Example 820: If isa constant vector and 7 =xi +y] + 2k, show that cu (3 x F)=23. ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferortial Calcutus |509 Solution: Let a=a,i +] + asi, where a, ay a) are constants. Then 7k axF=|q & | =@2-ay)i + @x-22)j +(qy- ark aS maa xn 23 et ey axa ay — ar) =1@+0)* Fate) + kata) =26) +0) +0h)=23. Example 8.21: Show that (a) V-(7°F)=(n+ 3), (0) V-(@ x7) =0, where? = xi +yj +zk anda {a constant vector Solution: (2) wir dei Zot 2) esi sry] sei) = Bens Deryye 2 EO Se 209 13 Poms . & a aa 1S oP yar arene oy 28) ae ent sz ey her? ae enrt(sZoy Z)nsrome(xEayt 3) =e + nr =(n4 37, » vaxn=Lid@xn-Lidann-Li{zar+ixz] 20+ YD ifixZ]=Diaxd-o ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 510| Advanced Enginaoring Mathamatics EXERCISE 83 Inthe Problems (1-2) compute div F, cunt F and very that div(cunt F) = 1. Poaeti +204] +27. 2 F=@-Yi say] (emi. 3. WP =(+y+0i +] - +h, show that Fecurt P=0, 4.17 = xi + yj +-rk and @ in constant vector show that (9 F isimotational (i) cu @ x7) = 28. 5. Determine the values of m and n so thatthe vector point function B= yg" i +y'j + 2%) isirotational 6, Show thatthe vector field defined by F =e'*-¥(i + j + i) solenoidal 7, Wf-2 ry'+ 2 and 7 = ai ty] 2k show thatdivyr)-5 8. Show that the vector field F = 30'Vs4] +20 ys4j + 4x72 te irotational and find a scalar function fsuch that F = grad f 85 SOME VECTOR IDENTITIES In this section we stady two types of vector identities. First type results thn del is pied tie t eint function, and the second type results then del is applied fo product of two point functions. These Identities contribute further in the development of the subject. 85.1 ‘Del’ Applied Twice to a Point Function ‘ance Vand V x Fare the vecor point functions owe can form their divergence and cur, while \V-F is a scalar point function, only gradient can be formulated. This results in the following, formulae, L aw df= vnpavif= 2h + Sh Sf 2 curlgrad f= VxVf= 0 3. divaurl F=V-V x ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Diferential Calculus |511 Menten egurr t= 2+ Bo spec apn operator. (Next. we prove these results, 1 vyevns-r{i Xj Li2) 48) oor HEEB) (HES) at rh oF, 4 vxcvxF)=(Zi )e 1{Z-3- # |(di8) =V(v-7)-VF ee ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 512| Advanced Enginesring Mathomatios Thus Vx(VxF)=0V-F)- VF ‘Aso this implies V(V-F)= Vx (Vx F) + ¥°F, which is 5. Remark. The interpretation of V as a vector operator gives the Justification of the results and also felpa to remember the above formulae as follows 1 VVf=Vii hee Vea? 2 vxvfed; tee vxV=0 3 VVXF=0; here(¥,¥, FEO, being the scalar tipple product with two vectors equal. 4.65. 0%(0X F)=V(V-F)-V-VE =V(V-F)- VF; here expanding Vx (V x7) asa vector tipple product Th continuation to theabove noted results next we consider the operation of V to the product ‘wo point functions 852 ‘Del’ Applied to the Product of Two Point Functions Consider two salar pot functions and g and two wectr pint functions 7 an G.The pomaible forms ofthe produc orf, FG, the sclerrodcs and G, F xG , the recor produc, When del is applied to these products, we arrive at the flowing formal & We)=fVs+ sf 1 VfG)=VPE fv 8 Vx(G)= WE +606 9% VEE)=(F- GE + GF + Fx(vxG) +E xv xF) 10. V(F xG) = G-(Vx F)- FV x6) 1. Vx(FxG)= F(V-G)-EW 7) + E-F-F-E Wenote that in result 9, the term iXeH) - nS Ro5 where G = Gi +6] + Gi; and in resol 1, the term Fwd)- FB PSs FDL, where F= yi +h j thi ‘These results canalso be proved using the results on vector differentiation. The result 6 isquite ‘obvious one. ING MATHEMATICS ADVANCED ENGINEE Vector Diferortial Caicuius [513 rs aa YB Mine Lix Bea G ogvxdy. zr ex) 26-1) +6xqvx7) eoeenteee as = (0x F)-6- (0 xG).F= E.VxF) - F.(x6) ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 514| Advanced Engineorng Mahematics n vx xGy= Lin 2 G)]- Dio| Hada = 3i(Eae]-Yr{Z} 1825) Naw & x(x 2) =(@-2)8~ I) Using thin we tave Li{Zxc)-Lio-y (i Fe-Lenz-y (ie =é L(g )F-(dF ge =(E-F-@-AE. ri-{F-¥) =r] PLC HE -0.HF-(FDZ)e-0. HF ms. ‘Thos from (829), we have ¥x(F x G)=(G-F-(V-F)G +(¥-G)F -(F-1)G, whichis 11, Example 822: Provethat @) Fie) =nher I OTM =FI0* 260. (2.2.2) p Fey ale Sotution: ovr-(S-5-8)r-D 50-52%) a aA a z a ~ Egle") Lele) Eder = Yat oxe-ae 2] = Ene 2 + (n-2 = nfS2+ (n= 2ye4 (2 + P+ DY) = nf 3PE + (22 =f tI (&) VIr)= V-(WAP)) = div (grad f-))= div '() grad 7} have their usual meanings, then 4(1,)\_1d?_1de 1G 1b sc le SCPE 3G? moe | [PF -3% = 7+ Ewhere Z isa vector Independentof Example 9.1: ‘The acceleration of a particle at time fis given by 4) =18 cos3¢ 7 —8sin 24} + 6th the vebsity vector 8 and displacement 7 are zero at != 0, find and 7 at any time t Solution: The sceterations 5(9= F = 18cos 3ti ~Bsin 2¢] +608 Idegpting 2 jwehave z 804 5 S82 j roe ounstl taco) +3Ri +? =4j +G,0r 2 =-4j, thus n= =6sinaf + A(cos 2t-1)) + 3A ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Integral Calcutss |521. Integrating again wat. wehave7(t)=-2con 3ti + Qain2t-aNj +PE+ 2 Att=0,F =0, therefore 0=-2i +Z,or @=2i, thus 20 -co 3)i + 246in 24-2} + PE. Example 82: Evaluate f @.5xZ)ét where 2 eeanesercaeansaere9 cs Tacior, | @.5xd.a=7] @t-sya1=7[? -aif =7-2+3)=0. Example 93: 3 7(= 501 +1) - Pit prove | [re a PF bP Gin rae sotation: Wehave Afr] - fS}-PgI. jé Also 7x = bP or 1-3 | [ (7 Fig 9.10 i (B-Sae- Silke 62) 20-8 ear ‘Tow by idady = 0h 0 vivdy =5/3. (928) Green‘s theorem is verified from the 27) and (9.28). Example 920: Apply Green’s theorem to [fem ydee a cons whee Cite cone pat genby 5+ 1, Solution: By Green's theorem the given line integrals equa to a a iJ [2x0 sou 2 any |e ‘where Eis the region enclosed by C. Thus, J bainyde + (1+ oe ysl = ff (1+ con y—conypdry= [fdr dy= na, < i } thearesoftheeipse 2 + =1, Example 9.21: Find the work done by the fore # = (2- y)i + (x+ y)j in moving a particle along the closed path C containing thecurvex + y~= 0,2"+ y= 16, and y= 7 inthe first and the fourth quadrants ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 44) Advanced Engineering Mahematice (6 Show that the area of a polygon with vertices at (ay by), (@> by), -r (eu by) taken in the anticlockwise direction is. 1/2 Gaba — acbr) + rby~ apba) +--+ (apr ba Sens) + (abr - arb) 2, Brauatef etsy + co yy), whew Ci th olipan ds + 17+ iy = 97 36, z 95 STOKES’ THEOREM: A GENERALIZATION OF GREEN'S THEOREM Weave senthaimpatance othe Grea hommes we consider another inporant hace, the Stolzs’ theorem, which transforms line integrals into surface integrab, and theorem gncaics Gres tearm inthe see tat ate comes apc ene oe ermer. ‘The theorem is stated as follows, ‘Theorem 93: (Stokes’ Theorem) Let S be a piecewise smooth open surface bounded by a piecewise moat simple clsed curve C.1f F = Fyi + Fy} + F,k be ay continuously differentiate vector point function, then § Far = ff cat Ets, 02) te there 8 =a af +0 Bj +008 yk a postive direction Proof: Wrting & = dri + dy} +s, the Eq. (029) in components form is it outtoard normal at any point of S, and C is traverced in f eesrsyera-j{(3-B one (3 -B)oen «(33-3 }oerfes 929 We prove the result for a surface $ that can be represented simultaneously inthe forms ©) 2=azy) © x= HG,2), © y= He) ‘where g, fk arecontinuous functions and have continuous first order partial derivatives, First we prove that fies S (% Frame Faas) ~4931) ‘Gide tacominbon tn sation dt amen Se ‘written in the form = g(,y) and the projection of Son the yplane is the region E and the projection of Con the 23¢ Plane isthe curve C’ enclosing the region Eas shown in ig. 912 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Inthis case, wehave f Fey. addr = § Flay. sx ye = é =f ley ae shee ay =f] Giese catog Ghent acum i loon re [ref] ecw pm "Nex the dimtion ato of the norma surface =g(s,y)ae: 3, 28-1 and hence cma _ cosB_casy osB S55 = SP ST, which ge, % S28 ox ay ‘Also dx dy, the projection of dSon the xy-plane is cos 5, and hence, (9.32) becomes fren-f] [2- Beeb) amns- ff [Bip Sica as, ‘This proves 0.31). Similarly, we can prove expressions for F, and Fy by assuming the preening, pigsty rears ‘Addingall these, we get the required result (30) and 95.1 Green's Theorem as a Special Case of Stokes’ Theorem Let ¥= Ri + 5} be avector function which is continuously differentiable in a domain in thexy- plane containing region S bounded by a closed curve C.Then § Par = fend ori tee eavi)=§ ee Fe, ze sotto ‘~ at (-m): ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 546|_ Advanced Engineorng Mahematics Here N =f, therefore, curt Ff = (28-3) settee ter theorem rer to. 0.29), takes theform f (Fide + ran= {f(- z # 9.02). Example 922: Verify totes theorem for F= (2 -)i +219] inthe rectangular region in the ay plane givenby (0,0), (40), (0, b)and (2,0. Solution: Let OACB be the given rectangle as shown in the Fig. 913. dx, which is Green's theorem in the plane, refer and, curt F.45 = (Ay) (Eaedy) = aydedy, Therefore, fom as ff wayernnat 4938) Fig 9.13, Wehave, fiar= [Fa and ono oteacicno Fay =e yi + dey es jays jad = G2 Phate+ yay. Ties, faa] tanto, f Bar | opty ao? [ree] Phra at?— feiand | Fano Tractor, [Far = Le sat?oat?— id= 20% 4934) oicro From the equality of (9.33) and 03M), Stokes’ theorem is verted ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector ntegralGaicukus [547 Example 923: Verify Stokey theorem for the feld F=@x-y) i -y?} -y'ri over the upper halfsuriace of P+ + 21 bounded by its projection on the neplane. ‘Solution: Theta diey core Cofthe melee <1 27" 2 =1, asshown in Rg. 94 in the xyplane sx" + y'=1, 2-0. ‘The equation ofthe curve in parametr: form is x=con8, y=sin@, 2-0, 05052 Aso § Fdt = § (@x-s)de- yohdy- yada] =§ @r-vit, =) é * * =F econo nin o(-aineyto~ fain 20+ in?) -0935) = Jeveo-Jo-oeay}o [2 s =. - re: Next curt F = |2 = 2 |-mtami +0-0j +o+ni=i. my -¥ -y ‘Therefore, curl FN) = &.N, where Nis the unit outward normal to the surface S. | Eis the projection of Son the xy-plane then drdy= | NV |S. Thus, ¥j ae From the equality of (9.35) and (9.36), Stokes’ theorem is verified. ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Advanced Enginearing Mathematics Example 9.24: Evaluate § Qy'dr~+ x°dy+ ais), using Stoker theorem where Cis the trace ofthe 5a cme 2= iF ey intersected by the plane 1= 4 ard Sle the surface ofthe cone bdow =6, Solution: Weave, F =2y'] +25} + 28. Thus, j_é ohh bd So 01-7 02-0 ‘The outward normal to the surface S points towards the downward direction as shown in the Fig, 9.15, and hence the direction of Cis taken in the dockwise direction, Fig 915 Let fix y, 2) = 7 +9? —= be the equation of the surface S, then the unit outward normal + § te + Pay +28) = [f cur #8045, where # = 278i +28] + af jamie FA oni Aty-# aa ‘Also day =(N de = Fed, rd =~ Vdd. Therefore {{ curt F.45 = ff Gx? - 6y?\dudy, where Eis the region 2 + y*= 16. Substituting z= rcos®, y= rain 6, we obtain Jf can Fas = [f 2 6Pady~ [f @eante- 6s? oyinao ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Intograt Calous |549 {(1 +0828) -21 eos 28)) ard +3] fecom-apeane 3/7 [200% 0f are Example 9.25: Evaluate {Vx F3 over the surace ofthe paratolid 2 = Bayh 220, where Fa yi +2] +2. Salton: By Saker theorem [ff Vx FutS = f 747, where Ci the cloned crv binding the surface S, 2=1- x*—y2, 220; the curve Cis given by 2+ y*= 1, 2= 0. Wehave f Far-f (wars aly + xdz), Substituting x= cos@.y=sin@, z=, 0S@52x wehave = = f Fav =f smesinas=—2 [ -cos29)00-—n. Example 9.28: Show that § 7.47 = 0,independertly ofthe ono 7, the postion vector of 3 2 point Pex y 2). Solution: If S is the open surface enclosed by the closed curve C, then by Stokes theorem fre-ff are O.45=0 feample 227: Statham cin tare? 7 627-9, provett feat F45 ~0 ‘Solution: Cutopen the surface ofthe sphere x + y?+2=9, by any plane and et S, and 5, denote its upper and lower portions and let C be the common curve binding both these portions. Then sj curl FS J curt nel] Beh nes Far=0, using Stokes’ theorem; the second integral is negative because it is taken in a direction oppesite to thatof the first. Example 928: 1f pi» scalar point function, using Stokes theorem prove that cur (grad #)= 3 ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 550| Advanced Enginearing Mathematics Solution: Let F bea vector point function such that F = grad 6, where 6s the given scalar point fonction By Sted theorem § F.47'= faut #43, where Sis the open surface bounded by the é $ dosed curve C. Consider, F 7 = grad 9.47 = (232-732) (dai + yj sacky= Meee aye Mame ‘Aso Ching cloned curve, wehave §44=0, thats § F AF =0, therfore, Jour grad 43 0. thos cat gad 9d, 5 Example 9.29: Prove that [ 3x74? = 23. [ 5, being any constant vector and 7 being the position vector of a point P(x, y, 2). ‘Solution: If S be the open surface enclosed by the closed curve C, then by Stokes’ theorem Jaxrar = ff cut @xr as = 5 Also, Vx (i x7): Wehave, V7 =3, ‘Therefore, curl (3x7) Hence, faxtar =f reat lf 6. 7)-7 Va) + G-MA-@ YF 4 =0,-¥)i = 0and @ VF =a. =Vx (Gx?) =38- 4 = 2. EXERCISE 9.5 1. Show using Stokes theorem that in an rotational eld Fhe circlation of along every cloned surface is zero 2. Verify Stokes’ theorem for F = (27+ y})i -2xy/j, taken around the rectangle bounded by thelines x =28,y=0, y=b. 3. VertyStoker theorem forthefurction f =2°/ +.2y} integmted round the square ofsides 2=4y=4,2- Oand y=Oin the plone s=0, ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector integral Calculus 4. Bvaluate § F.d7 by Stokes’ theorem, where P= 7 +29] -(@+2)i and Cis the toundary the tangle with eres t 0,0) (1,0,0 a 1,0) 5. Evaluate by Stokes’ theorem f (yzds + zxdy + xy), where Cisthe curve s+ y*=1,2= ¥ 6 luateby Soles theorem f (and —co y+n ye where Cithe oundary the rectangle 052% 0SyS1,2=3, 1. Apply Stok’ theorem to evstate f (+ y+ @x- 2) (y+) where Ci the toundary ofthe tangle with vers @ 0,0), 30) and 0,6) 8. Evaluate { F.47 where F= yi ¢x2°] ~2y7i and in thecinde 2 +y?= 4215. 9. Evaluate } F 47 using the Stokes’ theorem, where F =3yi +4zj + 2xk and Cis the & intersection of the aphere 22+ y?+ 2= 16,2 0and the cylinder y2+2= 4. 10, Evaluate F.4F using the Stokes’ theorem, where F = xi +2] + yi and Cis the é ‘boundary ofthe ellipcid y = fea ~36z*—92" /a inthe planey = 0. 11, Brauatethe integral jf (VF) by Stokes theorem, wher F =(2-¥)i +(-29j ++ xf and Sia the portion ofthe surface x°+ y?- 2by + be = Owhose boundary ties in the ayplane; b being a constant, 9.6 VOLUME INTEGRAL GAUSS DIVERGENCE THEOREM In this section we introduce volume integral. Gauss divergence theorem transforms surface integrals to volume integrals and conversdy. The theorem is named so since it invelves the divergence of a ‘vector point function. Volwne Integral To illustrate the concept of volume integral, consider a continuous vector fonction F 7)and e dosed surface S enclosing the rgion (volume) Ein epece, for example, a sold ‘cube, a ball, or the region between two concentric spheres. Subdivide the region E by planes parallel to the three co-ordinate planes intofinkenumber ofsub-regions E, Ey... Let BV, be the volume ofthe sub-region E, enclosing an arbitrary point whase pasition vector is 7, ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 552| Advanced Enginearing Mathematics Consider the sum @ = $F ()8V, Thelimitt tha suman n+ min sacha way that BV,-+0, incall th volume inka of F() ner Eade enced by fF (7)aV. Unde the asomption ¥ that (7) is continuous in E and E is bounded by finitely many smooth surfaces, this limit is independentof the choice of subdivisions and the arbitrary postion vector, WPG)=FiGy di + Fass.) + ley ade, then SI Fav=i [ff rey spends + 7 [ff Fatxy, endyte + & [ff Fatxy pndyts (937) * * ® # [Next, we show that the triple integral ofthe divergence of continoously differentiable vector function F (F) over a region E in space can be transformed into a surface integral of the normal component of F cover the boundary surface Sof F. This ta eacoted by the Divergence theorem of (Gaote ate dimensional analog of Greets theorem in the plane, ‘Theorem 9.4: (Gauss Divergence Theorem) La E be a closed and townded region in space whose towidary is a pecanise smooth oriated surface. Let F be a vector function tah is continuous and has ‘continuous first order partial derivatives in E, then. Jf awtav = ff sas, -035) where Nis the outward unit normal vector of S. Proof.Let F =F,i +F2j +Fsk and a, B ybe the angles which the outward unit normal vector NY make with the postive direction of zy, z aus rapectivey, then N= cana’ + ane Bj + ans 7k. “Thos the cartesian equivalentof the divergence theorem is i (3-3 atte i (Fyeos a+ Freon B+ Foon 7S (939) To prove the dbrergence theorem it i ficient o show tat vy) Fete [f ices = i Free ff Fycos MS (041) ADVANCED ENGINEE ING MATHEMATICS Vector Itogral Calcutss [553 if Seat «ff Fycon WS 4942) ‘We prove (9.42) only, the remaining results can be proved on similar lines. We prove fora spel region E whichis bounded by aplecewie smosthelentable surface S thathes the property bal any Srulght line pera o ade cate in te pals oy, sheen in Rg 916 ‘Let R be the arthogonal projection of S in the xy-plane; and let the bottam surface be Suz=Maw Gye R thetopsurfacebe — Sziz=g(xyi (aye R and the side surface be Sy :h(x, y) $zS3(z,y Gy €R. waif pom fon x = ff sey, eitedy - 6x y aed) x = Jf Pew addedy J Rey marty. Weeshow that thisis equal to the RES. of (242), On the lateral portion 5, ofS wehave y= 1/2 and thas cas 7= 0. Hence, this partion does not contribute to the surface integral in (9.42) refer to Fig. 916, and thus RIS. of (042) gives i reel! Boras ff Fyeos wis -083) (0n5,0f5,thenormal f toS matesan ottase angle ywith Therefore ddy=~con a. Thus Jf Foe stpandy =— [f Freon ws. x ‘ ‘Alsoon S,0f 5S, the normal Hi to Smakes an acute angle y with f, therefore, dxdy = cos lS. JJ Feu, sdandy = Jf Foon es. ® 5 Therefore, If Bowen ff Frenne [J ot ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 354] Advanced Enginearing Mathematics ‘whichis the same as (43), This proves (942). Simibrly, by consitering the projctons on y: and =r-planes and proceeding on parall lines ‘wecan prove (240) and @41). ‘This proves the divergence theorem for special region. For any region E which can be subdivided into finely many special regions by means of surface up to give the volume integral over E_ Example 9.30: Verify divergence theorem for F =2°1 +2] + yzi taken over the cube bounded by =0,x=1;y=0,y=1;2=0,2=1. Selatan: The Gam diverge tbe [ff ai Fav ff fra ! Here F=27i +2) + yak gives div F= 2e+2 Zork 2 yyar+y. rms ff arta= [hf ere pamace {] [Fonte 48) =] forme jv! i Teer fa nt wri pce nt chee rae Stead into six smooth surfaces, as shown in Fig. 9.17, given by 5, :ACPBY 5, :0BA'C 5 :BA'PC 5_ :0ABC 5 CAPR 5, :0BCA ‘Thus, ii] Fnas= f J F.nas (9.45) 5 68) - ? nS, x=1, we have N =i, thos FN =27, so that Be asef] rate jf dyde=1, ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector integral Calculus |555_ nS, y=1, N= j, thus F.N = 250 that i Fase ff saaee | le] #22. ‘On S, y=0, N =-j, thus F.N =-z, so that prsen|jaee| ele] td Ons, 2=1, N =£, thus F.N = yz sothat [740 nor ne] Lar On S, 2=0, N =—i, thus frs0- aa ‘Therefore from (9.45) syF Nas=1404 5 - +} +0=3/2. 9.46) ‘The equality of (9.44) and (9.46) verifies the divergence theorem. Example 9:21: For any dosed surface §, prove that JJ -ai +ye-2] +a2-yilas-0. 3 Solution: IE be the volume enclosed by the closed surface 5 then by divergence theorem Jf F-t14s = [ff aie to, where te symbols have thelr usal meanings. 3 * Here F =x(y-2)f + y(2—2)] +2(0-y)k, gives divF= Sonos Le-mys Se-meno. ‘Therefore, i div Fao =0, ‘This proves the result, ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS 556| Advanced Engineoring Mathomatios Example 9.22: Using divergence theorem, prove that © Jf ras-av © fj veas=ov where Sisary closed surface enlosingavolume V,7=xi + yj +2f and 2=22+ +23 Seton 6) rape ton {f= [fav rev-afffan-av (9 tet F = VF, then by divergence theorem | f V?A3= fff sw vrav. wera, dvr avwPavira Sere Bes Beas. Thus, Jf veas= fff eav=ev. Thisprovestheresit, Example 9.33: Unngdivergencetheoremevahate [| 4S where ? =291 +] +29h and Sia the surface of the spheres? + y?-+22= 2. * Solution: By divergence theorem {{ F.a5= {ff iv Fav, where the symbols have their usual 3 2 Wehave div =VQi sy] +28) =e sys 2-30, thos JJ Fai -30?fff av-aet Se = ant, 7 E since the volume of:2+ y+ 2= @i (4/3) x2 Example 934: Evaluate ff (xdy + ode + tnd over the uric of a aphew of radi Solution: Wehavesiyds + ylate + sdndy= (ci-N + yj -N + 28-Nyds= 7.48. By dergnce cre | 745= i arena ff a= 3h n= oa? ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Vector Integral Calous_|557 Example 9.28 Verily divergence theorem for F = 4xi - 2y°} + 27i taken over the region bounded by the cylinder 274 y'=4,2=0,2=3, Solution: Wehave, div? = 2 (42) ger Z@=4-4ys 20 Tims 2 Fs Spf seria = [ff —ay+2ytetyte= ff (j-sy anna aol 7 “f ial Low J iy (@1-1ypiyee =] “ls since “foo 2) =sa(zan-t]= ste _(947) ~«] IF onl ‘ serfs nds ana Sd Oe ere i Soe ne Fo tp ‘cylinder into three smooth surfaces, as shown in Fig. 918. ‘S; : the circular base in the plane z= 0 S; ‘the circular top in the plane = 3 'S; :the curved surface of the cylinder given by Pey= 405253, Werae ff Fxas= [Fas (04 5 Pe m5 ,2=0,80 =-£,thus FAN =r) 27 js 2h) Ciy=2-0 Fe Me ‘Therefore, ff F.Nas=0. 5 On S,2=3, N = b, thus FN = (dri -2y°j +2%h).(i ‘Therefore, Sf F.Nas=9 ff ds=9(area of cinde x+y? * ® ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS Advanced Enginearing Mathematics Vostsy?) _ 21i 92y neal ag sie thos FN ated -a7j +2i) SLED aoe y. Therefore, ff F.Nas= ff @2-yas. i a ‘AsoonSy 22088, ye 2ainO and ds =2éde Thos [Jer-vus- | J eante-suroanica as] onteoatoun vt vt 1 =43| 2] esme-;[omecancge J=48 x 5 x 2n= 48. Thus (948) becomes Jf Fores ~0 +360 450-840 1949) ‘Tha equity of (247) and (49) vets the divergence thacrem, Example 9:36: Use divergence theorem to evaluate [{ (74? + 23°} + 2yPi).43, where Sis the dosed surface ofthe regionbounced by the hemiaphere + y?+22=1, 22 0and the plane z=0. Solution: Let Vbe the volume enclosed by the closed surface 5, then by divergence theorem Jf ei +22) + 2p hyas= [jf av (ret + 22) + 27h av =2{ fj ara. 3 ¥ . ‘Using spherical polar co-ordinates, to find the volume enclosed by the hemisphere 27+ y?+ 2? =1,220, wesutatiqutex=rain gcos@, y=rain gain 8, 2=rcos ¢ do=Fah 9dr d0 46 where OSr<1, OS0<2x, 05¢ Ols constant (© Theangube mation @() ofa pendlam of length I under the action of guvity, where gie theneelrationof gravy and! mina, agen by = faino, -(103) ADVANCED ENGI RING MATHEMATICS 566| Advanced Enginanring Mathematics (@) The equation 2-4-8) eo ‘governs the shape ofa flexble cable or string, hanging under the action of gravity, where 12) isthe deflection and cis aconstant that depends upon the mass density ofthe cable and the tension atthe midpoint x= 0. (©) Theane-dimensional wave equation ae atu aa baad governs the sill transverse vibrations of an elastic string, such asa viein string. Here, (3, athe deflection of the string ata distance x from the one end at time t Differential equations which involve only one independent variable, eg, (10:1), (10.2) (103) and (10.4) are called ordinary differential equations; and those which involve two oF more independent variables and pattial dfferendal coefficients with respect to them, eg. (10.5) are called partial diferential equations. In this chapter, we shall be concerned with ondary differential ‘equations only. ‘Theorderof a differetial equation is theorder of thehighest derivative itcontains, whereas the degre of a differential equation isthe degree ofthe highest order differential coefficient after the ‘equation has been made free of radicals and fractions as far as the differential coefficients are concerned. Forecampk, Eq (10:1)isof order 2and degree 1, and Bg, (10.2) sof onder 1and degree, while Bq (10) is of onder 2and degme 2 since it can be rationalized as sens 2 (3) (3) } (108) ‘A differential equation is linear when the dependent variable and its derivatives excur only in the fit degree and also mo product term containing the dependent variable and its derivatives of various orders occur Forexample, (10.2)i a linear differential equation of onter one. ‘The general orm of linear ordinary differential equation of order mis 60 a0) TY «rac 0) + sy =f, (107) ‘where a{1) 22) #0, are some functions ofx, or constants, called the coefcients ofthe equation. The function fi) is called the non-homogencos term. Sometimes it called the forcing function because in ‘pplications it represents the influence ofan external input thal dices aphyacal system represented by the 0. (1038) ‘We shall later study theconditions under which a given differential equation has sok tions, but ‘we must note that there are diffrential equations which do not have solutions at all. and there are others which do not have a general solution. ee (a) oe sence at +hyl=0 £10.20) has no general solution, only the trivial solution y =0, 10.23 Initial and Boundary Value Problems In applications of ordinary differential eyuation the values of the arbitrary constantsin a specified [problem are obtained by choosing them so that the solution satisfies the prescribed conditions identified with a particular probiem. YY the requral conditions are prescribed at a single point, say x = a, then the conditions are called the ‘mitt conditions and the differential equations together with the conditions, scaled wr initial value prablent G.2p).Inaniv p the independent variable zoften represents thetime so that conditions ofthis type describe how the solution starts, In case the required conditions are prescribed at two diferent points, say at x = a and x= then the ‘conditions are caled the boundary conditions and the differential eyuation together with the conditions is called « toundary value problem (bp). In bw.p., x often represents a space variable and the intervala

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