1a).

‘The United Nations needed not to have moved from the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) because the two sets of
goals are not materially different and the former set had not even been attained
especially in developing countries like yours”. Analyze this viewpoint. (50).

Introduction

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) represent a historic and effective strategy of global
mobilization for the achievement of a set of critical socioeconomic objectives around the world
(Sachs, 2019). Poverty, starvation, disease, unmet educational needs, gender inequity, and
environmental degradation are all issues that they raise. The MDGs help to enhance global
awareness, political accountability, improved metrics, social feedback, and public demands by
putting these priorities into an easily accessible set of eight goals and providing measurable and
time constrained targets (Assefa, Van Damme, Williams & Hill, 2017). The Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), as articulated by Bill Gates, have become a kind of worldwide
report card for the battle against poverty during the 15 years from 2000 to 2015. They generate
incentives to enhance performance, as do most report cards, though not quite enough for both
rich and poor countries to produce a global class of straight-A students.

The two sections below which include the similarities and differences between Millennium
Developed Goals and Sustainable Developed Goals and they are there to justify or contract the
movement from MGDs to SDGs.

Differences between MDGs and SDGs

1. Zero Goals

The 2015 MDG targets were established to get us "halfway" to the goal of ending hunger and
poverty, with corresponding goals in other areas (Fukuda-Parr, 2016). The SDGs are intended to
complete the task - to achieve a statistical "zero" on hunger, poverty, preventable child deaths,
and other targets. Getting "halfway there" pushed countries to "do the simplest parts first." This
approach will necessitate completely diverse solutions. To get to zero, we need to put a lot of
effort into empowering the poorest and most difficult-to-reach people. Brookings Institute, the
new World Bank "Zero Poverty" targets, and US President Barack Obama's second inaugural
address provide much of the drive and evidence for the effectiveness of zero-based goals.
2. Universal Goals

The Millennium Development Goals were set in the context of "rich donors assisting poor
recipients." The world has changed drastically since then. Official development assistance
(ODA) is currently insignificant in comparison to other forms of aid, and the bulk of the world's
poorest people live in middle-income countries (Gaffey, Das & Bhutta, 2015, October). The
issue is inequality, not poverty at the national level, and this holds true for both rich and poor
countries. The SDGs will then be a set of universally relevant goals.

3. More Comprehensive Goals

"Rich donors aiding poor recipients" was the theme of the Millennium Development Goals.
Since then, the world has changed dramatically. In comparison to other forms of aid, official
development assistance (ODA) is now modest, and the majority of the world's poorest people
live in middle-income countries. At the national level, the issue is inequality, not poverty, and
this is true for both rich and poor countries. The SDGs will then be a collection of goals that are
generally applicable (Fukuda-Parr, 2017). 

4. Addressing THP Pillars

While THP celebrated and firmly committed to the MDGs, they largely ignored the three pillars
of what we see as crucial for the sustainable end of hunger: empowering women, mobilizing
everyone, and partnering with local government. The SDGs address these critical elements (to
date) much more effectively, with far stronger gender goals, people’s participation and
government “at all levels.”

5. Inclusive Goal Setting

The MDGs were developed in a top-down manner. With face-to-face consultations in over 100
countries and millions of citizen comments on websites, the SDGs are being developed in one of
the most inclusive participatory processes the world has ever seen. Civil society has been well-
organized throughout the process, with worldwide coordination provided by Beyond2015.

6. Distinguishing Hunger and Poverty

Hunger and poverty were grouped together in MDG 1 of the Millennium Development Goals, as
though addressing one would solve the other. Since then, much has been learned about nutrition,
and the SDGs regard poverty as a separate issue from food and nutrition security.

7. Funding

The MDGs were supposed to be substantially funded by assistance flows, however this did not
happen. The SDGs put sustainable, inclusive economic development at the heart of the approach,
focusing on countries' ability to address social concerns in part by strengthening their own
revenue-generating capabilities.

8. Peace Building

Peaceful, reasonably well-governed countries have prospered during the last 15 years. Experts
expect that by 2015, the majority of persons living in severe poverty would be in conflict-
affected countries. Peace-building is so vital to achieving the MDGs' goal of ending hunger and
poverty, but it was completely overlooked in the MDGs. It is contentious in the SDGs, yet it has
remained there so far.

9. Data Revolution

The MDGs made no mention of monitoring, evaluation, or accountability, whereas the SDGs
aim to “significantly increase the availability of high-quality, timely, and reliable data
disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migrant status, disability, geographic
location, and other characteristics relevant in national contexts” by 2020 (Stuart, & Woodroffe,
2016).

10. Quality Education

The MDGs concentrated on quantity (e.g., high enrolment rates), yet in many societies,
education quality has declined. The SDGs are the world's first attempt to focus on educational
quality and the role of education in achieving a more humane world: "education for sustainable
development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of
peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and culture's
contributions" (Kumar, Kumar & Vivekadhish, 2016).
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MDGs and SDGs

Internationally, decent work is commonly regarded as a development goal. MDG 1 was updated
in 2007 to include a new target, confirming that full and productive employment and decent
work for all, including women and young people, is one of the most effective ways out of
poverty (McCloskey, 2015). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the successors to
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which guided international development from
2000 to 2015. The MDG framework was made up of a tiered hierarchy of goals, targets, and
indicators, similar to the SDG framework. Many of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
have a 2015 deadline for completion.

Sustainable Development Goal 8 emphasizes the need of decent work for everyone in attaining
sustainable development. This goal strives to "promote sustained, inclusive, and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all." The new 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development includes components such as decent work, job creation,
social protection, workplace rights, and social dialogue (Kumar, Kumar & Vivekadhish, 2016).
Furthermore, several of the other 16 goals have important parts of decent employment woven
into them. The Decent Work Agenda, like the SDGs, contributes to all eight MDGs in the
worldwide fight against poverty. The Sustainable Development Goals and the Millennium
Development Goals on decent work have significant parallels.

SDGs and MDGs both promote gender equality and enable women to fully participate in
economic and other aspects of life (Chung & Park, 2016). The Decent Work Agenda, which is a
prerequisite for achieving all of the MDGs, promotes equitable opportunities for women in terms
of employment, training, and social protection, allowing them to fully participate in all parts of
life. Second, both support job creation, workplace rights, social protection, and social discussion.
International labour standards, the promotion of social protection such as maternity leave, and
the ability to contact women at work all play a key role in lowering infant mortality (Goal 4) and
improving maternal health, according to the MDGs.

The ILO's job areas, as well as its relationships with the United Nations and other international
organizations, were then restructured to support the Decent Work Agenda (Daher-Nashif &
Bawadi, 2020). Last but not least, the SDGs and MDGs on decent work are comparable in that
they both advocate a decent living for the worker and his or her family, safe and healthy working
conditions, equitable opportunity for advancement, appropriate work hours, and paid vacations.
Promoting HIV/AIDS prevention measures, improving workplace knowledge, expanding social
health protection, and ensuring good work for health workers are all MDGs that help to the fight
against HIV/AIDS (Goal 6).

Conclusion

There is need for upgraded and innovative institutions and capacities that are aligned with SDGs
at both the national and regional level. Provided the limited fiscal space many low income
countries will not be able to invest in capacity building on their own and require external help
and support.

b). Citing examples assess the utility of various market-based solutions towards
the achievement of sustainable development (50).

Introduction

The environmental component is valuable in the view of economists, and it should not be free.
When customers buy things, they pay a portion of the price to cover environmental costs such as
pollution and recycling. Market-based instruments should provide the environmental component
with a fair price in the production and consumption process while also allowing for flexibility
and differentiation. This economic strategy prevents people from incurring a financial burden as
a result of pollution. “Market-based instruments” are rules that encourage conduct through
market signals rather than explicit mandates on pollution control levels or methods (Khwaja,
2001). 

A conventional strategy known as "command-and-control theory" offers a distinct approach to

solving the environmental problem. This method forces all businesses to use similar pollution-
control strategies, regardless of cost (Ekantini & Wilujeng, 2018). Companies and individuals
are advised about the amount of pollution they can emit, the technology they should use, and
even the specific manufacturing techniques they should follow. Compulsion of all businesses and
individuals to follow the same standards or utilize the same technology or facilities, on the other
hand, could be costly. Furthermore, there will be fewer incentives for businesses to go beyond
what the regulations and laws require.
The utility of market-based solutions in achieving sustainable development

Market-based tools, which offer a lot of flexibility and financial incentives, might encourage
companies to embrace new technologies and facilities in order to achieve better results and tackle
environmental challenges (Khan, Sharif, Golpîra & Kumar, 2019). We can figure out the
comparative benefits of market-based solutions based on the definitions of market-based
instruments and command-and-control instruments: cost effectiveness and motivation for
technology innovation.

Market-based policies, in theory, “allow any desired level of pollution cleanup to be reached at
the lowest overall cost to society, by providing incentives for the biggest reductions in pollution
by those enterprises that can achieve these reductions most cheaply,” if well-designed and
implemented (Kwilinski, Ruzhytskyi, Patlachuk, Patlachuk & Kaminska, 2019). Market-based
policies equate the increased amount that companies use for pollution reduction with command-
and-control methods, which set the same requirement for all companies. It provides a motivation
for businesses to equate abatement costs at the margin, allowing them to meet the fixed standard
of environmental quality in a cost-effective manner.

What the command and control mechanisms fail to recognize is that the costs of dealing with
environmental issues vary substantially depending on the kind of production, labor force,
technology, equipment quality, and other aspects across different companies in various industries
(Kaczmarczyk, Sowiżdżał & Tomaszewska, 2020). Setting uniform criteria for all businesses
may be ineffective and costly in the long run. Furthermore, it limits corporations' ability to
develop improved pollution-reduction strategies.

As previously stated, market-based solutions incentivize businesses to adopt new technology and
equipment. Incentives that will have a significant impact on an individual's conduct. People are
more likely to accept a policy if the advantages or the cost drops. If they don't want to pay for it,
they can dump their trash in a nearby river. This is a result of the "tragedy of the commons,"
which states that if individuals have unrestricted access to important resources like water or the
fishing industry, such resources will be harmed or depleted by those who wish to share their
worth (Mehmood, 2021).
Market-based solutions link the words "incentive" and "economics," demonstrating that using an
environmental protective incentive in the right way can lead to a cost-effective procedure. This is
how market-based solutions work; they link environmental missions with financial incentives in
this way. Because of this, the market-based approach frequently “pays enterprises to clean up a
little bit more if a sufficiently low-cost method (technology or process) can be developed and
adopted” (Pujara, Pathak, Sharma & Govani, 2019). Furthermore, this type of incentive
encourages businesses to create better technology in their own interests, resulting in a reduction
in pollution.

Major categories or examples of market-based solutions

“Pollution charges; tradable licenses; market barrier reductions; and government subsidy
reductions” are four primary kinds of market-based remedies that should be considered (Stavins
2003).

1. Pollution charge

Pollution charge systems “impose a levy or tax on the amount of pollution produced by a
company or source” (Beder, 2000). Companies will reduce pollution to the point where the
marginal cost of abatement equals the charge they pay. Many countries employ the deposit
refund system, which is considered a specific case within the pollution charges. Individuals are
asked to pay a deposit for bottles when they purchase them, and the money is returned to them
when the bottles are returned. Many governments have used “bottle bills” to implement this
technique.

2. Tradable permits

Tradable licenses might “achieve the same cost-minimizing allocation of the control burden as a
charge system while eliminating the problem of uncertain reactions by firms,” according to the
researchers (Wissel, & Wätzold, 2010). Firms will receive specific permissions when the mission
(total quantity of pollution within allowance) is determined, allowing them to divide the amount
in a freely dispersed or auctioned manner. To efficiently employ the permits, companies that
manage to keep their emissions below the allotted limit would either sell the additional permits
or incorporate them into other products to offset the emission that exceeds the standard.
Companies with excess emissions could buy emission reductions from other companies to meet
their own demand in the meantime. As a result, companies motivated by financial incentives will
reduce emissions as much as possible.

3. Lead trading

The lead trading strategy began in the 1980s with the goal of giving gasoline refiners a more
flexible option to meet emission standards by lowering the lead concentration of gasoline by
10% below the previous requirement. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) then
approved the lead credits transaction within the refinery and developed a project to allow
refineries to bank their lead credits, which had positive results (Huang, Shen & Miao, 2021).
Though the benefits of the marketing process are difficult to quantify, the method appears to be a
cost-effective option. The number of transactions between corporations increased, compared to
earlier environmental trade. According to the EPA, the lead trading programme was 20% more
cost effective than previous programs, costing around $250 million each year.
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