Mechanics of Saw-Tooth Chip Formation in Metal Cutting The sawtooth chip was the last of the major types be idewsiiod. This occurred in 1954 during machining studies cf titanium alleys which were then being considered A. Vyas M,C, Shaw {for aerospace applications because of their large strengti-io-welght ratio and corro ‘Sion resistance. This Is pe of chip that forms when very hard britle materials Mecha and deoapace Enoiseing Deparment, ‘zona State Une, Tac AZ, 68287-£105 fare machined ai high speeds and feeds, Since this is an area of machining which Will be of increasing interest m the future. particularly iy hard rurning iis Imporiant thatthe mechanism and mechaniey of tis ise of chip formation be beter understood, At present, there are two theories conceming the brsie engin af eaw-to0tk chips. The firm to oppear assumed they are of thermal origin while the second assumes they arise dae to the periodic developrient of cracks tn the original surface of the ‘work The thesis presented kere ix thatthe roo! eause for saw-tooth chip formarions is cyclic cracking. Tha 1 followed by a discussion of extensive experimental data that swpports ths point of view: Introduction ‘The removal of materia} to improve the geometry of a pant bby metal cutting may be characterized in terms of the type of chips produced. Theve are two basic types of chips: + steady stare continuons chips = eyclic chips Steady state chips involve concentrated shear where no plas fic flow cours until a zone ef shear is crossed and then no fiomtier plastic deformation after the mezal leaves the shear zone inthe form af a chip. Figure 1 shews three types of steady sate chip formation, That at (a) shows a very marrow linear shear Zone while Mat at (5) shows a ple-shaped shear zone between ‘he dashed lines. Both of these are for s sharp tool, Figure 1(«) {is obtained with ¢ pre-stain hardened matersal, while Fig. 116) is obvained with a Very soft matetisl machined with @ relatively Jrge undeformed chip thickness. Figure I (c) shows 2 less sharp ‘oot having a radius of curvature (p) at che wool tip which ives se tb a more extensive shear zone and some subsurface {deformation of the finished surface, The basic mechanics ofall three of these is estentialy the same icvolving plastic work ‘expended in the shear zone and in fictional resiance along the wool face. Only im the case of Fig, 1(¢) is sm amount ‘of energy expended on the clearance face of the tool. In Hig, 1a), Fr und Fy are components of cutting foree parallel anc perpendicular 10 the cutting speed (V3 respectively. ¢ is the Shere angle, and ¢ is the wndoformed thickness, ‘There are four types of eyclie chips: # discontinwous chips = wavy chips hig produced with a builc-up edge (BU): ‘siw-looeh chips Figuce 2 illustates these four types of chips. Discontinuous chips involve the formation of 2 crack (davhed line in Fig 2(a)] that starts out as a tensile crack a the (00) tip but grade ally lunges to a shear crack as i approaches the fee sueface aL 43 deg. The solid Lines show the development ot a chip ‘segment asthe chip is extruded up the face of tie teol aecompe nied by un increase in euting force. A nev crack forms when the cutting foree eaches erlical value. The process continues ‘Cac by te Manising Easing Dison fx eblewon én th Jotun be Mastrsorama Somes at ESENRSRET. osesae moth Jip M89! ed a, LR Asa echanal Es D. Shoe Journal of Manufacturing Seience and Engineering in a eyelic fashion as individual segments are ejected from the {ool due to the sudden release of stored energy as each new crack (extending continuously across the chip width) forms. "Figure 2(b) 1s 2 wavy chip. Chips ofthis «ype are associated with a oyolie change in the shear angle (¢) due to a periodic change in the undeformed chip thickness due to regenerative chatter of due to. cyclic change inthe chip velocity slong the two face, ‘Figure 2() shows 3 photomicrograph of & ehip being pro= duced wih a large built-up edge (BUE) on the tool fice. The BUE, gradually increases in size and shape until it becomes the undetomed chp thine (7) Tesuking om the cyclic variation inthe size and shape of a BUE gives rice vo ssubstan- til inezease in surface roughvess. Figure 2(d) ia photomicrograph ofa sae tooth chip which is the (ype to ne considered in detain this paper Funter details of the above types of chips [except that of ig, (2) may be found in Shaw (1984), ‘The Saw-Tooth Chip Figure 3 shows a comparison of ehipeprodised whem hing 2 tana alloy and soe ude the se condoms (Shaw ct. 2, isi), Th sd es made wen tata ae st being cosidered ae striate Boca ou high Senge torweight rte onl resistance wo comon. igure 3(a) a0 Gimensonal Harun hip predeecd tative High peed and trdofontol ep thekatss (bed), une Fig. 300) shows the ‘ain terial ume with the sare on lower sped and iced. Av speed and feed are reduced chip fomation changes from the te -onth ype of Fig. tothe sinacy alee a Fig 12). Chips of the Fig. (a) type ase oer caled Segre chips, but 8 mexe deserve ter induced by Nakayama (1978) tat emphasizes he character potted. nature tawaoot chip ad is wi be use hee. 38 so Import ta sitngisn the sasocth chip rom She eel? Giferen wavy chin, oth of whch are often aed sopment oy ar comparison, AIST 10$5 scl chips are shown in Fig. ae) aed Sta) when tne unde he sme Snaons as Fie (a) and 3¢p),repecively. The scl chip ae scent Be the stad at ype in both ess, "Att ne Ex fa saw 100 chips were found he conch. af edible seat (marl consi To soar fan iia MAY 1999, Vol. 121 / 163, ‘Copyright © 1909 by ASME Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orgltermsFg.t Steady state chip ypes hn two dimensional cutting plane due to thermal softening when there is not time for the thormal energy generated to dissipate) was in the forefront of ballistic studies of projectile penetration (Zener, 1948), Tt was uuggesied by Shaw el sl. (1954) that the oot cause of sae tooth chip formation might be adiabatic shear and this view has soatived to the present (Komendri etal. 1982; Koenig etal, 1984; Davies et a, 1996 ad 1997), tis an objective of this ‘paper to demonstrate that adiabatic shear ia not the root basis for saw-touth chip formation and to develop an altemate view that's supported by substaniat experimental evidence Mechantes of Steady State Cutting Belore considering saw-tooth chip formation, the basic me. chanics of steady state chip formation will be briefly reviewed as first given by Merchant (1948). Figure 4(a) isa phetortieno~ graph ofa partly formed steady state concentrated shear type chip and Fig, 4(b) is a fice body diagram of this chip with taal andl opposite resulta forves R and R reguied fer sate equilibrium, Force & on the wol face is resolved into compo- nents F and. end # i the friction anele, the tangent of wich is dhe eoefficigar of tool fave fiietion (2). The resultant Force Nomenclature arca cut caching frequency ‘component of & parallel co tool ‘ace F p= power comporent of eutting fore in cuting speed direction component of cuting forve in us Geformed chip thickness dircction omponent of R" parallel to shoe plane too) work ross crneke angle) ‘ockwell hardness, € seule ‘depth of cut icroerack feed component of K perpendicular to oul fave N= component of R" perpendicular ok shear plane length £ 2 = resultant fore on 100! face = cutting rat RE = resultant force on shear plane peaketorvalley surface roughness, isin. (pom) length J Ath 164 / Vol. 121, MAY 1999 y= atthmetie (center Tine average) surface roughness, wis. (aim) V = cutting speed ~ velocity of soo rel ative te the wark Vo= velocity of the chip relative to the Vs = velocity of the chip relative to the Width of cut along the coding edge side cutting edge angle (lead length on work corresponding chip chip longch comresponding, to werk 1 undeformed chip thiekness = mean undeformed chip thickness = Extrusion Fig. 2 Oyate chip pes "45 slmilaty resolved into ontzogonal components Fs and Ns along and normal to the shear plane Figure 4( ais seen to be well represented by Fig. 1(a) where the shear angle & 48 about 20-dog. = 15 deg, and tho width 4 = tial specie enomsy (onoray per unit volume removed) tu, ~ component of to generate aes surface tip = component of 4 associated with siding friction along tool face age = specie energy for gross cracked region dug, = specific energy far wiesucracked, region ‘us = component of i for concentrated ‘heat deformation on shear [8 = ool Lace tition angle = tant rw Af? F = total etucsion/iear. fore coethicient of tal face Sicuon sie ~ eoethicien: oF aiding fiction rads of curvature at tooltip vv ‘Transactions of the ASME Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orgltermsWN SSA Fg.3. Comparion of eine paduced whon turing attanum atey (T ‘aj asa A uBetecnahaemelcote k hagarake 2g 213 fuer Sw ty Se Wore rn 0 fom (900 nt Stee V0 pe (257 mim), 01408 ip (0.26 mm rv), (AIS! “045 seo, V='10 fm (30.8 en) # = L089 i (010 mes) ff the shear vane is tess Uhan S00 gsm (42.5 gun). In edition to concentrated shear slong the shear plane ard sliding fiction aloug the tuol face, close examination of Fig. 4447 reveals a ‘mall amoune of subsurface Mow along the tool Tae. This 1s ‘generally eferred to as secondary shear, Figure 4c} is the hodograph relating the velocity of the tool relative o the vork (V9, the selosicy of the chip rektive o the tool (Ve), ane te velocity of the chip relative tothe work (Ys) rom this ligure the following Feationships are obtsincd: isos Cb ~ a) a 08 loos (@ — a) ay For the exaraple of Fig. 4(a) (a = +15 deg and 6 = 20 deg) VelV = 0.34 and VuV = 0.97 ‘The quantity VerV is equal eo the ratio of chip length (J-) 16 the corresponding uncut work length (1). This quantity i called the chip length ratio or cuting rat (7). Due to the constancy ‘of vehume, + 15 also equal to the ratio of undeformed chip tMiekness (1) @ che mean Chip ahiekness Ce) tor two dimen sional (orthogenal) cutting, For steady state chip formation is always less dan one ‘The total specific energy (energy consumed per unit volume ‘of chips removed) willbe ERY VOt) = (RIB) cos (B ~ 0 where bis the width of cut along the curing edge ‘This total specific euergy has bu wo significant components: a ist te @ whore, say = specific enceyy of shear defoemation along the shear plane | 1, = specific energy of sliding fiietton along the tmol tace ‘Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering From Fig, 4(5): uy = CAV) IVb2) FIR TEMO I 005 6 +B) and, te = (FV HV bE) = [CRIGD IVEY) (sin BY (6) rom Eqs. (3), €5}, and (6), and R=": aula = [eos (b + 2 — afeos (8 ad|tVy¥] (7) ude = [sin Bieos (6 — a) H(¥IV) @) For Fig, 4(a) (@ = 20 deg, § = 45 deg and a = 15 deg), ‘rom Eqs. (7) and (8): adie = 0.72 and els = 0.28 Cyelie Crack Approach To Saw-Tooth Chip Forma- ton In the carly 1970's Nakayarun found fat sew-tooth chips ‘were produced when highly eold worked (60 percent reduction) 40/80 (Zn/Cu) beast 4s tumed under anon conto Figure 5 shows u quick stop chip pexducod urer he following calling comaitions Cuming speed (W): 0.075 mvmin. (2.95 1pm) deformed chip chickness (1): 0.16 ram (010064 in) Rake angle fa): —15 deg, Subscxuencly Nakayarns (1974) suggested a new theory of saw-icoth ep formation based on many experimen’s om highly od worked (bite) brass cat at very low speeds. A pia © sng. (t) metal inthe fee stefae Begins nice and ses ‘abzection CD puatel «the renullat force (R) 0 the tool face. A shear ofock iiiates at D and eins from the suface downward along shear plane DO toward the tol point al O. With furice advance ofthe took [Pig 6(B)] the chip glides cuir like a triton slider along the cracked sarface tn the next crack tomas at D” [Fig. 6(e)] an a new cyele begins. ‘The principle stresses at Dare shown in tke tet in ip. 4) A.shtar evack will initiate athe fre surfice at D where the ‘rack arresting normal srssis Zeon wll proceed downed Slong the shear plane toward the tol tp (0). Initially the crack ‘will Be continuous cross Ca wid ofthe chip (called grons rack = GC) but will become discominuous as higher crack resting sonal stresses are cxeounteod, These disconcectsd localize cracks il he called mexocracks (MC). and he i crocracked region of the shear plane i represented by dashed lings tn Fg. 6 Figure $ isu cose where pttaic grows cracks entend neatly all the way fom tho ree sface to the tooltip. The depth of “teeth” ithe distance each segment sides outward) is won colled by she cracking Rewuency. The outward glide occurs ‘nly uti the west crack forms ‘Nakayar's suggestion tht sas-iooth chip formation x inti ate by peredcerek formarion rather than te periodic forma= Tion of alahatic conceatated sear baads is vee) importa ‘eliive to & basic understating of this process. On the One hud the root cause of sawtooth chip formation is periodic fracture, while onthe other (be adabatic shear tory) itis oF ‘esa origin The fact ha saw-ath chips fxm atextemsly Jow cutting spesds (low temperature) where periodie cracks sy be ready met to Initiae atthe (ro surface and procwed onward fo te tot tp provides Sng evidence that pode Irscure to she eo ean for sae Sp rmation nd noe adiabatic shear, Further evidence wall be discusted ler. MAY 1999, Vol. 121 / 165 Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orgltermsFig. 4 Steady state chip formation (a) Photomicragraph of partial forme two dimeesional (orthogonal) (hp of AIS 104 sal cur at 24 Yorn (7-3 min} wih a rake angle] of ¥8-deg anda ehear angle (O) of 20 Gon. (2) roe body hacram for do chip, (e) Modosrap relating Ue treo sendy slat velociy ysl. Mechanics Of Saw-Tooth Chip Formation Figure 7 shows a photomicrograph of a polished and eiched chip of very hard case-corhurized steel nimed with « negacve ‘ake polycrystalline eubie boron nitride (PCBN) tool under hare turning conditions designed to give @surfuec finish comparable \ to that cbiained in fine einding, Maximum Sheer ‘iy hard tuning (Fig. 8) the nose radivs (+) is about am order Direrion ‘of magnitude greater than the depth of out (df), s that all Yoo! rat Sa Fia.5. Saw-tooth chip producod when turing Nohly cold workod brass ‘try low speed and wrth aogaive rake tol (anar Nakayama, 1972) Fig. 6 Achanlam of saw toth chip formation (ater Nekayams, 1974) 166 / Vol. 121, MAY 1999, ‘Transactions of the ASME Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orglterms0.005 in. we Fig, 7 Chip ot hard (Mac 82 cove carburiod ste! produced by tating neko = at ip (020 m/s) and © nwe on 100 jum ee ‘chip contact is on the curved surfsce, and the value of dis about equal to tbe feed (7). Figure 8 shows a typical hard turning arrangement where a nose radius r of 3 mm (0.118 in) is making, a cr at a fed rate fof 125 jamir (0.008 in/r), The depeh of cut (4) is somewhat Tess than the teed (F) in this ease. The scallap Teft behind ‘on the finised surface will give a tieoretical pesketo-vailey roughness (R,) of [2/69 Gndepent of deprh of ett) To a good approximation, the theoretical arithmetric average roughness (Ry) will be #5/32r. For the example of Fig. 8 125 x 10-)°A¢32(0.003)1 = 04163 jen (6.52 sin) Foray turning witha sharp tool and a rigid system the actual surfaes cough ness including vibration and other nongeometrice factors will be within 4 factor of two of the above value. ‘The following relationships represent good approximations For the area of Cut (Aan), the wide of cut (), and the mean undeformed chip thickness (7). These quantities may be ob- tained by reference 10 Fig, 8). Aue = ft Bm re + F12 (qin radians wo (10) fig. 8 Cutting geometry for hard tring wih to! having 2 raat Ieipe nse radun (7) Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering Fig (2) Free body sagram for chip ofl. 7, [8} Hodogrash for groes rackadrogion of eh oly an 2) £05 Bs = tr ~ dr ~ fsin 8 Fo baal For the exemple of Fig 7: 4 = 0011 pe (0.25 mam ‘ay = 121% 10° in? (0.078 mm’) 4. = 20° (fiom Eq. 1 by iteration) 2.0850 in (1.28 rw) 10025 in (0.064 mam) F 1, = 0.0038 in (0.097 mm} ‘The quantity that Getcrmines whether plane str ectains is b/T which should he greater than abo. 10. For Fig. 7 4/7 = 20, and bence plane strain exists even though lf ~ 1 TPigure 9(cc) shows the chip of Figure 7 ozionted along the negative rake iool face asa free body, and just below, the too! is shown in the process of making a cut. Just as Fig. 6 is snapshot of a sawtooth chip atthe insta when a erack forms at D. Fig. 9 is a snapshot of a sawtooth chip an instant after mek formation, where the segment just formed has slid outward a small distanve DC; Following Nakayama's suggestion the equal and opporitely irgcted forces R and R" shuld be parallel to CD. Forces ® find R? are shown resolved parallel and perpeadicular to the toc] face (F and N respectively) and parallel and perpendicular tothe shear plane (Fand.NV, respectively). In tis instance the to fae frietion foree Fis small while there isa sery significant “secondary” shear zone (the portion of the chip between the boom of the “teeth” and the tool face 7). The gress cracked region of the chip (GC) extends From C; 9 Dy while the miero= MAY 1999, Vol. 121 / 167 Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orglterms«racked region (HC) exten ftom D. 10 7. The hodograph for the GC segion is given in Figure 9D). “The ening rato (r) for this chip may be found by dividing the undeformed chip thickness (1) by the mean chip thickness (Z). However, the composite surface CD) + CDs + CD, + te. was found te correspond to the equivalest length of uzet surface on the work. This wis demonstrated by coating tie original surface of the work with soot and then pressing & replica of the surfece of the chip by pressing a vofi plastic material into the back ofthe chip. Valleys on the chip become ppeaks on the replica with slopes CD coated with soxx. Micro- copie measurements on the replica revealed that mean length CD comesponds to the mean distance between creeks on the work (p)- Theteiove, a convenient method of Gading 7 is to Givide the mean tooth pitch (p.) by the mean value of CD (op). Ths, re pdp = Vv. a3) ‘There is « small tothste-tocth variation ofp and for the chip of Figure 7. The mean value of pefp was toand to be: Felp = 159 = 016 (1.59 * 10%) = VorV “The cutting ratio (7) will usualy be greater than oue wien steel saw-t0oth chips are produced by a zero or negative rake angle tool operating at @ practical spewd, The cutting ratio for (he chips of Fig, 3 were as follows Fig. 300): ° Fig, 3061 Fig, Xe) Fig, 30) Only the sawtooth chip had a value of ¢ > 1 Saw-Tooth Specific Energy Analysis “The total specific exergy (4) for = saveteoth chip has the ftlowing components that are significant: 1s = tg tae + Hy ay where, toe ~ spoctic energy forthe gros racked region ofthe sg = Speilecurey forthe mireracke tion of the se = Spe energy asoltd wt tion Hen tol Bd tip rom ig. 9, = [Ros (a+ AW IIT) = (RID os (e+ 8) woe = (NNO) = Unc cos (b+ a+ ANISM YER YD) 6) where jis isthe cvetfvient of sliding fltion slong the GC sur- faces te = (RIBE sin BYWAY) an In the above analysis, and that wick follows, a isthe abso lute value of the rake angle, For the chip of Fig. 7: c= ~7 dep, 7 = 1.59, and f & 3 dep From the Hodogrepi that holds forthe GC region [Fig. 9(5)] sin loos (a + 6) «asp and hence, 168 / Vol. 121, MAY 1999 6 = 929 der Also, from Fig, 9(5): VeiV = cos a/cos (a + 4) = cos T/c0s 59.9 = LI From Eqs. (15), (16), (17): deel = [pwosin (6 + @ + BYcOs (e+ BUVSVD ~ (sin 629/008 10)(1.98) = 1.79 as tela = [siu Sloos (a + BY\VV)] = (sin 37208 10)¢ 1.59) = 0.085 ‘The value of tuq-cennot be obtained as in the case Of use becance of the complexity of deformation in the MC sector. ‘The value of aye must therefore be obtained by diflerence: so a9 ‘The maximum possible Value of js will he O51, since if ps 4 greater thaw this mye Would be negative [ fom Eq. (1931, and this is not possible. Tris expected thats will be gute high since jt involves two identical urtubricated nascent surfaces in sliding contact. A reasonable value for uc appears to be 0.4, but this is only aa estimate, Assuming sis 0-4 then the energy distribution for the chip of Fig. 7 will be epprosimately as follows: ap Hee tiple = 9 pocoent ac! = (OA) (9) = 72. percent acl 19 percent Cracking Frequency ‘The cracking frequency (CF) may be found as follows CF = Volpe 0 where pc is the mean measured value from a chip (0.0068 in = 0.168 min forthe chip of Fig. 7). Therefore, forthe chip of Fig. 7 CE ~ P¥ipe ~ UEC599(398912/60)1/(0.0068)) = 16 500 He ‘This approaches the upper Limit of the audio-requency range. ‘The very inhomogeneous strain in the MC region of Fig. 9 ‘wll give high temperatures in the bands of concentrated shar along the micioerecked extensions of the gross eracks, for high fuming speeds. itis only these bands that involve adiabatic shear and when preseat as in Fig. 7 they follow in time the formation of gross cracks, For ferrous alloys the temperature in these emmcentrted shear hands may execed the ansformation temperature where ferrite (a imn) changes wo sustente Cy iron), Exidcnee of this tansformation is found 3n the ao- avching white bands iu Fig. 7 and olber sialler photomicro- araahs of saw-tooth chips of ferrous alloys mectined at igh speed, These white areas have been idensfied as 2 combination fof untempered Marienste and austenite. However, before pid sooling and daring chip formation these bands will be Y iron ft high temperstare which isa teltively soft mstezial that offers Title resistance 0 plastic deformation. [vis the presence of high remperature y icon along the tool ‘ace that gives such Jew values Of te an tg Costimated) for tbe chip of Fig. 7. AS previously mentioned the distance one segment slides relative 10 its azighbor dusing one cyele (D.C: in Fig, 92} will depend upon pitch (p). When pe > p (r > 1), this 1s 2 result fof the compressive stress on the material in the MC zone being sufficient t0 cause elongation of the HC region. Material in the GC tegion is carved slong with the M4 material, esulting in * Tor the entire chip being > Wipe ‘Transactions of the ASME Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orgltermssmvall Strain Gage On clearance Face ae. ae 109 Fig. 10 Uso of train gage to senate Muctaton of auling forcee ‘t-toath chip ormation (a) boston af stn jag, () udp ot ara (one mV wars tine he. Cutting Forces Cutting forces that tuctuate at a frequency over 10,000 cycles per second are very difficult co measure, Thuis is because the relatively large amass betWeen the transducers and the point of Cutting ina conventional piczoelectris dynsmagmeter limits the frequency response to about 1,500 Hz. in ¢ tuxning operation However, an estima of the percentage change in he cating forces and the frequency of fore fluctuation may be obtained bby mounting a very small wire resistance strain gage close to (he (ool tp and recending the eyclie change in potential ceross ‘the gage in millivolts (Samp, ape Shave, 1983; Ramaraj et al, 1988; Shaw and Rararaj, 1989). Figure 10(2) shows the location of very small stain gaze [gage lenge = 0.03 in (0.75 mn) mounted close to the cuting cde ofthe polyerys- talline CBN tool used (o produce the chip shown in Fig. 7 ‘while Fig. 10(3) shows azepresentative output from this strain gage. The sirsn page was connected to a bridge circuit and an Ellis BAM-I bridge amplifier having a frequency response 10 ‘50,000 Fiz was used ‘The output from the strain gage consists of a series of peaks (A) and valleys (B) which constitute a series of poinis of maxi- ‘mam end minimum force respectively: It is not possible to assign values of fore to these points since single acuve gage was used to messure «force having two comporents neler of witch is aligned with the strain gage, However, its reasonable 0 assume thatthe lactation of Frees Fr and Pa [Fig. L(a)] will be propertional to the pattem of Fig. 10(). The mean wales at the maximiom (A) and minimuan (2) points in Fig, 1O(H) sugpest dual a range of force Mucuation relive to Cie mean CAE/E) is as follows: Journal of Manutaoturing Science and Engineering AIF = 0.06 (6 percent ‘This isa relatively small uetustion that is primarily due 1 the release of sinned elastic energy when each crack oecurs at {he feee surfacs, Points A in Fig. 10) should comespond tothe force peraining just before erack initiation. Therefore the mosin ‘racking frequency (CF) should correspon to the reviprocat ‘of the mean time elapsed between points A in Fig. 10. ‘The time in js between the several peaks i Fig, 10(6) are as follows: AWA: 65 AswAy 6S Avior 69 Ayto Ay 67 AoA, 2 Ay. 664 us CF = 1165.4 x 10-* = 15 ete ‘This is in excellem agceement with the value previously ob- twined (16.5 kHz) considering the different cpproximations nade in the two cases, Details ‘The conditions thal control saw-sooth chip fermation inelude the following: + properties of work material (primarily hardness and bait tenes) + undeformesl chip thicknese (2) + cutting speed (¥) # take angle (a) A decteauo in the shear fracture etrain of a material plays 20 Smportant role in the tendency for sawtooth chips to form, as ‘does the depth of the GC zone and the spacing of eyclic cracks {p on the work sucface or p, om the chip), Increased britUeness due to chemical eomposiion, heat teaiment, stain hardening ‘or residual stress are all important. ‘The crack spacing (p} is found to increase with an increase jn tho undeformed chip thicknsss (7). The depth of gross crack penstation also increases as (1) becomes larger. As (1) is de ‘creased there is a point below which saw-isath chip formation ceases and steady state chips are formed. Figure 3¢a) and (2) Siluswares this point. For large values of removal sate gross ‘racks may penetrate all the Way to the tool lip so that there is ‘no MC zone and hence 20 regiew of adiaatic shear, ‘The cutting speed has 2 mixed influence on sisi-toath chip Joemation. An increase in specd gives rise wo an increase in strain rls which increases brilleness aad hace saw tooth chip formation, On the olher hand an inerease in V inereases the temperature of the chip which decreases brittleness. The net ‘effect of an increase in ¥ is usually a modest increase in the tendency for saw-tooth chip formation "The tendency tosvard siw-tooh chip formation increases as ‘ho rako angle i the direstion of the chip flow becomes more negative. The value of p on the sork and pon the dl remarkably constatt for « given set of machining conditions. ‘Figure 11 is a photomicrograph of a clip of ease carburized 8620 ste] having a hardness of Figs = 48, The cutting coudi- sions for this chip were identical to those of Fig. 7 except for he hardness oF the work material (Hee 48 vs 62). Figuce 11 is 4 chip in transivon between steady state and caw-cbeth chip Yormstion, “Tecth”” are missing at points A and B but are present at uiler points in aecurdance with the expected eyelic alter Zora sawtooth chip. At points A and B where is evidence MAY 1999, Vol, 121 / 469 Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orgltermsFig. 11. Chip in araneiton aetmeen sawtooth and atealy ste types. Acting contin ca rth. snp 0 Wr ‘of some upward sise, but no evidence of crack initiation. The fot that cracks develop at some points but net ae others snd for the deviation of the spacing Of cracks (p) trom poi 10 port on the work m this Figure as well as in Fig. 7 is due to inhomogeneity ofthe work material, However, the effect ofthis Ick of homogeneity is x minor one, otherwise raw-tooth chips ‘would aot display the rematkable cyciie behavior they de, Figure 12 shows « photomicrograph of @ chip of ease carbu- Seed AIST 8620 sleel of Hac 62 tndaess tamed under the following conditions Speed (V9: 126 fpm (38/m in ood (7): 0.008 in (0.13 mm) Depth of eut (5}: 0.005 in (0.13 team} Rake angle (ae): 7 deg ‘This chip was produced wit u tool having a nose radius of| 01125 in, (3.2 mM). Two details frequently observed in sas tooth chips are eviécnt in tis figure. The geometry at the tips of the “Weth” is variable and-a gap frequently develops at poms 2), De, etc. in Fig, 9(2), ‘The variable racking patterns atthe tooth tips ere due ta inhomogeneity of the work raoteral that Jeads to variation in the manner in which the cracks iniGale. For perfectly homoge- ‘neous material, a erack should form in tie maxim shear dlirsotion atthe free surface fic. 43 — (a +) degrees from the horizonial]. Testould then soon shift te the dietion of the shear plane (deg from the horizontal}, Due to inhomogeneity atthe surface ofthe work material the crac initiates im vanety ff ways as ovident in Fig. 12, before taking the dioction of the shear plans, ‘The gops that develop at Dy. Ds, ct. {Fig. 9(a)] are due 10 the eloigation of mera! in the MC region. The mean ga sine ‘ill Increase as the cutting ratio execeds one, There shauid be Fa, 12, Photamicroyrach of chip of casa carburted GE26 steel with ‘bck surface pretecled by aon etching wnt ayer slctrlere nelle Raving @haranesa af Aha 170 / Vol. 121, MAY 1999 a 100 pm, 2.005 in » Fig. 13 uiek ston photomicrographs of TAL4V ally. (a) Hatwoy between eyete cracks, (b) shorty afer Tormation of a orack showing ‘Se aatant et the GG und A rstone 10 gaps for a homogeneous materiel having & cutting ratio of fone of less. Elbestasi ot al, (2996) have also adopted the view that the FL cute of s-tooth chip formation iy cyclic crack formation, ‘They furtnce suggest that defeots in the tive surface play a role relative so the pitch of erack formation (p). While theit defect ‘eluted fiucture mechanics pproach will influence the variable Way cracks initiate, as Musitsted in Fig. 12, i will have litle influence on the nitia citeetion taken by a crack. This depends cm the value of the eating ratio (7) as piven by Eq, (18). Figure 13 shows wo quick stop photomicrographs of saw= ‘octit chips iv the process of being cet from a Ti-6Al-4V alloy under the following concitions: ‘Speed (V): 172 fpm (52 mm in) Feed (= (1: 0.007 ipr (0.012 mmnir) Dept of ext {9): 0.100 in, (2.54 mm) Rake angle (a); ~ Teg ‘Tool material: eungsten carbide Figure 13(0) is for a chip about halfway berween eracks, ‘The upward rise begins ac A and is ahout half completed at B. ‘The distance betwecn cracks on tbe work (p) is approximately C:Dz, The distance DsT is D/P and DP < BT as it shoul! Transactions of the ASME Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orgltermsFig 14 Morel used tp axlan alate shear hoary a eto ip formation fates Rec, 1905) bbe since the cutting satio (7) is greater than one. The curing ratio in this ease is approximately: = CCMC Ds = LAB Figure 13(e) suggests thet the ecuilibrium chip shape is reached ater 201 3 “teeth” have passed up the too face. There ig. a slight indication of adiabatic shear in the A{C region in Fig. Bia). Figere 13(b) shows a quick stop photomicrograph obtained under the same eutting conditions ws Fig. 13(a), However, this sine a crack has just ozeurred. The tool has advanced a small distance into Ure Work and the last segment formed bas slid a shor distance along the shear plane since the last crack oc- ‘curred. The gross crack appears o hsve penetrated about one hha the distance slong the sheue plane in this ease. A single ‘mcrocrack fs evident in the sheas plane in the MC region, ‘The Adiubatie Shear Theory “The ainbatic shear theory suggests tat the root cause of saw tooth chip Farmation is a eutstrophie therme-plestic instbility where the deersase in low stress due to theta softening ass0~ ciated with a increase in ses tore than offsets the assOcinted strain hardeaing. Propouens uf Uhis deoxy eles to Us a8 chip segmentation [a term that lumps together wavy, discontiouns and saw-tooth chip formation (Fig. 2)). The model employed ‘to explain saw-tooth chip formation is similar to that asod to explain discortimions chip formation (Fig, 12, afer Recht, 1985). Hore its assumed that for some reason a thermo-plasie instability occurs along dashed line (5) extending from th: tool sip.curviny upwaatl (oward the free surfies, As the rool ances the material above (5) is extruded ino the shape (2, 3, 4, 5), Tine (3} becoming surfaces (3) and (4). AL the same ime, inclined surface (1) becomes sorface (2). The process then arts over cgain. I is slated that adiabatic shear surface (5) rolls dawn on the toal face and remains static thers nti the next evele begins, a stick slip motion up the foot surface being postulated, Accovding to this tnodel ck final chip shape ix come pleted after one cycle, Comparison of the Two Theories ‘The quick stop shotomicrographs of Wg. 13 are useful in compating the two theories. Fisse of all, a theemally initisted process should bc expected to have its origin where the temper ‘ure isa maxim which is tthe tool ip. This sin agreement with the modet of Fig. [4 bot not with reality (Fig. 13). The creck in Fig. 13(B} clearly runs from the froe Surface tovard ‘he to! tp stouga relatively straight shear plane. A shear erack should be expected to inate near a point of maximum shear Journal of Manufacturing Sclence and Engineering sieess wheve the compressive stress is ¢ minimum (ie, at the ‘ree surface). Finite elernent nalyss of stresses along the shear plane is steady state orthogonal cuting has revealed a substan- tial increase in nora stress im progressing along, the shear Plane from the fre Surface wo the tool cp (Sampath and Shave, Y983)_ As higher gormal stesses are encountered as 2 shear crack progresses downward froma the free surface toward the {ool ip a coniimaous gross crack may pradually be converted lato a iscoattavous microcrackod region. This is seen to be the case in Fig. 13. [should be roved that a Sitio alloy was cmployed in Fg. [3 which should fovor the adiabniie shear Theory due to is tow dentist conducsiviey and specific heat ‘There is no evident reason why the matetiat should extnude ‘nwo a sharp point in the model of Fig. 14. The reason for the harp points setually observes in savv-wooth chips is apparent Inthe crack initiation theory. The fac tha work pieve hardness (brittleness) is <> important relarive to the onset of save-toosh chip formation (Fig. 11) further supports the crack initiation theory. The adiebatic shear inode! of Fig. 14 shows concentrated shear bands that are parallel wo the Cool face initiating at the tool tp. The rlotomictograph of Fig. 13{0) shows an initially might shear plone that gridually bends dewowards booming paralel to the fool Face only ater the chip has moved a consider thle distance up the tool face, Conclusions 1. An increase in cutting speed! has opposing effects: an increase in the tendency for sawtooth chip Formation die tO increased strain mae, but a decrease due to thermal softening, 2, Two types of eracks are involved in s2w tooth chip for ration ‘Gross eracks that aro continuens across she chip with {+ Microcracks tat are discontinuous across the chip wit 3, Material between gross cracks glides oulwatd us block With essentially no plastic deformation as the chip Moves up the tool face 4. Material in mictoeracked bands extending downward ‘kom gross eracks will undergo adiabatic shear only ifthe spect [temperature is nigh enous and may undergo a phase transfor ration. 'S. in the case of steel, material in microcracked bands will transfor from a 17 iron when the adiabatic shear eemperature reaches the a — y stansformation temperature. Such bands of high temperature iron offer Tittle shed resistance and are beat dowawar by normal sress on the wol face becoming parallel to the tool face and giving 1ise 10 very low tool face friction. 6. The white bards of concentrated shear often observed when. 2 high carbon stec} is hard tumed at high speed ‘ave heen identified as very hard nntempered Martensive with some relained Austenite. However, daring chip formation thie mate- Fiat isseletively soit 7 on, converting © martensite with rapid contig stter the chip leaves contact wich the work, 7. The point spacing in & saw woth chip is remarkably constants but does vary slightly due to smpertections it the og hal suriace, However, this small varistion 4s not relected as 9 change in rake angle since several eycles are involved during chip-ool contact asthe final geometry of the chip evolves (Fig. 13] 8. When sict is hard-tured with a negative rake tool che ‘euiting rato (1) fs requendy erester than one. This esuls from the thinning of the chip asthe shear bands change airection anc. elongate a$ che chip moves along he tool face [Fig 13(@)] Wen r > [the shear angle is of coarse greater than 43 deg, (Eg. (633, 9. The srequency of crack formation is very high ia hard ‘uming operations, approaching the upper limi of the audio fequerey range. Such high trequensies will be unable w uncite ‘orced vibrations in machine elements having. very much lower MAY 1989, Vol. 121 / 174 Downloaded From: itp/imanufactringscenceasmediitalcollectionasme.org/ on 05/24/2014 Terms of Use: tps orgltermsDownloaded From: btpsimanufactringscenceasmed nalural fregusney. Howover, 2 very rigid system is necessary in hard lemming to sccormesiite shock occurring at the begin ting and end ofa eut, or when tne rool encounters inhomogenet- ties in the workpiece, 10, Wavy chips (Fig. 2(D)] are frequently coafused with sex-tooth ehips. Wavy chips do not have sharp points and their eyele frequencies ae very much lower than those fer saw-tooe: chips. and are ins ange where they may excite vibeations. For example, the typical wavy chip of Fig. 2(0) (= 30 mpm ¢ ‘= 0.1 mimpr, = ~5 deg) has a pitch of I my (0.04 in), an of 0.2, and hence a cyele Trequeney of 100 Hz [fr01n Ee, a2). U1.” The cracking itequeney (CF) i saw-tovth chip forma sion may be readily estiriaed, References Die, M.A, Ch, Yard Bane C1, Cp Mpls, Te West toh Cong Mos Pmt Ha Tori Sala ee Wo 8 No 11996 pp, 77-RE Davee ACA Bora 7-1, Bsa € J, “On te yates of 8p Formation chica Ma Mai" Annals of Ue, Vol MN 1197 9 172 1 Vol. 121, MAY 1899 tern MA SsbA Landa TL," Bo! for Ch ‘mate Line Rh of Maple Sl Atal of Ca, Wa 48, No Ss, plat oman, Sobour, J, Bas You TUS BP 2nd Hom, Dic Dn te Cotareph Shar sabi High Spel Mowing 9 AIST vol sj ASME sor kanesesa Poe Bua, Val 1, 1B, op 12-13 Toei A, Semen Tech, 3s Kn Ackestn Gy “Machin Feet hed Beds” act of CIR Va 3, Na Bp aD \ecant Mit "Mocha uf he Mel Cog Praeste™ ABMT. Jona opi! Maheaen Nol 61985. 26) ant ‘Nisyona Ky Beta Commamiin, 1972 tay, Khe Foon of Sy FO CK!" Psst inh sod bn, Tong Ws pp 1 Reman FC Suara and Shaw. M.-C: “Con Fonction! oun gr Eizo fo St Va 110" 1988 385-396 ‘Stow MC ar aon T Gy Brite Brrmog of Caing Tl” Annas PCHRD. NS RN Tn 5368 oth, FA Doma Apo gy Speed Mastialng” ASME Jota. rato Eons fo nents il 107 8, gp NaS “attnuh W- Sand Shan, MC" Pan ce he hur Par a Cvs ‘sag Poe Fiat Son ez Al Wotan estrch Carre Me dma} 83.2388 Fu ey SMP, Dear ‘taw, HLC, Dink, £02 Seat A, Coat, NHL, Lacvon, EG Vag bs Bhai Mei Rego 9 US Air Fs, 198 Seon MC hat Cans Piping Caenon Pre, Osird, 1986 Zinc. tte Mesemechaof Pacey” Pace of Mal 8 SH. or Maly 96, pp 33 ‘Transactions of the ASME callecton.asme.org/ on 0/24/2014 Terms of Use: Mtp:/asmeorgferms