Effect of β phase fraction in titanium alloys on chip segmentation in their orthogonal

machining
Shashikant Joshi, Pravin Pawar, Asim Tewari, Suhas S. Joshi1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Powai,
Mumbai - 400076, India

Abstract: β phase fraction in titanium alloys changes their shear band forming tendency,
which in turn influences chip segmentation during machining. To investigate this aspect
further, orthogonal turning experiments to obtain chip roots were performed on three titanium
alloys, with increasing β phase fraction, viz. α , α + β and β rich alloys. Besides
microstructure of chip roots, three segment deformation parameters, viz. shear plane length,
segment strain and included angle were used as responses. An increase in β phase fraction
increases fracture part in a segment formation. Consequently, chip segment formation shows
thermal softening leading to shear band formation in α alloys, whereas occurrence of fracture
over longer length in the α + β and β rich alloys. A higher β phase fraction increases shear
plane length, segment strain but decreases the segment included angle. Finally, chip
segmentation frequency has been correlated to the frequency of variation in cutting forces.

Keywords: Chip Segmentation, segmentation frequency, thermal softening, β phase fraction,

titanium alloys, segment strain.

1. Introduction
Titanium and its alloys are widely used in aerospace, chemical, marine, and surgical
applications because of high strength-to-weight ratio which is maintained at elevated
temperatures, good corrosion resistance and inertness to human body. However, titanium
alloys are ‘difficult-to-machine’ due to their poor thermal conductivity, reactivity with tool
materials, low modulus of elasticity and their ability to maintain strength at high
temperatures. These properties of titanium alloys cause several kinds of damages on
machined surfaces and cutting tools. Thus, it is not only difficult to attain good surface
quality and integrity, but also the cost of machining and subsequent salvage of components
increases. Therefore, intensive research has been undertaken all over the world to improve
their machinability and consequently to reduce the cost of their machining.

1
Corresponding author: Ph: +9122 25767527; Fax:+9122 2672 6875; email:
ssjoshi@iitb.ac.in
1
Depending upon the β phase fraction at room temperature, titanium alloys are broadly
classified as α , α + β and β alloys. α alloy has the smallest fraction of β phase and β alloy has
the largest β phase fraction. The composition of α - and β -phases in titanium alloys, change
their mechanical and microstructural properties. α titanium alloys have excellent resistance to
high temperature due to presence of a single phase. α + β titanium alloys are heat treatable
due to the presence of two phases and have excellent combination of strength and ductility. β
rich alloys have higher heat treatability, deep hardening potential, fatigue resistance, and
ductility due to higher contents of β phase. However, the response of these materials to the
machining operations in terms of their tendency to form shear bands and mechanisms of
segment formation are very different. In this paper, an influence of β phase fraction on the
machinability of titanium alloy is considered for the study.

Extensive research has been carried out to study the influence of processing parameters on
the mechanism of chip segment formation during machining of α + β titanium alloys
(Ti6Al4V). Zhen-Bin and Komanduri (1995) observed the mechanism of segment formation
by catastrophic thermoplastic shear. The catastrophic thermoplastic instability causes a
decrease in the flow stresses due to thermal softening in a narrow zone called shear band,
leading to the formation of segmented chips. On the other hand, the formation of saw tooth
chips even at extremely low cutting speeds, and visualization of cracks at the free surface of
the chips provide a strong evidence of periodic fracture as being the root cause of segmented
chips formation. Therefore, Shaw and Vyas (1999) attributed the formation of chip segments
to periodic cracks. Bayoumi and Xie (1995) considered a combined effect of cutting speed
and feed rate to evaluate quantity of heat required to form the segmented chips. The heat
generated with a critical cutting load of 0.004 m2/min (cutting speed × feed = 0.004) was
considered sufficient to form segmented chips during machining. Also, they found that at
higher cutting speeds, chip segmentation frequency decreases. However, at higher feed rate,
chip segmentation frequency increases. Armendia et al.(2010) compared chip morphology of
Ti6Al4V and TIMETAL, which have similar mechanical properties but different
microstructures. They observed that higher cutting speed and feed rate increases spacing
between chip segments, in the case of both titanium alloys. Also, they measured segment
angle on the chip segment, which is the shear angle passing through the shear zone. This is
measured on the chip segment and found to decrease from 60° to 45°, with an increase in the
cutting speed from 1200 to 4800 m/min. Gente et. al (2001) observed that at very high
cutting speeds above 4800 m/min, the segments become triangular in shape and are formed

2
by propagation of crack along the chip thickness. Also, they observed a transition in the chip
morphology from serrated to discontinuous at a higher cutting speeds of 4400 m/min. Sutter
and List (2013) observed a change in the chip segment formation mechanism, from thermal
softening to fracturing along shear plane at cutting speeds above 2700 m/min. In another
study, Sun et al. (2009) correlated chip segmentation frequency to the fluctuations in cutting
forces during machining. The chip segmentation frequency matched well with the frequency
of variation in the cutting forces during machining operation. In addition, they attributed an
increase in the cutting forces at a lower cutting speed of 600 m/min to work hardening of the
material. On the other hand, a decrease in the cutting forces above 600 m/min was attributed
to thermal softening caused by high work-tool interface temperature.

All the above studies show that the influence of processing parameters on the chip
morphology of Ti6Al4V has been well studied. However, there is very little knowledge of the
influence of β phase fraction of titanium alloys, on the mechanism of chip segment formation
during machining. β phase fraction changes the frequency of segmentation which introduces
vibrations in tool-work system during machining. This paper therefore focuses on the
influence of β phase fraction in titanium alloys on their mechanism of chip segment
formation and the corresponding variation in the frequency of chip segmentation.

Accordingly, orthogonal turning experiments were performed using a chip freezing device.
SEM analysis of chips and chip roots was carried out to understand the mechanism of chip
segment formation during machining of the three titanium alloys with different
microstructures. The details of this work are presented in the following sections.

2. Experimental Details
2.1 Theme of the experiment
The theme of the experiments involved understanding the influence of β phase fraction on
machinability of the three titanium alloys viz.α , α + β , β rich(α + β). β phase fraction in the
alloys depends upon the % of β stabilizing element like W, V, Mo. With an increase in the
percentageof β stabilizing alloying elements, the proportion of β phase in the titanium alloy
at room temperature increases. On the other hand, with an increase in the α stabilizing
element like Al, Sn, O, etc., the proportion of α phase at room temperature increases. The β
phase has BCC crystal structure and has more number of slip systems available for
deformation. On the other hand, α phase has HCP crystal structure and has less number of
slip systems available for deformation. Therefore, β phase is ductile and easier to process
thermo mechanically than α phase. To study the influence of β phase fraction, three titanium
3
alloys with increasing β phase fraction, viz. α , α + β ,and β rich (α + β ) alloy were considered
for the study. Fig. 1 shows the phase diagram of titanium alloys considered for this analysis.

+
Temperature

Ti4.1Al3.3
Ti5.26Al3.03Sn Ti6Al4V V3.9Mo

concentration
Fig. 1 β isomorphous phase diagram showing approximate position of analyzed titanium
alloys
The scheme of experiment is presented in Fig. 2. The experimentation involved performing
orthogonal turning on all the three alloys and obtaining partially deformed chip roots using a
quick-stop device. Another part of the experiments involved measurement of cutting forces
using dynamometers. The experiments were performed by changing cutting speeds and the
parameters such as chip segment forming mechanism, segment deformation, frequency of
chip segmentation and cutting forces. These have been used to analyze machinability of the
three titanium alloys. The influence of β phase fraction on the machinability of the three
titanium alloys was mainly evaluated. This analysis was also used to determine the
processing parameters that help improve the machinability of the three titanium alloys.

4
 Compositional changes in Processing
Input phase parameters

Cutting speed

Feed rate

Basic
Operations 1.Quick-stop 2.Orthogonal
orthogonal turning turning

mechanism of Segment Cutting Frequency of chip

Analysis segment formation deformation force segmentation

Knowledge of microstructural Processing Parameters for improved

Output composition on machinability machinability

Fig. 2 Theme of the experiment

2.2 Experimental specifications

The experimental specifications which include detailed specifications of workpiece materials,
machine tool, processing parameters, dynamometer, thermal camera and cutting tool are
presented in Fig. 3a. Fig. 3b shows a schematic of the quick-stop or chip freezing device used
for the experiments.
Experimental specifications
Workpiece 1. alloy 2. 3. rich Hammer to Workpiece (pipe)
material Ti5.36Al3.02S alloy alloy hit the pin
n Pipe OD 100 Ti6Al4V Pipe Ti4.16Al3.26V3.89 Swivel pin Tool holder Insert
mm 1 mm OD 100 mm Mo1.31Si Pipe OD
thick 1mm thick 193 mm and 1mm
thick
Machine tool 1.Conventional lathe,
2. CNC lathe EMCO/PCTURN Model 345–II
Processing Cutting speed (m/min): 29, 73, 146
parameters Feed (mm/rev): 0.11 Shear pin
Dynamometer Kistler dynamometer (Model 9257) Tension spring to hold
tool holder in contact
Thermal Model Therma CAM P640 with shear pin
camera
Cutting tool 1. TNGP3305, 2. CNMG 1204008RP Housing of QC device
Tool holder 1. PTGNR 1616, 2.PCLR 2020
a. b.

Fig. 3a, b Experimental details a. experimental specifications and b. quick stop chip freezing
device

Table 1 gives the mechanical properties of the three titanium alloys. Hardness of the three
titanium alloys was determined by nano-indentation. It may be noted that the strength of β
rich alloy is the highest and that of the α alloy is the lowest.

5
 Table 1 Mechanical properties of various titanium alloys (An RTI International Metals, 2000)
Titanium Shear Fracture Thermal
Hardness
alloy type Strength Toughness Conductivity
(GPa)
(MPa) (MPa-m½) (W/m K)
α alloy 3.56 414 71.8 8.667
α + β alloy 5.44 440 75 6.7
β rich
5.52 524 90 7
α + β alloy

Microstructure of the three alloys is as shown in Figs. 4a-c. The microstructure consists
primarily of α and β grains; white grains being α -phase, which are surrounded by black β -
phase. Both α and α + β alloys have coarse equi-axed grain microstructure, see Figs. 4a, b.
On the other hand, the microstructure of β rich alloy is lamellar with very fine grains
formation, see Fig. 4c. Online measurement of temperature was carried out using thermal
camera, model Therma CAM P640. At the same time, online cutting forces were measured
using Kistler dynamometer (Model 9257).

phase phase α phase (white)

α phase α phase
phase(black)

a. alloy b. alloy c. rich alloy

Fig. 4a-c Microstructure of Titanium alloys in radial direction a. α alloy b. α + β alloy c. β

rich α + β alloy

2.3 Experimental set up and procedure

All the machining experiments were conducted at room temperature without any external
lubrication or coolant (in dry condition). Some of the orthogonal turning experiments were
performed using a quick-stop or chip freezing device. The device stops cutting action
instantaneously leaving a chip segment attached on the work called as chip root. However,
the chip roots formed are in a partially deformed condition. A schematic of the device is
presented in Fig. 3b. It consists of a cutting tool with an insert mounted on the tool holder.
The tool is held in position by a brass shear pin of 4 mm diameter. A hammer of 10 kg was
used to hit the knob on a tool holder and break the shear pin instantaneously. To obtain chip
root, time taken to hit the knob of quick stop device and to break the shear pin must be less

6
than time required for workpiece to make one revolution. With a maximum workpiece rpm of
500 used in this experiment, the time available to withdraw tool using a quick-stop device
comes out to be 0.12 s. An instantaneous withdrawal of tool from the cutting zone is possible
when the brass pin shears off. This thus leaves a partially formed chip root on the work
surface. Sample of length 2.8mm × width 0.8 mm is cut from the work piece along with
partially formed chip for further analysis.

3. Results and discussion

In this section, results of the experiment are discussed in detail. The results mainly explain
the influence of β phase fraction and cutting speed on the mechanism of chip segment
formation in orthogonal machining of the three titanium alloys. The mechanism of chip
segment formation in terms of segment geometry parameters has been presented. Further, the
discussion pertains to a variation in frequency of segmentation with cutting speed and
material composition and their correlation with cutting forces.

3.1 Mechanism of a chip segment formation

In this section, SEM images of chip roots and magnified images of chip segments obtained
during machining of the three titanium alloys at a cutting speed of 73 m/min are presented to
explain the influence of β phase fraction on the mechanism of segment formation. Figs.
5a,d,g show SEM images of chip roots, and Figs. 5b,e,h show magnified images of chip
segments of the three titanium alloys. Figs. 5c, f, i show the microstructure of chips in the
three titanium alloys. Observation of chip segment shape and inter-segment spacing are used
to understand the influence of β phase fraction on the mechanism of chip segment formation.

In the α alloy, it is observed that the chip segments remain connected to each other without
intersegment space, see Fig. 5a. Also, no cracks are visible at the free surface of the chip.
This is an indication of the absence of a fracture during segment formation. This points to
segment formation by sliding of one segment over the other. The action causes friction and
thereby softening of the inter-segment surfaces. Chip segments of regular trapezoidal in
shape are formed, see Fig. 5b. Thermal softening and subsequent formation of shear bands is
shown in the optical microstructure of a chip segments, see Fig. 5c. As discussed by
Boothroyd and Knight (1989), during machining, the material deforms at a very high strain
rate. This reduces the ductility of the material. However, an increase in temperature during
machining causes thermal softening, which offsets the reduction of ductility in the material in
a narrow zone called shear band, as discussed by Zhen-Bin and Komanduri (1995). Thus, in

7
α alloy which has the lowest β phase fraction, the segments are formed by thermal softening
leading to the generation of shear bands.

In the α + β alloy, it is observed that the chip segments are connected to each other only at the
tool end, see Fig. 5d. Also, cracks are visible in between segments at the free surface of the
chip. This is an indication of presence of a fracture during a chip segment formation. This
points to segment formation by fracture from the workpiece. However, cracks do not
propagate over the whole chip thickness. Segments remain joined to each other at the tool end
which indicates presence of thermal softening, see Fig. 5d. Segments of irregular trapezoidal
shape are formed in this material, see Fig. 5e. The presence of fracture, thermal softening and
subsequent formation of shear band are shown in the optical microstructure of a chip, see Fig.
5f. As we know, during machining, the material deformation occurs at a very high strain rate
reducing ductility of the material. However, an increase in temperature during machining
does not offset the reduction in material ductility in a narrow zone called shear band as
discussed by Vyas and Shaw (1999). Thus, in α + β alloy, which has a higher β phase fraction
than α alloy, the chip segments are formed by a combination of fracture and thermal
softening.

In the β rich alloy, it is observed that most of the chip segments remain connected to each
other without any inter-segment space, see Fig. 5g. Also, the crack from chip free surface
side propagates over a shorter length than that of in α + β alloy. This shows the absence of a
fracture during a chip segment formation. It again points to the segment formation by sliding
of one segment over the other, which primarily is due to thermal softening. Chip segments of
regular trapezoidal in shape are formed, see Fig. 5e. Thermal softening and subsequent
formation of shear band is shown on the optical micrograph of a chip segment, see Fig. 5i.
Thus, in β rich alloy, like α alloy, the segments are formed by thermal softening and
subsequent formation of shear bands.

8
Chip Chip Thermal
Fracture Chip
Thermal Thermal softening
softening softening

Tool end
Chip free Chip free
surface Tool end surface Chip free
surface Tool
end

Work
Work Work

a. . d. . g. .
C
C C D
D B Included
Included B
Angle θ
Angle θ Included
Fracture
D Angle θ
Crack at B
shear plane
Regular trapezoid
Regular trapezoid
segment Irregular trapezoid
A A segment A
segment
A
b. . e. segment. h. segment.

Fracture

Shear band due Shear band due Shear band due

to thermal softening to thermal softening to thermal softening

c. . f. . i. .

Fig. 5a-i Chip root and segment shape at cutting speed of 73 m/min a-c. α alloy, d-f. α + β
alloys, g-i. β rich alloys

9
3.2 Segment deformation parameters

In order to explain influence of β phase fraction and cutting speed on segment deformation,
three parameters viz. shear plane length, segment strain and included angle have been
defined. In addition, these parameters are used to correlate chip morphology of different
material composition. Fig. 6a shows definition of segment deformation parameters on a
typical chip segment.
Un-deformed
chip thickness
Segment strain
E ( =
Cutting AF
Shear
direction plane
Included
Angle C
G

Shear
angle(ф)
A B
Machined
surface
Tool

a. b.

Fig. 6a-b Parameters to define segment deformation a. typical chip segment showing segment
deformation parameters b. relation of included angle and initial volume of material separated
from the workpiece

rich rich
Un-deformed
Un-deformed Un-deformed
rich D chip thickness
chip thickness chip thickness D
D Shear
Workpiece Workpiece plane
Shear C Shear Workpiece
rotation rotation C
plane plane rotation C
α alloy
A α alloy
A A α alloy
B

B B Workpiece
Workpiece Workpiece

Tool

a. at 29 m/min b. at 73 m/min c. at 146 m/min

Fig. 8a-c Model of segment deformation for three titanium alloys at a. 29m/min b. 73
m/min c.146 m/min

10
The first parameter, shear plane length (AD) is an indicator of material strength and cutting
forces encountered during machining (Kroneberg, 1966). Also, it represents the volume of
material that undergoes deformation during machining. The variation in shear plane length
with material composition and cutting speed is explained in detail in section 3.3.1.

The second parameter, segment strain (ε ¿ is defined as a ratio of length BC to length BG, as
given below (Turley and Doyle 1982, Yan et al. 2013), see Fig. 6a for the details.

ε =length BC /length BG (1)

Where, length BC and BG are shown on Fig. 6a. To obtain length BC , a line is drawn parallel
to length AF , which is a line on workpiece, see Fig. 6a. It intersects the segment at point B.
Point C is located as a point where two adjoining segment separates from each other. Length
BG represents segment width which is obtained by drawing a line perpendicular to length AD
from point B. The dimensions BC and BG were measured using image J software. These
parameters are measured using image J software. Image J is a java based application for
analyzing image. It is used to measure distance and angle on SEM image. Segment shear
strain thus obtained matches well with the previous publication i.e. Turley and Doyle (1982)
and Yan et al. (2013). Segment strain has been used to quantify the segment forming
mechanism. The variation in segment strain with material composition and cutting speed is
explained in detail in section 3.3.2.

The third segment deformation parameter, included angle (η ¿ is defined as an angle between
shear plane length ( AD) and the adjacent edge ( DC ), see Fig. 6a. The magnitude of this angle
is proportional to the area (volume) of the chip segment. This is explained in Fig. 6b, which
shows two segments with different included angles, η and η' , see Figs. 6b. A part of the
segment after dotted line ( XY ) represents the initial segment area (volume) that gets
separated from the workpiece, to form the segment. A higher included angle (η> η' ¿ indicates
higher initial volume material (V >V ' ¿ separated from the workpiece. Also, the smaller the
angle, the larger the strength of work material. This is because in forming a segment with
smaller angle, the material offers more resistance. A variation in the included angle on a
segment with material composition and cutting speed for the three titanium alloys is
explained in detail in section 3.3.3.

3.3 Model of segment deformation

To understand changes in the segment deformation parameters as defined above, a model
showing relative segment shape has been evolved. It is prepared by drawing an outline over

11
the segments formed in machining the three alloys under identical machining conditions and
superimposing them over each other. Fig. 7 shows a comparative model thus prepared. The
size of workpiece and tool is very large as compared to the segment size, therefore, they are
not drawn to scale. However, the segments of the three titanium alloys are drawn to scale.

Thus, it is now possible to qualitatively compare segment deformation parameters for the
three titanium alloys. It is observed that the length of shear plane ( AD β ¿ for β rich alloy is
the highest. It is ( AD α) the lowest for α alloy, see Fig.7. The shear plane length of α + β alloy
( AD α +β ¿ lies in between the two. Second segment deformation parameter, the included angle
varies with material composition. An included angle of α alloy (η α ¿ is higher than α + β and
β rich alloy (η α+β ∧η β ¿ . Further, the segment strain which is proportional to the difference
between segment dimensions ( AD−BC ) is the lowest for α alloy. On the other hand, for
α + β and β rich alloy, the segment strain is higher due to relatively smaller segment
dimension BC, see Fig. 7.

12
 Workpiece
rotation
rich
Un-deformed
chip thickness

α alloy

Workpiece

a. at 29 m/min
Fig. 7 Model showing various segment deformation parameters

Similarly, segment models at cutting speed of 73 and 146 m/min are prepared, see Fig. 8a-c.
On comparing the three conceptual models, it is observed that, the segment size at a cutting
speed of 29 and 146 m/min appears to be smaller than that at the cutting speed of 73 m/min.
Similarly, the length of shear plane and the side of chip segment opposite to it, change
widely. The segment included angle also differs significantly in machining of the three
titanium alloys. Variation in the segment dimensions are explained in the following sections.

13
 rich rich
Un-deformed
Un-deformed Un-deformed
rich D chip thickness
chip thickness chip thickness D
D Shear
Workpiece Workpiece plane
C Shear Workpiece
rotation Shear rotation C
plane plane rotation C
α alloy
A α alloy
A A α alloy
B

B B Workpiece
Workpiece Workpiece

Tool

a. at 29 m/min b. at 73 m/min c. at 146 m/min

Fig. 8a-c Model of segment deformation for three titanium alloys at a. 29m/min b. 73 m/min
c.146 m/min

3.3.1 Analysis of shear plane length

A variation in the shear plane length with the material composition and cutting speed for the
three titanium alloys is shown schematically in Fig. 8a-c and quantitatively in Fig. 9. At a
lower cutting speed of 29 m/min, α alloy has lower shear plane length as compared to α + β
and β rich alloys, see Fig. 8a and Fig. 9. The shear plane length of α + β and β rich alloy is
larger by 56% and 71%, respectively as compared with α alloy, see Fig.9. Since α alloy has
lower strength, it undergoes less deformation during the segment formation, and therefore has
a lower shear plane length.

400 Alpha
Alpha+Beta
350 Beta rich
Shear plane length lsp (µm)

300

250

200

150

100
29 73 146
Cutting speed v (m/min)

Fig. 9 Influence of cutting speed on shear plane length

14
At a cutting speed of 73 m/min, the shear plane length of the three titanium alloy increases as
compared to that of at a cutting speed of 29 m/min, see Fig. 8b. With an increase in the
cutting speed from 29 to 73 m/min, α alloy has the highest increase in the shear plane length
(by 74%) as compared to α + β alloy (by 14%) and β rich alloy (by 28%), see Fig. 9. A
comparison of the shear plane length of the three titanium alloys, at 73 m/min, show that the
shear plane length of α alloy and α + β rich alloy is almost the same (Fig. 9). However, β rich
alloy has 26% higher shear plane length than that of α alloy (Fig. 9).

At a cutting speed of 146 m/min, the shear plane length of the three titanium alloy decreases
as compared to that of at 73 m/min, see Fig. 8c. With an increase in the cutting speed from 73
to 146 m/min, α alloy has the highest decrease in shear plane length (of 34%) as compared
with α + β alloy (of 29%) and β rich alloy (of 14%). A comparison of the shear plane length
of the three titanium alloys, at 146 m/min, shows that the shear plane length of α + β alloy is
10% larger than that of α alloy. β rich alloy has 62% higher shear plane length as compared
to the α alloy, see Fig. 9.

During machining, strain rate hardening and thermal softening phenomena compete with each
other (Zhen-Bin and Komanduri, 1995). With an increase in the cutting speed from 29 to 73
m/min, an increase in the shear plane length for the three titanium alloy shows a rise in the
material strength. However, with a further increase in cutting speed to 146 m/min, a reduction
in the shear plane length occurs, which shows a decrease in the material strength. This could
be due to the higher heat generated during machining at a higher cutting speed that reduces
the strength of the three titanium alloys.

It may also be noted that, with an increase in β phase fraction, the shear plane length
increases, at the three cutting speed. Therefore, α + β and β rich alloys have higher shear
plane length as compared with α alloy.

3.3.2 Analysis of segment strain (ε ¿

A variation in segment strain (ε ¿ with the material composition and cutting speed for the
three titanium alloys is shown quantitatively in Fig. 10. At a lower cutting speed of 29 m/min,
α + β and β rich alloys have a larger segment strain (ε ¿ as compared to α alloy, see Fig. 10.
The segment strain (ε ¿ of α + β and β rich alloy is larger by 7.8% and 12%, respectively as
compared to α alloy. Since α alloy has a lower segment strain, during chip segment
formation, one segment slides over the other over a longer length ( BC ) to form a shear band.

15
On the other hand, in α + β and β rich alloy, higher segment strain corresponds to a larger
fractured portion than the thermally softened portion.

At a cutting speed of 73 m/min, the segment strain of the three titanium alloy increases as
compared to that at a cutting speed of 29 m/min, see Fig. 10. With an increase in the cutting
speed from 29 to 73 m/min, α + β alloy has the highest increase in the segment strain (by
29%) as compared to α alloy (by 27%) and β rich alloy (by 14%). At the cutting speed of 73
m/min, α alloy and β rich alloys have almost identical segment strain. However, α + β alloy
has 10% higher segment strain as compared to the α alloy.

1.6
Alpha
1.5 Alpha+Beta
1.4 Beta rich
1.3
Segment strain ɛ

1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
29 73 146
Cutting speed v (m/min)
Fig. 10 Variation in segment strain with cutting speed for the three titanium alloys

At a cutting speed of 146 m/min, in case of α and α + β alloy, the segment strain decreases as
compared to that of at a cutting speed of 73 m/min, see Fig. 10b. On the other hand, in case of
β rich alloy, segment strain remains more or less same. With an increase in the cutting speed
from 73 to 146 m/min, α alloy shows the highest decrease in segment strain (of 34%)
followed by α + β alloy (16%). At this cutting speed, the segment strain of α + β and β rich
alloy is 40% and 53% larger than that of in α alloy.
A higher segment strain in α + β alloy at the three cutting speeds shows predominance of
fracture in the segment formation during machining of this alloy. On the other hand, in α
alloy, a lower segment strain shows predominance of thermal softening in the segment
formation. A higher segment strain in β rich alloy as compared to that of in α alloy shows, a
larger portion of fracture in the segment formation, at the three cutting speed.

16
The above discussion shows that with an increase in β phase fraction, an increase in the
segment strain and corresponding increase in the part of fracture during mechanism of
segment formation is observed. Therefore, portion of fracture in α alloy is the lower than
α + β and β rich alloys.

3.3.3 Analysis of included angle of segment (η ¿

A variation in the included angle of the segment (η ¿ with the material composition and
cutting speed for the three titanium alloys is shown qualitatively in Fig. 11a-c. In α alloy, the
included angle is almost 90° at the three cutting speeds, see Fig. 11a. On the other hand, in
the case of α + β and β rich alloys, the included angle reduces to 70° at the three cutting
speeds, see Figs. 11b,c. α alloy, being softer than the other two alloys, has a higher included
angle, which indicates a larger quantity of material being fractured from the work surface.
This prevents formation of a bulge in the segments and hence the segment edge ( CB ) appears
straight. On the other hand, in α + β and β rich alloy, a smaller included angle indicates a
slow rate of material separation from the work. This is due to higher material strength which
delays separation of the material from the free surface. It causes compression of the segment
along the shear plane thereby causing a bulging along lengths AB and CB , see Fig.11c. It
may be noted that with a larger compression of the chip material at 146 m/min, the shape of a
chip segment becomes triangular, see Fig. 11c.

Thus, with an increase in β phase fraction, a decrease in the included angle of the segment is
observed. Therefore, an included angle in α alloy is larger than α + β and β rich alloy.

17
 Included at 146 m/min
shear
angle(
plane Included
at 29 m/min angle(
shear plane
at 29 m/min

at 146 m/min
at 73 m/min at 73 m/min

a. Segment of b. Segment of

Compression due to delay

Included in material separation
shear plane
angle( Bulge in
segment
at 29 m/min

at 146 m/min

at 73 m/min

c. Segment of

Fig. 11a-c Variations in segment included angle for a.α alloy b. α + β alloy c. β rich alloy

3.3.4 Evaluation of frequency of segmentation

In machining, it is observed that due to formation of shear bands, forces acting on cutting tool
reduce. This causes a fluctuation in the cutting forces, which in turn introduces vibrations in
tool-work system as discussed by Ezugwu and Bonny (2003). Therefore, it is important to
study its variation with respect to the cutting speed. Sun et al.(2009) has used following
formula to evaluate the frequency of segmentation in a machining process

f chip=V /w (2)

where, f chip =¿frequency of segmentation in Hz, V = cutting speed in m/s, w = width of the
segment which represents the distance between the two consecutive shear bands in meter. It
is measured from SEM images of chips using image J software. The segment width, thus
obtained for the three titanium alloys, at three cutting speeds is given in Table 2. The segment
frequency is evaluated using eq. (2).

The segment frequency obtained by eq. (2) is correlated to the frequency of fluctuation in
cutting forces. As pointed out by Kouadri et al. (2013), the fluctuation in the cutting forces

18
corresponds to formation of shear band. Thus, an attempt has been made here to correlate the
frequency of segment formation to the frequency of fluctuation in the cutting forces. A plot of
cutting forces vs. time for the three titanium alloys at a cutting speed of 29 m/min, as
obtained with the cutting force dynamometer is shown in Fig. 12a-c. A section ABC on the
plot in Fig.12a-c shows a rise and drop in the cutting forces. It may corresponds to formation
of chip segment and shear band, respectively during the machining. As the cutting forces
rises from A to B, it could be due to the formation of a chip segment. The cutting forces then
reduce sharply from B to C in time duration of ~90 μs. This decrease may be due to formation
of shear band. Similar approach has been adopted in the past by the researchers such as Sun
et al. (2013) and Koudri et al. (2013) and attributed the reduction in the cutting forces to the
segmented chips considering force vs time plot. Therefore, the time (t ¿ , in Fig. 12a,
represents the time required to form a segment. Similarly, the time to form a segment has
been evaluated for the other two titanium alloys from Fig. 12 b,c. An average value of the
time along with its variation, thus evaluated is presented in Table 2. Knowing this, the
frequency of segmentation is calculated as follows

f cutting forces=1/t (3)

where, t=¿ time required to form a segment.

The frequency of segmentation has been normalized by dividing it at 29, 73 and 146 m/min
with that at least cutting speed of 29 m/min. The normalized frequencies of segmentation in
kHz obtained by eq.(3) for α , α + β∧β rich alloys are compared with those obtained by eq.(2)
and their plots are shown in Fig. 13a-c. The normalized segmentation frequencies obtained
by eq.(2) and (3) match well with an average error of ± 9 %. Thus, the fluctuation in cutting
forces can be correlated to the frequency of chip segmentation.

19
Fig. 12a-c Variation in cutting forces with time at cutting speed of 29 m/min for a. α alloy b.
α + β alloy c. β rich alloy

Table 2 Chip segmentation frequency evaluation for the three titanium alloys
S.N Cutting α alloy α + β alloy β rich alloy
. speed w ( μm¿ t ( μs ¿ w ( μm ¿ t ( μs ¿ w ( μm¿ t ( μs ¿
(m/
min)
1 29 121.6±2.4 270± 36 129.0± 3.8 248± 73 110.0± 33 286± 5.8
2 73 122.7±8.1 261± 26 111.1±8.0 238± 36 137.9±40 338± 6.4
3 146 160.4± 2.6 327± 39 103.1± 5.8 248±26 118.0±25 332± 5.0
w=¿ segment width ( μm¿ , t=¿ time to form one segment ( μs ¿

20
 6 8
α cutting force
α+β cutting force
α chip
5 7 α+β chip

6
Normalized segmentation

Normalized segmentation
frequency f ( kHz )

frequency f ( kHz )
5
3 4
3
2
2
1
1
29 73 146
29 73 146
Cutting speed v (m/min)
Cutting speed v (m/min)
a. b.
6
β rich cutting force
5 β rich chip
Normalized segmentation
frequency f (kHz)

1
29 73 146
Cutting speed v (m/min)
c.

Fig. 13a-c Variation in segmentation frequency obtained by cutting force vs. time plot and by
segment width evaluation from chip for a. α alloy b. α + β alloy c. β rich alloy

Fig. 14 shows the influence of cutting speed on segmentation frequency for the three titanium
alloys. The variation in the segmentation frequency is due to the influence of cutting speed
and time required to form the shear band. With an increase in the cutting speed, segmentation
frequency for the three titanium alloys increases, see Fig.14. A comparison of segmentation
frequency for the three titanium alloys, shows that at cutting speed of 29 and 73 m/min, it
does not differ significantly, see Fig.14. However, at higher cutting speed of 146 m/min, the
segmentation frequency for the three titanium alloys changes. At cutting speed of 146 m/min,
α alloy has the lowest segmentation frequency and α + β rich alloy has the highest
segmentation frequency. The segmentation frequency of β rich alloy lies in between α and
α + β alloys. As discussed by Weiss and Semiatin (1999), the α alloys have a single-phase (
α phase ¿ structure and it is more temperature resistant. Therefore, heat generated with an

21
increase in the cutting speed does not contribute to the shear band formation. On the other
hand, α + β and β rich alloys have a two-phase structure and the β phase is more sensitive to
the temperature than α phase. This causes a higher heat generation due to an increase in the
cutting speed, which in turn increases the number of shear bands formed in α + β and β rich
alloys. Therefore, at higher cutting speed of 146 m/min, higher heat generated causes an
increase in segmentation frequency for α + β and β rich alloy. Consequently, at higher
cutting speed of 146 m/min, in case of both α + β and β rich alloys, the segment width
reduces by 7% and 14%, respectively.

Thus, with an increase in β phase fraction, chip segmentation frequency becomes more
sensitive to the cutting speed. Thus, at a cutting speed of 146 m/min, a higher segmentation
frequency was observed in α + β and β rich alloys as compared with α alloy.

31

26
α alloy α+β alloy
α+β alloy
Segmentation frequency f (KHz)

21 β rich alloy β rich alloy

16 α alloy

11

1
29 73 146
Cutting speed v (m/min)

Fig. 14 Variation in frequency of segmentation with cutting speed for the three titanium
alloys

Conclusions
Based on the above discussion on experimental analysis of the effect of β phase fraction on
chip segmentation, it can be concluded that -

1. With an increase in β phase fraction, a portion of fracture along the shear plane increases
over the portion of shear band. Therefore, in α alloys, the segments are predominantly
formed with thermal softening and subsequent generation of shear band. On the other
hand, in the case of α + β and β rich alloys, a larger portion fracture in the formation of
chip segment is observed.

22
2. With an increase in β phase fraction, segment shape changes from regular trapezoidal to
irregular trapezoidal. Thus, segment shape of α alloy is regular trapezoidal, and α + β and
β rich alloy have segment shape of irregular trapezoidal.
3. With an increase in β phase fraction, three segment deformation parameters viz. shear
plane length, segment strain and an included angle have been analyzed. At higher β phase
fraction, an increase in shear plane length and segment strain and decrease in included
angle is observed. Thus, shear plane length and segment strain of α alloy is the lower than
α + β and β rich alloy. Also, included angle in α alloy is larger than α + β and β rich alloy.
4. The chip segmentation frequency and frequency of variation in the cutting forces have
been corelated and have been found to be identical. Also, segmentation frequency
becomes more sensitive to cutting speed, with an increase in β phase fraction. Thus, at a
cutting speed of 146 m/min, a higher segmentation frequency was observed in α + β and β
rich alloys as compared with α alloy.

Acknowledgment

The authors gratefully acknowledge the partial support provided for this work by National
Centre for Aerospace Innovation and Research, IIT-Bombay, a Dept. of Science and
Technology-Government of India, The Boeing Company and IIT Bombay Collaboration.

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