Theory Into Practice

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/htip20

All Eyez on Me: Disproportionality, Disciplined, and

Disregarded While Black

Erik M. Hines, Donna Y. Ford, Edward C. Fletcher, Jr. & James L. Moore, III

To cite this article: Erik M. Hines, Donna Y. Ford, Edward C. Fletcher, Jr. & James L. Moore, III
(2022): All Eyez on Me: Disproportionality, Disciplined, and Disregarded While Black, Theory Into
Practice, DOI: 10.1080/00405841.2022.2096376

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2022.2096376

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DISENGAGED, DISCIPLINED, DISREGARDED 1

Publisher: Taylor & Francis & The College of Education and Human Ecology, The Ohio State
University

Journal: Theory Into Practice

DOI: 10.1080/00405841.2022.2096376

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All Eyez on Me: Disproportionality, Disciplined, and Disregarded While Black

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Erik M. Hines,1 Donna Y. Ford,2 Edward C. Fletcher Jr.2, and James L. Moore, III2,

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Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Florida State University
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Department of Educational Studies, The Ohio State University
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Corresponding author: Erik M. Hines; email: emhines@fsu.edu

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Author Note

Erik M. Hines ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6025-0779

We have no known conflict of interest to disclose.

Correspondence concerning this chapter should be addressed to Erik M. Hines, Dept of

Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, 1114 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32306
DISENGAGED, DISCIPLINED, DISREGARDED 2

All Eyez on Me: Disproportionality, Disciplined, and Disregarded While Black

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Abstract

In this article, we present an extensive overview of inequities in three areas of education:

(1) gifted and talented education; (2) accelerated coursework; (3) and discipline.

Intersectionality undergirds our focus on these three areas as they go together to paint a

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disturbing picture of the experiences of Black children in P-12 schools, as well as

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institutions of higher education. In addition to laying out the culturally assaultive

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problems, we provide recommendations and resources designed to develop anti-racist,

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culturally competent educators, along with an equitable education system where Black

students are seen as capable, intelligent, good citizens, and humans who are understood

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and affirmed; thus, “All Eyez on Me” results in dynamic rather than deficit thinking among
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education professionals.
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Keywords: Black Children, Accelerated Coursework, Discipline, GATE

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All Eyez on Me: Disproportionality, Disciplined, and Disregarded While Black

When it comes to Black children, the United States is in a state of emergency.

Black children are more than likely at risk for absenteeism, food insecurity, higher rates of

suspension, higher rates of truancy, and academic underachievement (de Brey et al., 2019;

Ford & More 2013; Hines et al., 2022; Vega et al., 2012). Moreover, Black children tend

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to experience bias and low expectations from teachers and other school personnel (Hines

et al., 2021a; Ladson-Billings, 2013). The typical cycle or pattern is cultural

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misunderstandings and clashes between educators who are mainly White (85%) and

female (75%) (Irwin et al., 2021) and Black students, which leads to behavioral

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misinterpretations, misunderstandings, adultification, over-referral for discipline, over-
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referral for special education placement1, and under-referral for gifted and talented

identification and placement and advanced coursework overall (e.g., Advanced Placement)
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(Ford, 2013; Hines, 2021b).

The late rapper Tupac Shakur’s appropriately titled song, “All Eyez on Me”
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(Pennington et al., 1996), written by James Pennington, Johnny Lee Jackson, Tupac

Amaru Shakur, and Tyrus Gerald Himes, captures the lived experiences of far too many
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Black students in society and our educational institutions where their bodies are

extensively scrutinized and over-policed. To the point, the United States’ educational
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system has a stubborn history of policing Black students, especially Black males (Kendi,
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2019). From the moment they enter formal education as preschoolers and kindergarteners,

Black boys and girls are disproportionately disciplined and referred for special education

(U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2014). Below, the authors outline

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Due to space limitations, we do not include special education over-referrals and over-representation of Black
students. We certainly recognize the inequities, and have written on them elsewhere.
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the issues that serve as barriers to Black student achievement and healthy socio-emotional

development, and offer recommendations to improve the outcomes of this population.

Black Students and Gifted and Talented Education

While the U.S. government does not federally mandate gifted and talented education,

hereafter referred to as GATE, they have issued definitions, often delineating five categories or

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types of gifts and talents: (1) intellectual; (2) specific academic; (3) creativity; (4) visual and

performing arts; and (5) leadership (National Association for Gifted Children [NAGC], 2013).

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Two important caveats are the inclusion of ‘potential’ and students being compared to others

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from their background and experience in the 1993 federal definition.

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Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the potential for
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performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared to others

of their age, experience or environment…. Outstanding talents are present in

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children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all
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areas of human endeavor. (United States Department of Education, 1993, p. 26).

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We were hopeful that more Black and other minoritized students would have access to
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GATE after the 1993 definition. However, as of 2022, GATE demographics remain stubbornly

White and high-income in its classes, programs and services, but is the reverse for Black and
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low-income students who are underrepresented by approximately 55%. The degree of

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underrepresentation is significant and inequitable (Ford, 2013). Ford and King (2014)

summarized the percentage of underrepresentation and degree of inequity for every U.S. state,

and found that the majority of states failed to identify and serve Black students; that inequity was

extensive for Black students more than other economic, and racial and ethnic groups.
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Grissom and Redding (2016) conducted a large study on teacher discretion in the context

of teacher referrals to GATE by the demographics of students (race and ethnicity, and family

income), test scores, and academic performance (grades). When Black students were matched

with White students on the aforementioned variables, they were still under-referred by their

teachers. Also important to note is that Black students were much more likely to be referred if

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they had a Black teacher. The latter findings point to the importance of student-teacher ethnic

matching (Easton-Brooks, 2019). Grissom and Redding concluded, and we agree as these

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findings reinforce our personal and professional experiences, that racial discrimination was

operating.

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Educator under-referrals for Black students (and over-referrals for White students) is by
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no means a trivial matter. To add more context, the majority of states begin the screening and

identification processes with referrals. Much less often is universal screening adopted and
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implemented (Card & Guliano, 2015). Initial access or lack thereof to GATE is determined by

two primary factors: (a) teacher referral and (b) parent/family/caregiver2 referral and advocacy
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(NAGC, n.d.). Although some districts have developed less subjective and more comprehensive

and equitable policies and procedures to recruit underrepresented populations, most districts rely
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on subjective ways (NAGC, n.d.). In short, we believe that deficit thinking, both intentional

(explicit) and unintentional (implicit), results in such under-referrals by White teachers.

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Caregivers from low-income and non-White backgrounds are less likely to advocate for
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their children to enter GATE (Ford, 2013). This is not because they are uninterested and

uninvested in their child’s education, but for reasons often ignored and discounted by decision

makers (little, no, and/or negative experiences with GATE, work schedule, limited financial

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To be culturally responsive and inclusive of diversity, we use the terms ‘parent’, ‘family’, and ‘caregiver’
interchangeably. Doing so honors the myriad of family structures in Black and other minoritized communities (e.g.,
extended, nuclear, single, communal, fictive).
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resources, and insufficient social capital) that prevent the aggressive advocacy and efficacy

required to ensure that their children are identified for and served in GATE. This reliance on

parental/family/ caregiver advocacy during challenging lived experiences and the failure of

educators to be intentional in supporting these families about GATE is a major reason these

children are persistently under-referred by caregivers. Further, eurocentric and narrow notions of

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‘parents’ (i.e., nuclear) must be broadened to enrapture a variety of family structures and roles

(e.g., extended, fictive kinship/communal, single, grandparents) (Ford, 2013).

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Next, to formally identify (label) GATE students, almost every state uses an intelligence

test. Students must have an IQ of 130 or higher. Students may be given an achievement test to

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evaluate specific academic areas (math, language arts, science, and/or social studies) and must
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score in the 95th percentile or higher. Creativity can be measured by the Torrance Test of

Creative Thinking (Torrance, 2008), an objective instrument, but many states rely on a subjective
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checklist. Performances and products are evaluated for visual and performing arts. Leadership is
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measured with a checklist and/or participation in clubs and organizations. We maintain that gang
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leaders exude many characteristics of leadership found on checklists (e.g., popular, charismatic,

persuasive, organized). However, gang leaders have a nil probability of being recruited for
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GATE. We urge educators to rethink and broaden their views of creativity and leadership.

Students will unlikely be identified as GATE without taking an intelligence test; 90% of
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districts administer IQ tests (State of the Nation, 2014-2015). Unless universal screening (Card,
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2015) is in place, students are unlikely to be evaluated without a (subjective) referral/nomination.

Intelligence tests have been extensively criticized for being overused and biased in favor of

White and higher-income groups, while disadvantaging others (Helms, 2010). Most are normed

on White students, which helps explain their higher test scores.

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Many traditional IQ tests contain a non-verbal subscale so their use and efficacy ought

not to be questioned or debated. Students who live in poverty, are English Language Learners,

and are non-White benefit most from culturally responsive instruments, as stated in

psychological testing standards (e.g., American Psychological Association). Furthermore, GATE

students must not be ‘identified’ solely based on one instrument (NAGC, n.d.). We advocate for

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multiple ‘assessments,’ which are comprehensive -- multidimensional (many types of measures)

and multi-modal (different skills and abilities evaluated).

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Accelerated Coursework

Accelerated college credit initiatives are comprised of Advanced Placement, International

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Baccalaureate, dual credit (high school students earn college credit), and dual enrollment
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(students earn both college and high school credit from a course taken at a college) coursework

(Pierson et al., 2017). While there are various terms used throughout the literature, we will use
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the term dual enrollment throughout this manuscript as it is the most commonly used phrase in
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the literature. Dual enrollment opportunities allow students in high school to earn college credit
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by taking postsecondary coursework toward high school completion, acquire industry

certifications, or earn an associate or baccalaureate degree. The location where the student takes
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the course varies from on a college campus, at the high school (taught by a high school teacher
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whom also serves as a college adjunct), or online. Funding and requirements for dual enrollment
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varies across the 50 states. Dual enrollment has increasingly become popular around the country

and has been an initiative to enable student access to postsecondary education, increase the rigor

of the high school curriculum, and strengthen the links between high school and college (Bailey

& Karp, 2003; Thomas et al., 2013).

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However, few rigorous studies have examined the impact of student participation in dual

enrollment on various postsecondary outcomes (Karp et al., 2007). The studies examining dual

enrollment have emphasized who participates (Estacion et al., 2011), the link between dual

enrollment and high school grades and graduation (Allen & Dadgar, 2012), postsecondary

attainment of participants (An, 2013), and their time to degree completion (Adelman, 2004).

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Using ordinary least squares and logistic regression, Karp and co-authors found that student

participation in dual enrollment in Florida was positively related to graduating high school,

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enrolling in college, and persistence in college. Nonetheless, gaps in postsecondary degree

attainment are the widest between high socioeconomic (SES) status students and their low-SES

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counterparts – where high SES students are more likely to attain a degree (Doyle, 2010), as well
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as among students from diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds (e.g., Black students) and White

students. This gap is likely to expand even more as the costs to attend college increase, need-
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based funding decreases, and high SES students are more academically prepared to manage the
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rigor of postsecondary coursework. Research has pointed to the disconnect between K-12 and the
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postsecondary educational system as a fundamental cause of the issue of high school students not

being academically prepared for transition into college and the workforce (Bailey & Karp, 2003;
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Hernandez-Gantes & Fletcher, 2013). Thus, dual enrollment opportunities are a critical strategy

to raise the postsecondary aspirations and realization for underrepresented learners, such as
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Black students. The benefits of dual enrollment are that it can help students make the
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psychological transition from high school to college, it can demystify the college experience and

assist in their understanding of the expectations, it can increase their confidence in completing

college courses, it is an inexpensive (in many states, free) way to earn a college degree, and it

shortens the duration of time needed to earn a degree. In fact, dual enrollment initiatives are
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present in all 50 states (Allen & Dadgar, 2012). Yet, few studies have examined access and

equity issues, students’ experiences, and outcomes of dual enrollment students from low-income

and diverse ethnic and racial backgrounds, particularly for students in early college high schools

(An, 2013).

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Because all levels of postsecondary education increase future earning potential (),

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students who participate in dual enrollment could have better opportunities to overcome their

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SES origins and move up the social ladder. Stated differently, dual enrollment has the potential

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to increase the social mobility of low-income students as well as those from underrepresented

ethnic and racial backgrounds (e.g., Black students). However, postsecondary education has been

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known to reproduce existing social inequalities (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977) and thus dual
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enrollment could be a part of the problem. Thus, it is critical that strategies are developed to

ensure equal access to internal and external resources for underrepresented students within early
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college high schools as well as provide opportunities to address their unique interests.
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Discipline and Black Students

It has been documented that there are extreme racial disparities in disciplinary
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actions among children, specifically students of color. Black children are disciplined at

higher rates than any other race of students (Dhailwal et al., 2020). Discipline has caused
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Black children to be traumatized, to act out, have chronic absenteeism, and academic
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underachievement. Further, Black children tend to be disengaged from school because

they see school as punishment rather than a learning environment. Discipline can come in

the form of out-of-school suspension, in-school suspension, referrals to an administrator’s

office, time-out (for primary grades) and corporate punishment in some school districts.

Four issues are presented that lead to harsher disciplinary actions for Black children.
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Bias. Educator biases and beliefs impact their perceptions and cause low

expectations and invoke stereotypical notions that impact Black people, specifically

students. This bias can come in the form of educators writing referrals which negatively

influences a student’s academic development. Biases from educators have been

documented as a significant factor in Black children being underrepresented in gifted and

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talented education; yet, overrepresented in special education. (Conger et al.,2016; Vega &

Moore, 2016; Zhang et al., 2014). These biases and perceptions contribute to the discipline

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gap that we see between Black and White students. .

Teacher Expectations. Parental involvement and high teacher expectations play a

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role in positive school outcomes for Black students (Hines & Holcomb-McCoy, 2013;
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Hines et al., 2019). In addition, researchers have found that Black educator–Black student

relationships are quite positive in that these teachers exhibit interpersonal care that
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promote the well-being, achievement, and long-term postsecondary success of Black

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students (Ladson-Billings, 2005; Tillman, 2004). According to McKinney de Royston

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(2021), “Their relational work seeks to disrupt and counteract how race and racism get

operationalized upon Black children’s bodies to signal to Black children their inherent and
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infinite capacity and goodness.” (p. 73)

Adultification. During the mythopoetic men’s movement of the 1980’s and 1990’s
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the term toxic masculinity was formed. Currently, toxic masculinity is more so used in
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academia and popular culture (See Flood, 2018 https://xyonline.net/content/toxic-

masculinity-primer-and-commentary). To repeat, Black children are frequently viewed

from a deficit perspective - seen as needing constant discipline and punishment for

infractions that are developmentally appropriate. They are often viewed from a deficit
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perspective and as needing correction or punitive actions. Therefore, Black children are

seen as older or superhuman, and “treated the same with corresponding actions,

particularly from educators, law enforcement, and society in general” (Hines et al., 2021b,

p. 1.). According to Epstein and colleagues (2017):

...adultification is a form of dehumanization, robbing black children of the very essence

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of what makes childhood distinct from all other developmental periods: innocence.

Adultification contributes to a false narrative that black youths’ transgressions are

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intentional and malicious, instead of the result of immature decision making — a key

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characteristic of childhood. (p. 6)

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When educators adultify Black students, it impedes their holistic growth and success, and
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the consequences alter opportunities available to them in their education and in life, and can be

fatal, resulting in death (i.e., Jordan Davis, Trayvon Martin, and Tamir Rice). Given the reality of
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not living in a post-racial era, we note that Black students are seen as a problem by society with
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pathological experiences and lifestyles (Hines et al., 2021).

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Zero Tolerance Policies. “ Zero tolerance refers to school discipline policies and

practices that mandate predetermined consequences, typically severe, punitive and

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exclusionary (e.g., out of school suspension and expulsion), in response to specific types

of student misbehavior—regardless of the context or rationale for the behavior” (School

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Discipline Support Initiative, n.d., para 1). These policies disregard individual and cultural
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nuances that call for equitable consequences that are not predetermined, the decisions

made and subsequent actions are tailored to the issues and needs of Black students.

Most zero tolerance policies are in majority minority schools. Moreover, zero

tolerance policies perpetuate anti-Black racism given who and how it is enforced. For
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example, Black males are more likely to be suspended from school than White males

(48.3% vs. 21.4%, respectively) (Musu-Gillette et al., 2015).

Criminalization. Black children in preschool are disciplined more than their White

peers (Stauss, 2020). The OCR reports that Black early childhood students represent 19%

of schools, however, they represent 51% of the disciplinary infractions

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(www.ocrdata.ed.gov). To reiterate, these students are adultified, leading to harsher

discipline measures than their White peers for subjective reasons (e.g., perceived

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aggression, perceived disrespect and challenging authority figures, speaking up, etc.), and

for the same infractions (e.g., smoking, fighting, truancy)..

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Criminalizing Black Students in School: School Resource Officers
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SROs have been a part of American public schools since the 1950s

(https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/fs200105.pdf) . Initially, they were used to build

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bonds between the police and youth, but, as time went on, their presence in schools has
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been more harmful than helpful. Noteworthy and unjust is that Black students often attend
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schools with more school resource officers than school counselors, and at higher rates than

White students (e.g., (https://www.npscoalition.org/post/school-resource-officers-and-

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racial-disparities-in-school-discipline-and-juvenile-justice-referrals; As a Former Cop, I

Know We Need Police-Free Schools (Opinion) ). While writing this article, we came
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across this EdWeek piece by a former police officer sharing problems with having
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resource officers in schools and the need for police reform.. Four points are shared here:

A school resource officer (SRO) is a sworn law enforcement officer assigned to a

designated school with the primary goal of improving school safety. In recent years,

approximately 67% of public schools have an SRO present at least weekly. Despite this
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extensive presence, there have been mixed findings regarding the impact of SROs on

school safety and growing concerns that school-based policing has led to increased

criminalization of ordinary student misbehavior. Youth in schools with an SRO have a

greater likelihood of receiving harsher discipline and more severe consequences for minor

misconduct. The Justice Policy Institute found that even when controlling for poverty,

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schools with an SRO had juvenile justice referrals for disorderly conduct that were five

times the rate of schools without SROs (https://www.edweek.org/leadership/opinion-as-a-

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former-cop-i-know-we-need-police-free-schools/2022/02)

Relatedly, a 2020 CNN report that included interviews with five youth found that

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the students reported the presence of SROs in their school made them feel unsafe, led to
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incidents of excessive force from the SROs, and were less desirable than having school

counselors.
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The foreigner police officer addressed how the roles of SROs change based on the

schools’ demographics - race and income. The roles that SROs are assigned are varied and
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influence the way in which the SRO engages with students, ranging from a primarily law

enforcement-focus to a role where teaching and mentoring are emphasized. One

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consequence of these poorly-regulated work roles, according to a national survey of

elementary, middle, and high schools, is that SROs placed in schools with higher amounts
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of social and educational disadvantage carry out more law-enforcement related duties. In
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contrast, SROs assigned to less disadvantaged schools perform more education-related

duties.

Recommendations for Engagement, Anti-Racism, and Culturally Responsive

Educators and Education
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To improve the educational experiences and academic outcomes of Black students,

anti-racist and culturally responsive education (teaching and counseling) are essential.

Solutions for eliminating excessive over-referrals and disciplinary practices, increasing

access to advanced coursework/courses (e.g., gifted and talented, AP, IB, dual enrollment)

Accelerated Courses. It is imperative that school personnel encourage Black

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students to enroll in advanced coursework (e.g., AP, dual enrollment, GATE, IB) in an

effort to increase the access to rigorous course taking and to ensure their readiness to

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transition into colleges and universities. Encouraging Black students to enroll in

accelerated coursework also reduces the college debt they will incur and helps them to be

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college ready. Further, it benefits Black students by helping them to transition from
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secondary to postsecondary education, demystifying the college experience, it can help to

increase their confidence in completing college courses, and can shorten the duration of
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time needed to earn a degree.

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Discipline. Educators and administrators must examine their biases and beliefs
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before implementing any discipline measures toward Black students. Second, educators

should use alternative methods to discipline such as utilizing their school counselor or
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school social worker. Oftentimes, the behavior that warrants discipline often disguised as

an issue that Black students encounter. For example, a student may be acting out due to
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food insecurity and homelessness, thus, the school counselor and social worker can
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provide the appropriate and needed resources to help the student. Educators and

administrators need to examine disciplinary policies by student demographics and

eliminate them. Moreover, educators must speak out racism, using an anti-racist lens with

attention to anti-Blackness. It is not enough for White educators to agree that racism is
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wrong; they must also challenge such injustices when they see it occurring against Black

students. Finally, centering the voices of students should come first before discipline

measures. In other words, educators must talk to students rather than talk at students to

understand their background and the triggers that cause unwarranted behaviors.

Racial Matching. Schools should recruit teachers, school counselors, and other

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school stakeholders who match the racial backgrounds of their students. Easton-Brooks

(2019) gives considerable attention and regard to the positive and powerful influence same

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race educators have on students. Black school stakeholders serve as positive role models

for their students, motivate their learners to attain higher academic achievement, broaden

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Black students’ career aspirations, and affirm their students’ cultural identities and
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practices. The academic success of Black students are influenced by the social support and

encouragement that they gain from their teachers (and other school stakeholders).
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Culturally Competent Educators and Education. Black students need to be in an

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environment with school stakeholders who employ culturally responsive, anti-racist

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practices. More specifically, before the previous recommendations can be effectively

employed, educators require the competencies - dispositions, knowledge, and skills - to

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recognize the need for and their own role in being agents of change who believe in the

potential of Black students. They must first be anti-racist, then behaviors and actions will
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align with developing and implementing changes that increase access and opportunities for
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Black students.

Higher education programs (courses, programs, degrees, endorsements, licensures)

and P-12 professional development need to prepare future and current educators to be

culturally competent in: (a) philosophy about working with Black students; (b) views
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about gifted and talented education; (c) disciplinary reasons and consequences; (d) skills at

developing and implementing multicultural curriculum and instruction; (e) skills at

reducing testing and assessment biases; (f) skills at relating to Black students; (g)

strategies of collaborating with Black families and communities. A sample of resources are

presented below:

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● Learning for Social Justice (https://www.learningforjustice.org)

● Office for Civil, Civil Rights Data Collection (www.ocrdata.ed.gov)

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● Children’s Defense Fund (https://www.childrensdefense.org)

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● Ford’s Bloom-Banks Matrix for creating lesson plans that are both rigorous

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and relevant to the lives and interests of Black students (Ford, 2011)
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● National Association for Multicultural Education

(https://www.nameorg.org)
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THEORY INTO PRACTICE

Addition Resources for Classroom Use
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1. Ford, D.Y. (2020, February 23). Introducing ‘ebony cinematherapy’: Black

students deserve and need culturally responsive school counselors to cope with
racialized trauma.
https://www.diverseeducation.com/opinion/article/15288347/introducing -ebony-
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cinematherapy-black-students-deserve-and-need-culturally-responsive-school-
counselors-to-cope-with-racialized-trauma
Authors discuss the use of this intervention with Black students to heal from racial
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trauma. In particular, this strategy can be implemented by school counselors and

other individuals in helping professions to help Black students.
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2. Hines, E.M., Fletcher, E.C., Ford, D.Y., & Moore III, J.L. (2021). Preserving Innocence:
Ending adultification and toxic masculinity among Black boys. Journal of Family
Strengths, 21(1). 1-11.
In this article, the authors discuss the adultification of young Black boys; present two
vignettes to show examples of how boys are adultified; and examine how toxic
masculinity may prevent healthy relationships and emotional expressions for Black boys.
The authors provide specific recommendations to educators and families.
DISENGAGED, DISCIPLINED, DISREGARDED 24

3. Moore, III, J.L. & Ford, D.Y. (2021, October 11) When the ‘gates’ are literally
and figuratively closed to gifted and talented education for Black students.
https://www.diverseeducation.com/opinion/article/15279732/when-the-gates-are-
literally-and-figuratively-closed-to-gifted-and-talented-education-for-black-
students
The authors discuss making Gifted and Talented (GATE) Programs equitable
rather than eliminating the program like the decision made for New York City
Public Schools. The authors provide commentary on the direction of GATE.

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4. Moore, III, J.L. & Ford, D.Y. (2021, November 21) Culture Must Be Up Front and

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Center – Not an Afterthought -- in Counseling Black and Other Minoritized
Clients. https://www.diverseeducation.com/authors/contact/15284608/donna -y-
ford

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In this article, the authors discuss the need for providers to hire counselors with an

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anti -racist paradigm as well as be equipped with culture competency. The authors
offer recommendations on how to recruit counselors who are culturally competent and
counselors of color.

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