LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION

This is to certify that Mr. Aashutosh Kayastha has submitted the research report entitled
“Working Mechanism of ISP” for the partial fulfillment of Advance
Internetworking fifth semester. I hereby declare that this research report has been
recommended for final evaluation.

Lecturer Er. Krishna Bhandari

Report Supervisor
BIM, Tribhuvan University

I
 Letter of Approval
To be provided on official letterhead of the applicant.
Date:
Lecturer, Mr. Krishna Bhandari
Nepal Commerce Campus
New Baneshwor, Kathmandu

Subject: Request for the approval of project report on Internet Service Provider.
Dear Sir
I am pleased to let you know that I have completed my report on title Working Mechanism of
ISP. I have mentioned all the information related to ISP, computer network and how it
works. Hence, I would humbly like to request you accept my project.
Thank you very much in advance for considering my request for approval contained in
this letter of request for approval, if you have any additional comments, please let me
know.

Yours Sincerely,
Aashutosh Kayastha

Internal Examiner External Examiner

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This is the report regarding ISP (Internet Service Provider). I had taken much effort in
this report. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support of many
helping hands in this report. I would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them. I am
highly indebted to co-ordinate and Nepal Commerce Campus and also our respected
teacher Er.Krishna Bhandari for giving us such a valuable opportunity to use the
theoretical knowledge in the particular field in the course of our study as well for their
guidance and constant supervision and providing necessary information regarding the
report and also for their support in completing the report.

I would like to express my special gratitude to the people who have willingly helped me
out with their abilities, giving me such attention and time.

Aashutosh Kayastha
NCC BIM 5th semester
(9182/18)

III
 ABSTRACT
In this report several key issues like maintenance, management and understanding of a
complete Network system of Internet Service Provider (ISP) has been focused. The ISP
provides different kinds of services such as ‘Data connectivity’ service, ‘Internet’ 
service, ‘Security’ service, ‘Fiber optics network’ service, ‘Network infrastructure design
and  maintenance’ service, and Support. For proper network design back up links
were preserved in order to provide secure service during power instability problem. As
for technical support one had to face most of the problems for data connectivity, internet
service and fiber optics network. Authentication failure of a user was one the problem.
From the data stored using different software was possible to see the details about that
client and to solve that problem. Another technical problem occurring was Fiber
cut/break problem which is known to happen several times. One way to know about fiber
cut is to check the DB of that link. If there is no DB, then OTDR machine is used. The
OTDR machine informs us the total distance, from where the fiber is cut and the DB also.
Besides, there were many other technical problems to have been learned.  This field visit
has given me the opportunity to work and learn some software and hardware architecture
practically and acquire a clear knowledge about understanding network and
internet based problems and to find some credible solutions. 

IV
 TABLE OF CONTENT
LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION....................................................................................I

Letter of Approval........................................................................................................II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................III

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................IV

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................1

Background of Study..............................................................................................................1

Basic Terminologies................................................................................................................1
Internet....................................................................................................................................................1
Why the Internet is called a Network?................................................................................................1
Computer Network:.................................................................................................................................2
Server and its types..................................................................................................................................2
File Server............................................................................................................................................2
Print Server..........................................................................................................................................3
Web Server..........................................................................................................................................3
Application Server...............................................................................................................................3
Database Server...................................................................................................................................3
FTP Server............................................................................................................................................4
File Server............................................................................................................................................4
Proxy Server.........................................................................................................................................4
Streaming Servers................................................................................................................................4
IRC Server (Internet Relay Chat)..........................................................................................................5
Fax Server............................................................................................................................................5
Groupware Server...............................................................................................................................5
News Server.........................................................................................................................................5
List Server............................................................................................................................................6
Telnet Server........................................................................................................................................6

CHAPTER II: INTRODUCTION TO ISP..............................................................................7

ISP..........................................................................................................................................7

V
 What exactly do ISPs do?.........................................................................................................................7
How do ISPs work?...................................................................................................................................7

Domain Name System (DNS)..................................................................................................8

Generic Domains......................................................................................................................................9
Country Domain.....................................................................................................................................10
Inverse Domain......................................................................................................................................10

Internet Protocol (IP)............................................................................................................11

IP packet.................................................................................................................................................12
IP routing process..................................................................................................................................12
IP addressing..........................................................................................................................................13
Types of IP address............................................................................................................................13

Network address translation................................................................................................14

Static NAT (Network Address Translation.............................................................................................14
Dynamic NAT (Network Address Translation).......................................................................................14
PAT (Port Address Translation)..............................................................................................................15
Network access Point (NAP)..................................................................................................................16

CHAPTER III: COMPUTER NETWORK COMPONENTS....................................................17

Network Interface Card........................................................................................................17

Hub......................................................................................................................................17
Passive Hub............................................................................................................................................18
Active Hub..............................................................................................................................................18
Intelligent Hub.......................................................................................................................................18

Repeater..............................................................................................................................18

Switch..................................................................................................................................18

Router..................................................................................................................................19

Bridge...................................................................................................................................20
Types of Bridges.....................................................................................................................................20
Transparent Bridges..........................................................................................................................20
Source Routing Bridge.......................................................................................................................21

OTDR [optical time domain reflectometer]..........................................................................21

VI
 Cables and Connectors.........................................................................................................22
Fiber optics.............................................................................................................................................22

DB meter..............................................................................................................................23

Media Converter [MC]..........................................................................................................24

CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION..........................................................................................25

Reference...................................................................................................................26

VII
 List of Tables
Table 2. 1 Generic Domains lists.......................................................................................10

VIII
 List of Figures
Figure 2. 1 Tier 1.................................................................................................................8
Figure 2. 2 Domain name system (DNS).............................................................................9
Figure 2. 3 IP packet..........................................................................................................12
Figure 2. 4 Static NAT (Network Address translation).....................................................14
Figure 2. 5 Dynamic NAT (Network Address Translation)..............................................15
Figure 2. 6 PAT (Port Address Translation)......................................................................16

Figure 3. 1 Hub..................................................................................................................17
Figure 3. 2 Switch..............................................................................................................19
Figure 3. 3 Router..............................................................................................................19
Figure 3. 4 Network system...............................................................................................20
Figure 3. 5 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR.................................................21
Figure 3. 6 Cross-section view of fiber optics...................................................................22
Figure 3. 7 Fiber optics laser tester....................................................................................23
Figure 3. 8 Decibel (DB) meter.........................................................................................23
Figure 3. 9 Fiber Media Converter....................................................................................24

IX
 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the brief description of Internet and history of internet development will
be discussed. The important terminology of Internet like server and their types will be
introduced.

Background of Study
The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. The
Internet is a vast network that connects computers all over the world. Through the
Internet, people can share information and communicate from anywhere with an
Internet connection.

Basic Terminologies
Internet
Internet is a global network that connects billions of computers across the world with
each other and to the World Wide Web. It uses standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP)
to connect billions of computer users worldwide. It is set up by using cables such as
optical fibers and other wireless and networking technologies. At present, internet is the
fastest mean of sending or exchanging information and data between computers across
the world. It is believed that the internet was developed by "Defense Advanced Projects
Agency" (DARPA) department of the United States. And, it was first connected in 1969.

Why the Internet is called a Network?

Internet is called a network as it creates a network by connecting computers and servers

across the world using routers, switches and telephone lines, and other communication
devices and channels. So, it can be considered a global network of physical cables such
as copper telephone wires, fiber optic cables, TV cables, etc. Furthermore, even wireless
connections like 3G, 4G, or Wi-Fi make use of these cables to access the Internet.
Internet is different from the World Wide Web as the World Wide Web is a network of
computers and servers created by connecting them through the internet. So, the internet is
the backbone of the web as it provides the technical infrastructure to establish the WWW
and acts as a medium to transmit information from one computer to another computer. It

1
uses web browsers to display the information on the client, which it fetches from web
servers.
The internet is not owned by a single person or organization entirely. It is a concept based
on physical infrastructure that connects networks with other networks to create a global
network of billions of computers. As of 12 August 2016, there were more than 300 crores
of internet users across the world.
Computer Network:
A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are
called nodes. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most
commonly the Ethernet cable, or fiber optic cable. Connections can also be wireless;
you'll hear the term Wi-Fi to describe information sent via radio waves.
Connected computers can share resources like access to the Internet, printers, file servers,
and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single computer to
do more than it could without any connection.
Server and its types
Server is, the configurations that make systems function as servers, and the differences
from computers built as servers. A server is a computer equipped with specific programs
and/or hardware that enables it to offer services to other computers (clients) on its
network. There are different types and capabilities of servers. Think about transportation.
We can think of transportation as anything that can move something or someone from
one location to the other. A bicycle can move one person, a car can move four people, a
bus can move 50 people, and a plane can move 500 people. They are all modes of
transport, but each has a different capacity. The same applies to servers.

File Server

A file server is a server that contains files which are made accessible to other clients on
the network. A file server has the sole responsibility for storing and managing a set of
files, which are made accessible to other computers. These files are shared among clients
in the network by allowing access without having to physically transfer the accessed files
to their local systems.

2
Print Server

A print server is a server which has a dedicated printer connected to it which is accessible
by other clients through it on the same network. Other clients on the network can print
work to this printer through this print server.

Web Server

A web server is a server equipped with HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) that serves
web pages in response to requests submitted by clients. For example, if you type
www.fomced.com/homepage on your browser as a client, you are in effect requesting a
web page stored on a server with a domain named fomced.com, called a homepage. In
response to your request, the respective web server locates the homepage page in its
system and displays it to you. If you erroneously type www.fomced.com/homewage, the
server will return an error message saying - web page not found!

Application Server

An application server stores and manages all applications between an organization's users
and its databases or backend business applications. If you've visited a bank to withdraw
money, then you've accessed the bank's application server through the services of the
attending teller. The teller's machine through the banking application accesses the bank's
application server to retrieve your bank account details and facilitate your transaction.

Database Server

A database server is a computer system that provides services related to accessing and
retrieving data from databases to other computers. Database server access can be from the
“front end” running on the user’s machine or “back end” running on the database server
accessed from the remote shell. These types of servers are similar to a warehouse, where
the website’s data and information are stored and maintained. Many companies use a
database server for the storage of their data. Users access the data using query labels
related to the database. SQL is an example of a query language.

3
FTP Server

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a very old Internet service that helps users to
transfer files from one place to another via the Internet very securely. When a client
requests a web page on a web browser, the server uses the protocol to display your file. In
short, if you create a web page on your computer using an editor for your site, you have
to upload it to the server where your site is hosted. FTP also provides file security,
transfer control, and organization of files to the server.

File Server

A file server is a network that helps to transfer stored files. The file server stores and
manages all the files in a computer and sends a copy of the file to the other computer on
the request of the users. It shares the storage of computer files such as documents, sound
files, photographs, images, databases, etc. These types of servers are used mainly on the
local network.

Proxy Server

Proxy server commonly called “proxy”. It acts as a gateway between users and the
internet. These types of servers are used for performance enhancement, privacy, and
anonymous surfing. When a client connects to a proxy server and requests a service, it’s
accessing IP address changes.

Streaming Servers

With the help of Streaming Servers, the ability in multimedia applications comes so that
they can broadcast or even live on websites like YouTube and OTT platforms like Netflix
and Amazon Prime. Multimedia streaming is a way of transporting data. These types of
serves technology have also increased a lot due to the continuous growth of Internet
audiences. Streaming is a very good solution for users who don’t have the facility to
download large multimedia files. When the client or user receives the data and forwarded
by the websites in the form of a steady stream. It also has the process to converts it to
sound and pictures in their desired format. Gradually many competing streaming
technologies have risen in this digital era.

4
IRC Server (Internet Relay Chat)

The full name of IRC is an ‘Internet Relay Chat’. It is an application layer protocol that is
used to communicate over the Internet as a text message in real-time. In simple words,
“internet relay chat is a service through which users can chat with each other online.” The
Internet relay chat that works on the client/server networking model. In this, users need to
have to install IRC clients on their system so that they can connect to the IRC server. The
most famous IRC clients are – micro for Windows and OS X for textual Mac.

Fax Server

A fax server is a software system capable of receiving the incoming faxes, sending faxes
and distributing faxes over a computer network. These types of Servers are commonly
used in large scale organizations. Because the Fax Servers saves time and reduces
incoming and outgoing telephone resources which help the business by saving time and
money.

Groupware Server

A groupware server is a computer server. The main purpose of creating this server was
that it allows users to work jointly with ease. The number of clients connected to this
server basically depends on the nature of the project. There is a need to install software
onto the various client computers to allow for better communication between the clients
and access to the server. A groupware server can be used to reduce unnecessary
communication between team members and to increase efficiency and productivity. Thus,
a collaborative work can be done simultaneously in the environment.

News Server

News Servers are software or a computer system used to share and deliver the news. It
manages the storage and routing of messages as well as control access to newsgroups in a
Usenet. It is a primary part of Usenet and is also responsible for handling various
operations. News servers may function as a reader server or a transit server sometimes
both.

5
List Server

List servers are a great way to handle mailing lists that are statements, newspapers, or
publicity. A mailing list server is a program that handles subscription requests for a
mailing list and distributes new messages, newsletters, news, or other postings from the
list’s members to the entire list of subscribers. These list servers are included in
interactive discussions that are open to the community.

Telnet Server

Telnet is a simple, text-based network protocol that is used to access remote computers
over the Internet such as TCP / IP networks. Telnet is a protocol that connects you to a
Remote Computer (Host) over a TCP / IP network (such as the Internet). Using Telnet
Client Software on your computer, one can create a Connection to Telnet Server (i.e.,
Remote Host). These types of servers are most commonly used for remote-management,
but sometimes for the initial setup of some devices, especially networks, hardware such
as switches, Access Point.

6
 CHAPTER II: INTRODUCTION TO ISP
ISP
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that provides Internet access by using
copper, fiber, or even satellite communications to the customer. An Internet Service
Provider (ISP) is a company such as CG-net, Subisu, Classic tech, Vianet, Worldlink
that provides Internet access to companies, families, and even mobile users.
What exactly do ISPs do?
In short, an ISP provides you with Internet access, usually for a fee. Without an ISP, you
wouldn’t be able to shop online, access Facebook, or read this page. Connecting to the
Internet requires specific telecommunications, networking, and routing equipment. ISPs
allow users access to networks that contain the required equipment, enabling users to
establish Internet connectivity.
ISPs are responsible for making sure you can access the Internet, routing Internet traffic,
resolving domain names, and maintaining the network infrastructure that makes Internet
access possible. While the core function of an ISP is to provide Internet access, many
ISPs do much more. ISPs also offer services like web hosting, domain name registration,
and email services
How do ISPs work?
At the top of the Internet access pyramid are Tier 1 Internet service providers. A Tier 1
Internet service provider is an ISP that has access to all the networks on the Internet using
only network peering agreements they do not have to pay for. To help conceptualize what
purpose Tier 1 ISPs serve, think of Tier 1 ISPs as the major highways of the Internet.
These ISPs connect all corners of the World Wide Web. Some popular examples of Tier
1 ISPs include Vodacom, Bharti, Deutsche Telekom, British Telecommunications, and
Verizon.
Tier 1 Internet service providers sell access to their networks to Tier 2 ISPs. Tier 2 ISPs
then sell Internet access to organizations and home users. However, sometimes Tier 1
ISPs may sell Internet access directly to organizations and individuals. Additionally, a
second intermediary ISP, referred to as a Tier 3 ISP, may purchase network bandwidth
from a Tier 2 ISP before selling that bandwidth to end users.

7
 Figure 2. 1 Tier 1
When traffic is routed from your home network to the Internet, it goes through a number
of hops before reaching its destination. For example, traffic may travel from your
modem, to your Tier 3 ISP’s network, to a Tier 2 ISP’s network, to a Tier 1 ISP’s
network, then back down through a different set of ISPs before reaching the destination.
The underlying technology that ISPs use to establish connectivity can be based on analog
telephone lines (dial-up), DSL, cable, satellite, Wi-Fi, fiber optics, or other connectivity
mediums. The reason many cable and telephone providers are also ISPs is because their
underlying infrastructure can accommodate Internet traffic.

Domain Name System (DNS)

An application layer protocol defines how the application processes running on different
systems, pass the messages to each other.
• DNS stands for Domain Name System.
• DNS is a directory service that provides a mapping between the name of a host on the
network and its numerical address.
• DNS is required for the functioning of the internet.
• Each node in a tree has a domain name, and a full domain name is a sequence of symbols
specified by dots.

8
• DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses. This allows the users
of networks to utilize user-friendly names when looking for other hosts instead of
remembering the IP addresses.
• For example, suppose the FTP site at Edu Soft had an IP address of 132.147.165.50, most
people would reach this site by specifying ftp.EduSoft.com. Therefore, the domain name
is more reliable than IP address.
DNS is a TCP/IP protocol used on different platforms. The domain name space is divided
into three different sections: generic domains, country domains, and inverse domain.

Figure 2. 2 Domain name system (DNS)

Generic Domains
• It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior. o Each node in a tree
defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS database.
• It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.

9
 Table 2. 1 Generic Domains lists
Label Description

aero Airlines and aerospace companies

Biz Businesses or firms

com Commercial Organizations

coop Cooperative business Organizations

Edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

info Information service providers

Int International Organizations

mil Military groups

museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations

name Personal names

Net Network Support centers

Org Nonprofit Organizations

Pro Professional individual Organization

Country Domain
The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character
country abbreviations (e.g., np for the Nepal) in place of three-character organizational
abbreviations.
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has
received a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized

10
 clients. To determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query to
the DNS server and ask for mapping an address to the name.
Working of DNS
• DNS is a client/server network communication protocol. DNS clients send requests to
the. Server while DNS servers send responses to the client.
• Client requests contain a name which is converted into an IP address known as a forward
DNS lookup while requests containing an IP address which is converted into a name
known as reverse DNS lookups.
• DNS implements a distributed database to store the name of all the hosts available on the
internet.
If a client like a web browser sends a request containing a hostname, then a piece of
software such as DNS resolver sends a request to the DNS server to obtain the IP address
of a hostname. If DNS server does not contain the IP address associated with a hostname,
then it forwards the request to another DNS server. If IP address has arrived at the
resolver, which in turn completes the request over the internet protocol.

Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet protocol (IP) is a protocol defined in the TCP/IP model used for sending the
packets from source to destination. The main task of IP is to deliver the packets from
source to the destination based on the IP addresses available in the packet headers. IP
defines the packet structure that hides the data which is to be delivered as well as the
addressing method that labels the datagram with a source and destination information.
An IP protocol provides the connectionless service, which is accompanied by two
transport protocols, i.e., TCP/IP and UDP/IP, so internet protocol is also known as
TCP/IP or UDP/IP.
The first version of IP (Internet Protocol) was IPv4. After IPv4, IPv6 came into the
market, which has been increasingly used on the public internet since 2006.
Function
The main function of the internet protocol is to provide addressing to the hosts,
encapsulating the data into a packet structure, and routing the data from source to the
destination across one or more IP networks. In order to achieve these functionalities,
internet protocol provides two major things which are given below.

11
 An internet protocol defines two things
i. Format of IP packet
ii. IP Addressing system
IP packet
Before an IP packet is sent over the network, two major components are added in an IP
packet, i.e., header and a payload.

Figure 2. 3 IP packet
An IP header contains lots of information about the IP packet which includes:
• Source IP address: The source is the one who is sending the data.
• Destination IP address: The destination is a host that receives the data from the sender.
• Packet length
• TTL (Time to Live): The number of hops occurs before the packet gets discarded.
• Transport protocol: The transport protocol used by the internet protocol, either it can be
TCP or UDP.
Payload: Payload is the data that is to be transported.
IP routing process
IP routing is a process of determining the path for data so that it can travel from the
source to the destination. As we know that the data is divided into multiple packets, and
each packet will pass through a web of the router until it reaches the final destination.
The path that the data packet follows is determined by the routing algorithm. The routing
algorithm considers various factors like the size of the packet and its header to determine

12
 the efficient route for the data from the source to the destination. When the data packet
reaches some router, then the source address and destination address are used with a
routing table to determine the next hop's address. This process goes on until it reaches the
destination. The data is divided into multiple packets so all the packets will travel
individually to reach the destination.
IP addressing
An IP address is a unique identifier assigned to the computer which is connected to the
internet. Each IP address consists of a series of characters like 192.168.1.2. Users cannot
access the domain name of each website with the help of these characters, so DNS
resolvers are used that convert the human readable domain names into a series of
characters. Each IP packet contains two addresses, i.e., the IP address of the device,
which is sending the packet, and the IP address of the device which is receiving the
packet.

Types of IP address

Public address
The public address is also known as an external address as they are grouped under the
WAN addresses. We can also define the public address as a way to communicate outside
the network. This address is used to access the internet. The public address available on
our computer provides the remote access to our computer. With the help of a public
address, we can set up the home server to access the internet. This address is generally
assigned by the ISP (Internet Service Provider).
Key points related to public address are:
i. The scope of the public address is global, which means that we can communicate
outside the network.
ii. This address is assigned by the ISP (Internet Service Provider).
iii. It is not available at free of cost.
iv. We can get the Public IP by typing on Google "What is my IP".
Private address
A private address is also known as an internal address, as it is grouped under the LAN
addresses. It is used to communicate within the network. These addresses are not routed
on the internet so that no traffic can come from the internet to this private address. The

13
 address space for the private address is allocated using InterNIC to create our own
network. The private addresses are assigned to mainly those computers, printers,
smartphones, which are kept inside the home or the computers that are kept within the
organization. For example, a private address is assigned to the printer, which is kept
inside our home, so that our family member can take out the print from the printer. If the
computer is assigned with a private address, then the devices available within the local
network can view the computer through the private IP address. However, the devices
available outside the local network cannot view the computer through the private IP
address, but they can access the computer if they know the router's public address. To
access the computer directly, NAT (Network Address Translator) is to be used.
Key points related to private address are:
i. Its scope is local, as we can communicate within the network only.
ii. It is generally used for creating a local area network.
iii. It is available at free of cost.
iv. We can get to know the private IP address by simply typing the "ipconfig" on the
command prompt.

Network address translation

Network address translation is a method of mapping an IP address space into another by
modifying network address information in the IP header of packets while they are in
transit across a traffic routing device. There are three types of NAT
Static NAT (Network Address Translation
Static NAT (Network Address Translation) is one-to-one mapping of a private IP address
to a public IP address. Static NAT (Network Address Translation) is useful when a
network device inside a private network needs to be accessible from internet.

Figure 2. 4 Static NAT (Network Address translation)

14
Dynamic NAT (Network Address Translation)
Dynamic NAT can be defined as mapping of a private IP address to a public IP address
from a group of public IP addresses called as NAT pool. Dynamic NAT establishes a
one-to-one mapping between a private IP address to a public IP address. Here the public
IP address is taken from the pool of IP addresses configured on the end NAT router. The
public to private mapping may vary based on the available public IP address in NAT
pool.

Figure 2. 5 Dynamic NAT (Network Address Translation)

PAT (Port Address Translation)
Port Address Translation (PAT) is another type of dynamic NAT which can map multiple
private IP addresses to a single public IP address by using a technology known as Port
Address Translation. When a client from inside network communicate to a host in the
internet, the router changes the source port (TCP or UDP) number with another port
number. These port mappings are kept in a table. When the router receive from internet, it
will refer the table which keep the port mappings and forward the data packet to the
original sender.

15
 Figure 2. 6 PAT (Port Address Translation)
Network access Point (NAP)
NAP (Network Access Point) is one or more locations with a high level of connectivity
and several options to access the main carriers and content. In it, different providers
(ISPs) and telecommunications companies set up their POPs (Points of Presence),
allowing any business to easily use their connectivity services.
How does it work?
The interconnection between these lines and companies allows customers to reach any
location on the globe through the connections provided by the NAP.
How does NAP affect internet connectivity for organizations?
Having a NAP (Network Access Point) location increases the variety and performance of
your connections and improves the interconnection with your Data Centers, as is the case
with Ascent customers.
Characteristics
i. •Carrier Neutral;
ii. Easy and cheap acquisition of Cross Connection or Golden Jumper;
iii. •Several national and international carriers available;
iv. •Traffic exchange points;
v. Content providers;
vi. Leading Cloud Service Providers available (Amazon, Microsoft, Oracle, Google,
IBM Cloud).

16
 CHAPTER III: COMPUTER NETWORK COMPONENTS
Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the
software. Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and
modem. Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network
components can also be removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a
cable. Following are the major components required to install a network:

Network Interface Card

NIC stands for network interface card. NIC is a hardware component used to connect a
computer with another computer onto a network. It can support a transfer rate of 10,100
to 1000 Mb/s. The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip
which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is
stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only memory). There are two types of NIC:
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors
are used with wired NIC to transfer data.
Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the
wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices.
When computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request
to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the
devices will check whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be
dropped.

Figure 3. 1 Hub

17
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more
advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers. There are three types
of the hub that are given below:
Passive Hub
The passive hubs are the connection point for wires that helps to make the physical
network. It is capable of determining the bugs and faulty hardware. Simply, it accepts the
packet over a port and circulates it to all ports. It includes connectors (10base-2 port and
RJ-45) that can be applied as a standard in your network. This connector is connected to
all local area network (LAN) devices. Additionally, the advanced passive hubs have AUI
ports, which are connected as the transceiver according to the network design.
Active Hub
As compared to a passive hub, it includes some additional features. It is able to monitor
the data sent to the connected devices. It plays an important role between the connected
devices with the help of store technology, where it checks the data to be sent and decides
which packet to send first. It has the ability to fix the damaged packets when packets are
sending, and also able to hold the direction of the rest of the packets and distribute them.
Intelligent Hub
It works like active hubs and includes remote management capabilities. They also provide
flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the
traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.

Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same
network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be
noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is a 2-
port device

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Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A
Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table
that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the
correct destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message. A
Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines
the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch
provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It increases the speed of
the network.

Figure 3. 2 Switch

Router
Router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection.
It is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network. A
router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model. A router
forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table. It determines
the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Figure 3. 3 Router

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 Advantages of Router:
i. Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire
cable, but the only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
ii. Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no
other networks are affected that are served by the router.
iii. Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose
there are 24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This
increases the traffic load on the network. Router splits the single network into two
networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the traffic load by half.
iv. Network range: In networking, a cable is used to connect the devices, but its length
cannot exceed 1000 meters. A router can overcome this limitation by performing the
function of a repeater (Regenerating the signals). The physical range can be as per the
requirement of a particular installation, as long as a router is installed before the
maximum cable range exceeds.

Figure 3. 4 Network system

Bridge
A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.
It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a
single input and single output port, thus making it a 2-port device.

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Types of Bridges

Transparent Bridges

These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s
existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes
i.e., bridge forwarding and bridge learning.

Source Routing Bridge

In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source station and the frame
specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by sending a special
frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all
possible paths to the destination.

OTDR [optical time domain reflectometer]

An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is an optoelectronic instrument used to
characterize an optical fiber. An OTDR is the optical equivalent of an electronic time
domain reflectometer. It injects a series of optical pulses into the fiber under test and
extracts, from the same end of the fiber, light that is scattered (Rayleigh backscatter) or
reflected back from points along the fiber. The scattered or reflected light that is gathered
back is used to characterize the optical fiber. This is equivalent to the way that an
electronic time-domain meter measures reflections caused by changes in the impedance
of the cable under test. The strength of the return pulses is measured and integrated as a
function of time, and plotted as a function of fiber length.

Figure 3. 5 Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR

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 The reliability and quality of an OTDR is based on its accuracy, measurement range,
ability to resolve and measure closely spaced events, measurement speed, and ability to
perform satisfactorily under various environmental extremes and after various types of
physical abuse. The instrument is also judged on the basis of its cost, features provided,
size, weight, and ease of use.

Cables and Connectors

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.
Fiber optics
Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication. Fiber optic is a
cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to send the data by pulses
of light. The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring. Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than
copper wires.

Figure 3. 6 Cross-section view of fiber optics

Advantages of optical fiber:
i. Greater bandwidth than metal cables, larger carrying capacity.
ii. Less susceptibility than metal cable to interference.
iii. .Much thinner and lighter than metal wire.
iv. .Data can be transmitted digitally.
v. .Fiber optics cable cost much less to maintain
Fiber optic Laser:
The condition of an optical fiber can easily be checked with the fiber tester
FIBERCHECK by coupling in good visible laser light. If the beam hits a damaged part,

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most of the light is scattered out of the fiber. In this way a broken fiber can easily be
recognized.

Figure 3. 7 Fiber optics laser tester

DB meter
DB Meter: Practically every measurement in fiber optics refers to optical power measured
in db. Power in a fiber optic system is like voltage in an electrical circuit. It's important to
have enough power, but not too much. Too little power and the receiver may not be able
to distinguish the signal from noise; too much power overloads the receiver and causes
errors too.

Figure 3. 8 Decibel (DB) meter

Measuring power requires only a power meter, a known good fiber optic cable and a little
help from the network electronics to turn on the transmitter. To measure power, attach the
meter to the cable attached to the source that has the output you want to measure (see
diagram to the right). That can be at the receiver to measure receiver power, or using a

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reference test cable (tested and known to be good) that is attached to the transmitter to
measure output power.

Media Converter [MC]

A fiber media converter is a simple networking device that makes it possible to connect
two dissimilar media types such as twisted pair with fiber optic cabling. They were
introduced to the industry in the 1990s, and are important in interconnecting fiber optic
cabling-based systems with existing copper-based, structured cabling systems. They are
also used in metropolitan area network (MAN) access and data transport services to
enterprise customers.

Figure 3. 9 Fiber Media Converter

Fiber media converters can connect different local area network (LAN) media, modifying
duplex and speed settings. Switching media converters can connect different speed
network segments.
Fiber media converters support many different data communication protocols including
Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, T1/E1/J1, DS3/E3, as well as multiple cabling
types such as coax, twisted pair, multi-mode and single-mode fiber optics. Media
converter types range from small standalone devices and PC card converters to high port-
density chassis systems that offer many advanced features for network management.

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 CHAPTER IV CONCLUSION
In this report we first of all described about the internet background and its basic
terminologies. And further, we described about the ISP (Internet Service Provider) and its
working mechanisms. Also, the services provided by the ISP is also mentioned. We also
described about the DNS (Domain Name System) and its working mechanisms too, IP
and Concept of public IP and private IP, Network address translation, and Network
Access Point and how does it work its characteristics. We also had described some of the
commonly used networking devices like hub, switches, bridges, and gateway and fiber
optic cable used to setup computer network. We get opportunity to understand the
working of ISP through this report though this is a general report.

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 Reference
i. JavaTpoint. (2021, December 20). Retrieved from https://www.javatpoint.com/
ii. Geeksforgeek. (2021, December). Retrieved from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/
iii. Genuine Notes. (2021, December). Retrieved from https://genuinenotes.com/
iv. Omnisecu. (2021, December). Retrieved from https://www.omnisecu.com/
v. Wikipedia. (2021, December). Retrieved from https://www.wikipedia.org/
vi. WhatIs.com. (2021, January). Retrieved from https://whatis.techtarget.com

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