Power Electronics Text Book

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Power Electronics
Dr. Sameer Saadoon
Dr. Ali A. Abdullah AL-Bakry Dr. Bilal Abdullah Nasir
Dr. Haider Kh. Easa

‫رقم اإليداع في دار الكتب و الوثائق بـبغداد ‪ 057‬لـسنة ‪0707‬‬
‫‪ISBN‬‬ ‫‪978-9922-20-520-5‬‬
ii
Preface
The last four decades witnessed a huge progress in the eld of electrical engineering-
power electronic branch, according to the eorts and researches of thousands
of scientists all around the world in this eld. This caused a technological rev-
olution in power electronic that we witness today part of it, and the coming
generation will witness the other parts. Despite the large number of researches
and studies, there was a decisive landmark that pushed the wheel of this revo-
lution, the thyristor was one of these inventions.
The thyristor is an electronic key which permits the electrical current to cut and
passing through despite the many kinds of sophisticated and sensitive electronic
devices. The invention of the thyristor wide opened the door on power electronic
science, the science that gives the problem the modern industry the ability of
auto-control when dealing with high voltages and currents. For the thyristor
which has a high power handling and good eciency in the systems of power
transfer.
In despite of the passing four decades since the start of studying the power
electronic as a curriculum in the Iraqi Institutes and Universities, but the li-
brary is lacking for such a book which covers all the subjects and aspects of
power electronics and their engineering applications in electrical power systems.
This book is written in a simple and easy English-Language to cover all the
subjects taught in this eld to the students of technical college and college of
engineering in the fourth year of their study-Electrical and electronic engineer-
ing departments-and also to the students in the nal year of their study in
Electrical department in the technical institutes. This book contains dierent
subjects in separative chapters together with analysing the important circuits
and explaining the function of the practical circuits. These subjects are orga-
nized in an accumulative manner. Each chapter contains examples with their
answers and tutorial questions at the end of each chapter, in order to enhance
the comprehension of it.
The rst eight chapters concentrating on the basics of power electronic, they give
the student a wide prospective on the thyristor, its construction, characteristics,
how its functioning and protecting, the way of its ring and commutation. The
chapters also cover the applications of thyristor in the rectication of alternating
current (A.C.) and showing also the practical circuits and their applications in a
simple way. They give the reader a special importance toward switching ON and
OFF of direct current (D.C.) circuits and how to control them. After that they
demonstrate the inversion of D.C. to A.C. with variable frequency by controlling
the time of conducting and dis-conducting of the thyristor used in the system.
Finally, they give special importance to switch ON and OFF the A.C. circuits
and the controlling function for both single phase and three phase systems.
iii
iv
The last chapter (chapter nine) of this book specialized in demonstrating the
most important applications in the eld of power electronics. The chapter shows
the industrial applications of the thyristor in the eld of controlling the speed
of electrical motors which they are widely spread in industry especially D.C.
motors, 3-phase induction motors and three-phase synchronous motors.
Finally, We hope that this book will be useful for the students, engineers and
technicians.
Contents
Preface 1
1 Power Electronic Concepts 2
1.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Forward Biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Reverse Biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Diode Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 The Construction of Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Transistor Biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Common-Emitter Output Characteristic . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Self-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Thyristor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8 Thyristor Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.8.1 Thyristor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Uncontrolled Rectication 10
2.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Single Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier with Resistive Load 11
2.3 Single Phase Uncontrolled Full Wave Rectier with Resistive Load. 12
2.4 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Three Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier with Resistive Load 16
2.8 Three Phase Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectier with Resistive Load . 18
2.9 Eect of Source Impedance-overlap Phenomena . . . . . . 20
2.10 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Application of Transistor and Opera-

tional Amplier in Power Electronics 23
3.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2 Power Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.2.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (B J T) . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2.2 MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
i
ii CONTENTS
3.2.2.1 Enhanced Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2.2.2 Depletion MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2.3 IGBT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 The Power Transistor as a Switch . . . . . . . . . 27
3.4 Over Driven Operation of the Power Transistor as a Switch . . 29
3.5 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.7 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.8 The Unijunction Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.8.1 Construction, Electrical Symbol and Characteristics . . . . 32
3.8.2 UJT as a Relaxation Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.9 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.11 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.12 Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.13 Open-loop Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.14 Inverting Ampliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.15 Non-inverting Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.16 Inverting Summing Operational Amplier . . . . . . . 40
3.17 Non-inverting Summing Amplier . . . . . . . . . 41
3.18 Subtractor Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.19 Integrator Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.20 Dierentiator Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . 43
3.21 Operational Amplier as Zero-crossing Detector . . . . . . 45
3.22 Operational Amplier as Comparator . . . . . . . . 45
3.23 Thyristor Triggering Circuit Using Operational Amplier as a Comparator

46
3.24 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.25 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.26 Opto-electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.27 Photo-conductive Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.28 Photo-diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.29 Photo-transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.30 Light Emitting Diode (LED) . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.31 Some Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.32 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 Thyristor Concepts in Power Electron-

ics 59
CONTENTS iii
4.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 The Denition and Characteristics of Thyristor . . . . . . 60
4.3 Thyristor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.4 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.7 Thyristor Representation by Two Transistors . . . . . . 66
4.8 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.10 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.11 Modes of Thyristor Triggering (ring) . . . . . . . . 70
4.12 Behavior of Anode Current During Thyristor Turn-ON . . . . 71
4.13 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.15 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.16 The Thyristor Turn-OFF (Commutation) . . . . . . . 73
4.17 Turn-OFF Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.18 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.20 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.21 Series and Parallel Operation of Thyristors . . . . . . . 77
4.21.1 Series Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.21.2 Parallel Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.22 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.24 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.25 Thyristor Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.25.1 Over-voltage Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.25.2 Over-current Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.25.3 Gate Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.26 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.28 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.29 Thyristor Triggering Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.30 Thyristor Triggering Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.31 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5 Controlled Rectication 97
iv CONTENTS
5.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2 Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load . . . . . 97
5.3 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive

Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.5 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.6 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive Load and
Freewheeling Diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.7 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive-load and

Back e.m.f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.8 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.9 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.10 Single Phase Controlled Full-wave Rectier with Resistive-load . . 110
5.11 Single Phase Full-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive

Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Load and Back e.m.f . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.13 Uncontrolled Bridge Rectier with a Thyristor . . . . . . 114
5.14 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.15 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.16 Three phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier . . . . . . . 119
5.16.1 With Resistive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.16.2 with Resistive-inductive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.17 Post-test: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.18 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.19 Fully-controlled Full-wave Three phase Bridge Rectier . . . . 127
5.20 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.21 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.22 Overlap in Single Phase Full-wave Circuits . . . . . . . 133
5.23 Overlap in Controlled Three Phase Rectier . . . . . . . 134
5.24 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6 D.C. to D.C. Converters (D.C. chop-

per) 139
6.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.2 DC/DC Converter (DC chopper) . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3 Typical Commutation Circuit of D.C. Chopper . . . . . . 140
6.4 Chopper Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.5 Analysis of Output Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.5.1 Resistive Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.5.2 Resistive-inductive Load with Baack e.m.f. . . . . . . . . . 144

CONTENTS v
6.6 Parallel Capacitor-saturable Core Inductor Commutation D.C. Chop-

per (Morgan Circuit) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.7 Step-up Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.8 Multi Phase Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.9 Factors Governing the Chopper Performance . . . . . . 148
6.10 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7 A.C. Regulators (Controllers) 152

7.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2 Single Phase A.C. Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3 Another Circuits of Single Phase A.C. Regulator . . . . . 157
7.4 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.6 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.7 Three Phase A.C. Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.7.1 Circuit Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.7.2 Three Phase Line-controlled A.C. Regulator with Star-

connected Resistive-load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.7.3 Three Phase Line-controlled A.C. Regulator with Delta-

connected Resistive-load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
7.7.4 Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor by Vari-

ation of Line-voltage (stator-voltage) using Three phase
A.C. Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.8 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.9 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.10 A.C. /A.C. Cloconverter . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.11 Three Phase to Single Phase Cycloconverter . . . . . . . 169
7.12 Three Phase to Three Phase Cycloconverter . . . . . . . 171
7.13 Single Phase to Single Phase Cycloconverter . . . . . . . 171
7.14 Frequency Multiplication Cycloconverter . . . . . . . . 173
7.15 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8 D.C. to A.C. Converters (Inverters) 177

8.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.2 Single Phase and Three Phase Inverters . . . . . . . . 178
8.2.1 Inverter Commutation Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.2.2 Single Phase Parallel-inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

vi CONTENTS
8.3 Analysis of Parallel-inverter Circuit with Resistive Load . . . 183
8.4 Single-phase Series Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.5 Limitations of the Series Inverter Circuit . . . . . . . 186
8.6 Single-phase Modied Series Inverter . . . . . . . . 187
8.7 Frequency-Range of Series Inverter . . . . . . . . . 187
8.8 Single-phase Half-bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.9 Single-phase Bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.10 Forced Commutation Circuit of Single-phase Bridge Inverter . . 190
8.11 Voltage Control of Single-phase Bridge Inverter . . . . . . 192
8.12 Three Phase Bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.13 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9 Power Electronic Application in Speed

Control of Electrical Motors 200
9.1 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
9.2 Introduction to Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.3 D.C. Motors Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.4 Speed Control of Synchronous Motors . . . . . . . . 204
9.5 Torque-speed Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.6 D.C. Motor Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.7 D.C. Motor Speed Control Using Power Electronic Systems . . 208
9.8 Controlled Rectiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.9 Single-phase Bridge Fully Controlled Rectier . . . . . . 208
9.10 Single-phase Bridge Half-controlled Rectier . . . . . . 210
9.11 Three Phase Bridge Fully-controlled Rectier . . . . . . 212
9.12 D.C. Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.12.1 Step-down Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9.12.2 Step-up Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9.12.3 Two-quadrant Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.13 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.14 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.15 Induction Motor Speed Control . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.15.1 Construction and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.15.2 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.15.3 Speed Control Methods of Induction Motor . . . . . . . . 224
9.15.3.1 Pole Changing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.15.3.2 Stator Voltage Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.15.3.3 Line Frequency Control (frequency Voltage Control) 226
9.15.3.4 Rotor Resistance Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.16 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.18 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.19 Speed Control Of Synchronous Machines . . . . . . . . 233
9.19.1 Construction Of 3-phase Synchronous Machines . . . . . 233
9.19.2 Synchronous Motor Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.19.2.1 Start with variable-frequency supply . . . . . . . . 234
9.19.2.2 Start as an induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.20 Equivalent Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.21 Power and Torque Characteristics . . . . . . . . . 235
9.22 Speed Control Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.22.1 Frequency Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.22.2 Self Controlled Synchronous Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.23 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
List of Figures
1.1 Silicon Diode V-I Characteristic Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 PN Junction Diode - Forward Biased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 PN Junction Diode - Reverse Biased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Transistor Construction and Symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Transistor Baising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Common-Emitter Output Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Transistor as a Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.8 Thyristor Construction and Symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.9 Thyristor Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.10 Thyristor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.11 Circuit Diagram of Question (1), Post-test. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 Single Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier with Resistive Load. 11
2.2 Single Phase Mid-point or Center-tap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Single Phase Bridge Connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Three Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier. . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Output Voltage Waveform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Three Phase Uncontrolled Full Wave Rectier with Resistive
Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 The Overlap Phenomenon in Uncontrolled Rectiers. . . . . . . . 20
3.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.2 Input Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Output Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 N-Channel Enhanced MOSFET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Junction (IGBT). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6 IGBT Output and Transfer Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7 The Power Transistor can Be Used as an Electronic Switch. . . . 28
3.8 Circuit Diagram of Example 3-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.9 Over Driven Operation Of the Power Transistor as a Switch. . . 29
3.10 Circuit Diagram of Question 1, Post-test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.11 The Unijunction Transistor Consturction, Electrical Symbol and
Characteristic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
vii
viii LIST OF FIGURES
3.12 Unijunction Transistor Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.13 Relaxation Oscillator Using UJT and Output Voltage Waveform
Of the Oscillator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.17 Input-output Voltage Waveforms, for Question 2, post-test. . . . 36
3.18 Operational Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.19 Operational Amplier Open-loop Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.20 Closed-loop Voltage Gain of Inverting Amplier. . . . . . . . . . 39
3.21 Closed-loop Voltage Gain Of Non-inverting Operational Amplier. 40
3.22 Inverting Summing Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.23 Non-inverting Summing Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.24 Subtractor Operational Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.25 Integrator Operational Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.26 Dierentiator Operational Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.27 Circuit Diagram and Its Output Waveforms For Dierentiator
Operational Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.28 Zero-crossing Detector or Changing Sine-wave To Square-wave
Circuit or Zero-level Detection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.29 Operational Amplier as Comparator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.30 Thyristor Triggering Circuit Using Operational Amplier as a
Comparator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.31 Input and Output Voltage Waveforms Of the Thyristors Trigger-
ing Circuit by the Operational Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.32 Subtractor Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.33 A Circuit Diagram Of an Operational Amplier Used as Com-
parator, Post-test, Question 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.34 A Circuit Diagram Of an Operational Amplier Used as Com-
parator, Post-test, Question 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.35 A Comparator Circuit, Post-test, Question 4. . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.36 The Symbol and Characteristic Of the Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.37 The Symbol and Characteristic Of Photo Diode. . . . . . . . . . 52
3.38 Photo Transistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.39 Photo Transistor Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.40 Light Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.41 The LED Construction, Symbol and Inner Operation. . . . . . . 54
3.43 Light-operated Relay Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.44 Darkness-operated Relay Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.45 Somke Detection Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.46 Photo-diode as a Switch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.1 Thyristor Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4.2 Thyristor Layers When No Biasing, Forward and Reverse Biasing. 60
4.3 Forward Biasing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.4 Thyristor Characteristics without Gate Current (Ig =0). . . . . . 61
LIST OF FIGURES ix
4.5 Thyristor Characteristic with Gate Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.6 Shockley Diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.7 Silicon Controlled Rectier (SCR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.8 Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.9 Bidirectional Diode Thyristor (Diac), Symbol and Characteristic. 64
4.10 Bidirectional Triode thyristor (Triac): Symbol and Construction. 64
4.11 Thyristor Representation by Two Transistors. . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.12 Variation of Collector Current with Current Gain(α). . . . . . . 68
4.13 Current Flow Relations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.15 Behavior of Anode Current During Thyristor Turn-ON. . . . . . 71
4.16 Thyristor Natural Commutation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.17 Types of Thyristor Forced Commutation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.18 Thyristor Turn-o Behavior Recovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.20 Series Operation of Thyristors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.21 Thyristors Parallel operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.24 Over-voltage Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.25 Over-current Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.26 Gate Protection Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.32 Vg/Ig Characteristics, Question 6, Post-test. . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.33 Triggering Circuit Using Resistance Only. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.34 Triggering Circuit Using Resistance and Capacitance. . . . . . . 90
4.35 Triggering by Pulse Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.36 Relaxation Oscillator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.37 Triggering by A.C. Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.39 Output Waveforms of the Zero-crossing Detector. . . . . . . . . . 93
4.41 Sweep Generator and Blocking Oscillator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.42 Triggering by Sweep Generator and Blocking Oscillator. . . . . . 94
4.43 Triggering by Operational Amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.44 Thyristor Triggering by a Transistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.45 Thyristor Triggering by a Relaxation Oscillator. . . . . . . . . . 96
5.1 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load. 98

5.2 Input and Output Waveforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.3 Input and Output Voltage Waveforms Of Example 5-1. . . . . . 100
5.4 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive
Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
x LIST OF FIGURES
5.9 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive Load
and Freewheeling Diode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.11 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive-load
and Back e.m.f. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.12 Waveforms for Two Dierent Values of Angle α. . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.14 Single Phase Controlled Full-wave Rectier with Resistive-load. 111
Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.16 Single Phase Bridge Rectier with R-L Load and Back e.m.f(Vb ). 112
5.17 Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for Discontinuous Case. 113
5.18 The Average Output Voltage and Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.19 Uncontrolled Bridge with a Thyristor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.21 Three phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load. 119
5.22 Input and Output Voltage Waveforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.23 The Load Voltage and Current in Case of Resistive Load and
◦
(30 ) Delay Angle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.24 A Freewheeling Diode is Connected Across the Load to Discon-
nect the Load Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.25 In (a), Output Voltage Waveform without Freewheeling Diode
Highly Inductive Load α = 90◦ . In (b), Output Voltage Wave-
form with and without Freewheeling Diode for Resistive Load
and with Freewheeling Diode for Highly Inductive Load. . . . . . 123
5.26 Voltage Waveforms for Question 5, Post-test. . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.27 Zigzag Transformer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.28 Circuit Diagram of Three Phase Bridge Controlled Rectier and
Output Waveforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.29 The Output Voltage Of a Fully Controlled Bridge. . . . . . . . . 129
5.30 Triggering Pulses and Output Voltage Waveform α = 75◦ , Resis-
tive Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.32 Single Phase Full-wave Circuits and Waveforms. . . . . . . . . . 133
5.33 Over-lap Phenomenon in Controlled Rectiers. . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.1 Principles of DC-DC Converter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

6.2 Typical Commutaion Circuit Of D.C. Chopper. . . . . . . . . . . 141
◦
6.3 First Quadrant Operation (90 Operation Range). . . . . . . . . 141
6.4 Discharge Operation: Current and Voltage Waveforms (Discon-
tinuous Conduction). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.5 Two-quadrant Operation ( 180◦ Operation Range). . . . . . . . . 143
◦
6.6 Four-quadrant Operation (360 Operation Range). . . . . . . . . 143
6.7 The Output Voltage Waveform for the Case of Resistive Load
and Back e.m.f. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.8 Ouput Waveform Of Example 6-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.9 Morgan Circuit Chopper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.10 Step-up Chopper Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
LIST OF FIGURES xi
6.11 Multi Phase Chopper Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.1 Single Phase A.C. Regulator with Resistive Load. . . . . . . . . . 154

7.2 The Input and Output voltage Waveforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.3 Diagram and the Output Voltage and Current Waveforms with
Resistive-inductive Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.4 A Typical Cycle Consists Of (N) Conducting Cycles. . . . . . . . 157
7.5 Another Forms Of Switching Processes For Single Phase A.C.
Regulator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.6 Circuit Diagram Of Example 7-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.7 Output Waveforms Of Example 7-1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.8 Three Phase, A.C. Regulator Circuit Congurations. . . . . . . . 163
7.9 Speed Control of Three Phase Inductive Motor by Variation of
Line-voltage (Stator-voltage). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.10 Three Phase, A.C. Regulator Using Thyristors. . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.11 Phase Current Waveform For Question 2, Post-test. . . . . . . . 167
7.12 Output Voltages At Dierent Firing Angles. . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.13 Variation of Firing Angle From 90◦ to 180◦ fi =supply frequency
fo =output frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.14 Three Phase to Single Phase Cycloconverter. . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.15 Three Phase / Three Phase cycloconverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.16 Single Phase Cycloconverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.17 Dual-rectier Single Phase Cycloconverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.18 Frequency-multiplication Cycloconverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
7.19 Circuit Diagram and Its Output Waveforms For Question 1,post-
test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.20 Voltage Waveforms Of Question 3, Post-test. . . . . . . . . . . . 176
8.1 Circuit Diagram of Question 2, Pre-test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

8.2 Commutation Circuit by Capacitance and the Voltage Waveform. 179
8.3 Commutation by Series Resonance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.4 Self Commutaion with Output Waveforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.5 Commutation by Capacitor and Auxiliary Thyristor. . . . . . . . 182
8.6 Parallel-inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.7 Parallel-icircuit with Resistive Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.8 Single-phase Series Inverter with its Output Waveforms. . . . . . 185
8.9 Modied Series Inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.10 Wide Frequency-range Series Inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.11 Series Inverter with Two Terminal D.C. Supply . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.12 Single Phase, half-bridge inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.14 McMurray Commutation Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.16 Waveforms of Example 8-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.17 Pulse Width Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.18 PWM by Comparing a Triangular Carrier with Sine-wave . . . . 194
8.19 Six Steps Three Phase Bridge Inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.20 Voltage Waveform of Three phase Bridge Inverter with Two Thyris-
tors Conducting at the Same Time and star-connected Load. . . 195
LIST OF FIGURES 1
8.22 Replacing of Thyristors by Power Transistors in 3-phase Bridge

Inverter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.23 Low-pass Filter Between Inverter Output and Load. . . . . . . . 197
8.25 Output Voltage and Current of Question 4, Post-test. . . . . . . 198
9.1 Dierent Connections of D.C. Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

9.2 Separately Excited D.C. Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.3 Torque-speed Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.4 Motor Starter using Thyristors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.5 D.C. Motor Control by Controlled Rectiers. . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.6 Single Phase Bridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
9.7 Half Controlled Rectier with D.C. Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.8 Three Phase Bridge Fully Controlled Rectier Fed D.C. Motor. . 213
9.9 Chopper Fed a D.C. Motor Circuit and the Output Waveforms. . 214
9.10 Step-up Chopper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.11 Two-quadrant Chopper Operation with D.C. Motor. . . . . . . . 215
9.12 Waveforms of Example 9-4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.13 Slip Ring Three Phase Induction Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.14 Three Phase Wound-rotor Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit. . 222
9.15 Modied Equivalent Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.16 The Torque-speed Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.17 Stator Voltage Controller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.18 T-N Characteristics with Various Terminal Voltages . . . . . . . 226
9.19 Open-loop Speed Control System Block Diagram. . . . . . . . . . 226
9.20 Variable-voltage, Variable-frequency Torque Speed Characteristics.227
9.21 Controlled Rectier-voltage Source Inverter Motor Drive. . . . . 228
9.22 Chopper-voltage Source Inverter Drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.23 Current Source Inverter Motor Drive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.24 Induction Motor Speed Control by Variation Of External Rotor
Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.25 Torque-speed Characteristic by Varying External Rotor Resistance.229
9.26 Replacing Of External Rotor Resistance by Uncontrolled Bridge
Rectier and D.C. Chopper System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.27 Slip-power Recovery Drive System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.28 Basic Structure Of Three Phase Synchronous Machine. . . . . . . 234
9.29 Variabl-frequency, Motor Starting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.30 Synchronous Machine Equivalent Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.31 Equivalent Circuit Of Synchronous Machine as a Generator. . . . 236
9.32 Torque-speed Characteristic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.33 Open-loop Frequency Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
9.34 Variable-frequency, Variable-voltage, Torque-speed Characteristics 238
9.35 Self-controlled Synchronous Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Chapter 1
Power Electronic Concepts
1.1 Pre-test
In the following multiple choice questions, please circle the correct answer:
1. The diode is a semiconducting device consisting of:
a) Two layers. b) Three layers.
c) Four layers d) Five layers.
2. The transistor is a semiconducting device consisting of:
3. The thyristor is a semiconducting device consisting of:
4. The main electronic components (diodes , transistors , thyristors ) are

used in power electronics applications as a:
a) Lamp b) Alarm.
c) Switch. d) Amplier.
5. The diode has:
a) One Junction. b) Two Junctions.
c) Three junctions. d) Four junctions.
6. The transistor has:
7. The thyristor has:
2
8. If the positive polarity of the source is connected to the cathode and the
negative polarity is connected to the anode of diode, the diode becomes:
a) Forward biasing. b) Reverse biasing.
9. If the emitter is connected between input and output, the transistor will
called:
a) Common base. b) Common emitter.
c) Common collector. d) Common source.
10. The main dierence between thyristor and diode is that the thyristor has:
a) Anode. b) Cathode.
c) Gate. d) Heat sinks.
1.2 Diode
It is a P-N junction semiconducting device, permits the ow of current to move
in one direction but restrains (retains) the ow in opposite direction, see Figure
1.1.
Figure 1.1: Silicon Diode V-I Characteristic Curve.
1.2.1 Forward Biasing

If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side of the diode
junction and the positive terminal of the battery to the P-side of the junction,
the diode is said to be biased in a forward direction, as shown in Figure 1.2.
3
Figure 1.2: PN Junction Diode - Forward Biased
1.2.2 Reverse Biasing

If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the P-side of the Junc-
tion, and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the N-side of the
junction, the diode is said to be biased in a reverse direction. A small current
(some nano amperes to some micro amperes) will ow. This small current is
called the diode reverse saturation current, as shown in Figure 1.3 .
Figure 1.3: PN Junction Diode - Reverse Biased
1.2.3 Diode Characteristics

It is a relation between the diode voltage and current in both forward and reverse
biasing as shown in Figure 1.1. The volt - ampere characteristic shown above
has a forward current scale in milliamperes and reverse scale in micro-amperes.
If the reverse voltage is increased beyond a permissible value, a large reverse
current will ow, and the diode is said to be in the breakdown region.
1.3 Transistor
The transistor was invented by William Shockly in 1947. It is used mainly for
two applications:
i- Amplify an electrical signal.
ii- Electronic switch.
1.3.1 The Construction of Transistor

It is constructed with three doped semiconducting regions (P - N - P) or (N -
P - N). These regions are called emitter, base and collector. See Figure 1.4.
4
Figure 1.4: Transistor Construction and Symbol.
1.4 Transistor Biasing

Transistor biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage
or current conditions to the correct level so that any AC input signal can be
amplied correctly by the transistor, see Figure 1.5.
(a) Common-emitter NPN (b) Common-emitter PNP
Figure 1.5: Transistor Baising
βdc = D.C. current gain = IIBC

1
αdc = ratio of collector to emitter current.
I
= C =0.95→ 0.99
IE
Also,
IE = IC + IB
And,
β
α=
1+β
5
Example 1-1: Determine β and α for a transistor, where IB =50µA and IC =3.65
mA.
Solution:
−3
β = IIB
C
=
3.65∗10
50∗10−6 =73
β 73
α= 1+β =
74 =0.986
1.5 Common-Emitter Output Characteristic

In Figure 1.6, when IB =0 VCE ≈VCC but when IB is
the transistor is a cut-o,
increased, the collector current increases,VCE decreases and the voltage drop
across RC increases until reaching a case that IC cannot increase even with the
continued increase in IB . This case is called
VCC
saturation
. So VCE ≈ 0 and IC
saturation =
RC . See Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.6: Common-Emitter Output Characteristics.
Figure 1.7: Transistor as a Switch
1.6 Self-test
Complete the following sentences with suitable words:
1. The transistor is used as a switch device when it is operated in either
or .
2. The collector current reaches its maximum value at the point of .
3. The collector current equals approximately zero at the point of .
4. At the point, the voltage is equal to the voltage VCC .

5. The transistor voltage VCE equals the forward voltage drop at .
6
1.7 Thyristor
It is a 4-layers (P-N-P-N), 3-terminals(anode - cathode - gate), 3 - junctions (J1-
J2-J3) semiconducting material device that is used instead of power transistor
in high power applications, as shown in Figure 1.8 .
Figure 1.8: Thyristor Construction and Symbol.
Advantages
1. small size and light weight.
2. small control power.
3. fast operation.
4. no moving parts.
5. the output voltage is controlled by the gate signal.
1.8 Thyristor Construction

The thyristor layers are joined as shown in Figure 1.9, by tungsten or molyb-
denum plates; accordingly high currents will pass through the layers and these
must have a high strength and mechanical forces. The thyristor is used as a
switching device.
Figure 1.9: Thyristor Construction
7
1.8.1 Thyristor Family
As shown in Figure 1.10, some of thyristors have four layers P-N-P-N and uni-
directional conduction. Other types of thyristors consist of ve layers with
bidirectional conduction. Some of thyristor family devices are shown in Figure
1.10
Figure 1.10: Thyristor Family
1.9 Post-test
1. What voltage is indicated by each of the meters in Figure 1.11 below?
(a) Silicon Diode. (b) Germaniom Diode.
Figure 1.11: Circuit Diagram of Question (1), Post-test.
2. How can an ideal forward and reverse biasing diode be represented?

3. What is the main condition to produce transistor saturation?
4. Draw the internal and external (output) characteristics of the transistor?
5. What is the type of transistor connection when it is used as a switch?
6. Name the following semiconductor devices?
(a) Two-layers and two-terminals.
(b) Three-layers and three-terminals.
(c) Four-layers and three-terminals.
8
7. State four-types of thyristor family?
8. What is the advantage of the thyristor gate terminal?
1.10 Standard Answers

A- Pre-test
a-1 , b-2 , c-3 , d-3 , e-1 , f-2 , g-3 , h-2 , i-2 , j-3
B- Self-test
1- Cut-o or saturation.
2- Saturation.
3- Cut-o.
4- Cut-o.
5- Saturation.
C- Post-test
1- Silicon diode = 0.7 V and germanium diode =0.3 V.
2- It is represented as a switch.
3- The sucient base current is the main condition to produce transistor
saturation.
4- As shown in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.6 respectively.
5- Common emitter connection.
6- (1) Diode. (2) Transistor. (3) Thyristor.
7- SCR, SCS, Diac, Triac.
8- It is used to control the switching action of the thyristor and to
control the output voltage.
9
Chapter 2
Uncontrolled Rectication
2.1 Pre-test
1. The single phase half-wave rectier consists of:
a) One diode. b) Two diodes.
c) Three diodes. d) Four diodes.
2. The single phase center-tap full-wave rectier consists of:
3. The single phase full-wave bridge rectier consists of:
4. The single phase half-wave rectier recties:
a) The positive half cycles. b) The negative half cycles.
c) The positive and negative half

cycles.
5. The single phase full-wave rectier recties:
a) The positive half cycles. b) The negative half cycles.
c) The positive and negative half

cycles.
6. The average output voltage of half-wave rectier is equal to:
a) Vm /π b) 2Vm /π
√ √
c) 2Vm /π d) Vm / 2π
7. The average output voltage of full-wave rectier is equal to:
a) Vm /π b) 2Vm /π
√ √
c) 2Vm /π d) Vm / 2π
8. The eciency of half-wave rectier is:
10
a) 20%. b) 40%.
c) 60%. d) 80%.
9. The eciency of full-wave rectier is:
a) 40%. b) 60%.
c) 80%. d) 100%.
10. In electrical characteristics, there is no dierence between:
a) Half-wave and center-tap rectiers.
b) Half-wave and bridge rectiers.
c) Center-tap and bridge rectiers.
2.2 Single Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier with

Resistive Load
It is one of the simplest rectier circuits. The output of the transformer, as
shown in Figure 2.1, is connected to the resistive load (RL ) through a diode
(D).
Figure 2.1: Single Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier with Resistive Load.
Let the transformer secondary volatage is given by: Vs =Vm sin(wt). Where
Vm =maximum value of this voltage, at any instant:
Vs =VD +VL
The output voltage as shown in Figure 2.1. The average output voltage across
the load resistance RL is givin as:
Z π
1
Vd = Vm sin wt dwt
2π 0
Vm
Vd =
π
11
The average output D.C. voltage also the average output current can similarly
be expressed as:
Im
Id =
π
Where:
Vm
Im =
RL
The ripple components in the output of rectier (eective or r.m.s value of
voltage and current components) can be found from the rst principles as:
Z π 21
1 2
Vr.m.s = (Vm sin wt) dwt
2π 0
Vm
Vr.m.s =
2
Similarly, the eective value of A.C. current in the output can be found as:
Im
Ir.m.s =
2
The eciency of the rectier is given as:
Id2 RL (Im /π)2 RL
η= 2
= = 0.4 ≈ 40%
Ir.m.s RL (Im /2)2 RL
Example 2-1: Calculate the average voltage value of half wave single phase
rectier with a peak value of 200 volts?
Solution:
Vm 200
Vd = = = 63.7 volts.
π 3.14
Example 2-2: Calculate the r.m.s current of half wave rectier with maximum
current of 10 A?
Solution:
Im 10
Ir.m.s = = = 5 A.
2 2
2.3 Single Phase Uncontrolled Full Wave Rectier with
Resistive Load
In this connection, the negative half cycles of the supply wave form are also
used to pass a current in the positive direction through the load. This can be
achieved in two ways by using mid-point (center tap), as shown in Figure 2.2,
transformer connection or bridge connection, as in Figure 2.3.
√
Vs = Vm sin wt = 2 V sin wt
Where V is the r.m.s value of supply voltage.
Z π
1 2Vm
Vd = (Vm sin wt.dwt = average output voltage, also,
π 0 π
2Im
Id = average output current.
π
The current supplied to the rectier has an eective r.m.s value of:
Z π 21
1 2 Im
Ir.m.s = (Im sin wt) dwt = √
π 0 2
12
Figure 2.2: Single Phase Mid-point or Center-tap.
Figure 2.3: Single Phase Bridge Connection.
The eciency of rectication is:
Id2 RL (2Im /π)2 RL

η= 2
= √ = 0.81 ≈ 81%
Ir.m.s RL (Im / 2)2 RL
In case of bridge rectier , when the input cycle is positive diodes D1 and D2
are forward biased and conduct current and diodes D3 and D4 are reversed
biased .Where the input cycle is negative then diodes D3 and D4 are forward
biased and conduct current in the same direction through the load as during
the positive half-cycle. Also, D1 and D2 are reversed biased during the negative
half-cycle.
Example 2-3: calculate the average values of the load voltage and current
in the case of full-wave rectier with maximum supply voltage (75) volts and
the load resistance is (4.78)Ω.
Solution:
2Vm 2 ∗ 75
Vd = = = 47.8 volts.
π 3.14
13
Vd 47.8
Id = = = 10 A.
RL 4.78
2.4 Post-test
1. A resistive load is supplied from half-wave, single phase uncontrolled rec-
tier. If the supply voltage is (230)V, calculate the average load voltage.
2. A resistive load of (37) Ω is supplied from half-wave ,single phase rectier
with uncontrolled output voltage. If the supply voltage is given as: Vs =
300 sin(wt) volt, calculate the average load voltage ,load current and load
power.
3. A single phase uncontrolled bridge rectier is supplied from (120) V A.C.
supply. Determine the mean load voltage.
4. An uncontrolled, center-tap,single phase, full-wave rectier with 2:1 turns
ratio of the transformer. Draw the circuit diagram and calculate the av-
erage load voltage with resistive load when the supply voltage is (240)V.

A- Pre-test
1-a, 2-b, 3-d,4-a, 5-c, 6-a, 7-b, 8-b, 9-c, 10-c.
B- Post-test
1- √ √
Vm 2Vr.m.s 2 ∗ 230
Vd = = = = 103.3 volts.
π π 3.14
2-
Vm 300
Vd = = = 95.5 volts.
π 3.14
Vd 95.5
Id = = = 2.6A
RL 37
Pd = Vd ∗ Id = 240 watts
3- √ √
Vm 2Vr.m.s 2 ∗ 120
Vd = = = = 115.8 volts.
π π 3.14
4- √
2Vm 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 60
Vd = = = 54 volts.
π 3.14
2.6 Pre-test
1. The three phase supply system consists of three lines voltage with same
magnitude but a phase dierence between each others of:
14
a) 60◦ . b) 120◦ .
c) 240◦ . d) 300◦ .
2. The three phase supply half wave rectier consists of:
a) Two diode. b) Three diodes.
c) Four diodes. d) Six diodes..
3. The three phase, full wave rectier consists of:
a) Two diode. b) Three diodes.
c) Four diodes. d) Six diodes.
4. The three phase half wave rectier recties :
a) The positive half-cycles of the supply voltages.
b) The negative half-cycles of the supply voltages.
c) The positive and negative half-cycles of the supply voltages.
5. The three phase full wave rectier recties:
a) The positive half-cycles of the supply voltages.
b) The negative half-cycles of the supply voltages.
c) The positive and negative half-cycles of the supply voltages.
6. The average output voltage of the three phase half wave diode rectier is
equal to:
√ √
3 3Vph(m) 3Vph(m)
a) b)
√ 2π √ π
3 3Vph(m) 3Vph(m)
c) d)
π 2π
Where, Vph(m) = the maximum phase voltage of the supply.
7. The average output voltage of three phase full wave diode rectier is equal
to:
√ √
3 3Vph(m) 3 3Vph(m)
a) b)
√ 2π √ π
3 3Vph(m) 3Vph(m)
c) d)
2 2π
8. The mean factor causing the over-lap phenomena is:
a) Transformer leakage reactances.
b) Number of supply phases.
c) The load current.
d) The supply voltage.
9. The over-lap between the transformer output phase voltage causes:
a) Reduction of the supply frequency.
b) Reduction of the output average voltage.
c) Increasing the number of phase.
d) Reduction of the load resistance.
10. Increasing the number of phase results in:
a) Decreasing the output voltages.
b) Increasing the output average voltage.
c) Reducing the output eciency.
d) Increasing the voltage drop due to the over-lap.
15
2.7 Three Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier with
Resistive Load
Consider the three phase half wave rectier, shown in gures 2.4 and 2.5 below.
It is fed from three phase, star connected secondary of a transformer. The load
is assumed to be resistive so that the output load current remains the same
waveform of the output average load voltage. At any instant only one diode
with the most positive bias across it conducts and the remaining two diodes are
in their non-conducting states. Each diode conducts for (1/3)th of a cycle (for
an interval equal to 2π/3). The load current commutates from one diode to
another by natural commutation.
The average output voltage (Vd ) is found as:
Z 150◦
1
Vd = Vph(m) sin wt.dwt
2π/3 30◦
Where, 30◦ = π/6, and 150◦ = 5π/6 in radian.
√
3 3Vph(m)
Vd = (volts)
2π
Vd
Id = (A)
RL
Pd = Vd ∗ Id (watt)
Figure 2.4: Three Phase Uncontrolled Half Wave Rectier.
16
Figure 2.5: Output Voltage Waveform.
Example 2-4: A three phase half wave uncontrolled rectier is connected to

220 V/ phase supply. If the load resistance is 10Ω, calculate the average load
power.
Solution: √ √ √
3 3Vph(m) 3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220
Vd = = = 257volt
2π 2 ∗ 3.14
Vd
Id = = 2.57A
RL
Pd = Vd ∗ Id = 257 ∗ 2.57 = 6586watt
Example 2-5: based on example 2-4, calculate the r.m.s current per phase?
Solution:
" Z 150◦ # 12
1 Vph(m) 2
Ir.m.s = ( sin wt) dwt
2π 30◦ R
" √ ◦
# 12
( 2Vph(r.m.s) )2 150
Z
= sin2 wt dwt
2πR2 30◦
" ◦
# 21
2 ∗ (220)2 150
Z
2
= sin wt dwt
2π(10)2 30◦
# 21
150◦
"Z
22
=√ sin2 wt dwt
π 30◦
17
# 21
150◦
"Z
22
=√ {1 − cos(2wt)} dwt
2π 30◦
1
22 sin(2wt) 150◦ 2
=√ {wt − }30◦
2π 2
" √ # 12
22 5π 1 π 3
=√ + − + ≈ 20A
2π 6 4 6 4
2.8 Three Phase Full Wave Uncontrolled Rectier with

Resistive Load
The three phase circuits the best utilization of the rectier transformer. The
simple three phase half wave rectier circuit suers from the defect that it causes
unidirectional currents to ow in the secondary windings of the transformer
supplying it. One way to avoid this defect to reconnect the rectier elements
(diodes) in a bridge formation shown in gure 2.6. This circuit consists of two
three phase half wave rectiers. The diodes D1, D3 and D5 feed the positive
half phase voltages to the load, and the other D4, D6 and D2 feed negative half
voltages to the load. At any particular instant,the most positively biased diode
of the rst group and the most negatively biased of the second group conduct
simultaneously. The magnitude of the voltage across the load can easily be seen
to be equal times the phase voltage . The average output D.C. load voltage can
be found as:
Z 90◦
1
Vd = VLine(m) sin(wt) dwt
2π/6
√ 30◦
3 3Vph(m)
Vd = (volt) mean output voltage.
π
Figure 2.6: Three Phase Uncontrolled Full Wave Rectier with Resistive Load.
18
Example 2-6: A three-phase bridge uncontrolled rectier is connected to three-

phase supply, 50 Hz and 220 V/phase. Calculate the output average load current
when the load resistance is (100)Ω.
Solution:
√
3 3Vph(m)
Vd =
π √ √
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220
=
π
= 515 volt
Vd 515
Id = = = 5.15A
RL 100
Example 2-7: Drive a general expression for the mean load voltage of m-phase
half-wave uncontrolled rectier?
19
Z +m π
1
Vd = Vph(m) cos(wt) dwt
2π/m − mπ
π
mVph(m) sin( m )
Vd =
π
2.9 Eect of Source Impedance-overlap Phenomena

When the rectier is working under ideal conditions, there are no voltage drops
due to the impedance of input transformer. In actual circuit there will be a
voltage drop due to the resistance and leakage inductance of the transformer.
The voltage drop appearing at the load voltage. The eect of the leakage induc-
tance would be to delay the transfer of current from one phase to another. The
time during which the current is shared is called the overlap period as shown in
gure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: The Overlap Phenomenon in Uncontrolled Rectiers.
During the overlap period between phase (a) and (b), the voltage across the
load equals:
Va + Vb
VL =
2
20
which is the average voltage of the two phases. The reduction voltage due to
the overlap can be found as:
3Id ω(La + Lb )
Vr =
4π
If the leakage inductances La , Lb and Lc of the transformer are equal, then the
reduction voltage equation becomes:
6Id ωl
Vr =
4π
which is the reduction voltage in 3-phase system due to the overlap half-wave
rectier. In case of single phase center-tap rectier, the reduction voltage be-
comes:
2Id ω2L Id ωL
Vr = = (volts)
4π π
In case of single phase bridge rectier, the reduction voltage due to the overlap
becomes:
4Id ω2L 2Id ωL
Vr = = (volts)
4π π
where ω = 2πf radian/second,
Id = average load current(A), the net average output voltage is given as:
Vdu = Vd − Vr
Where Vdu = the average output voltage with overlap, and
Vd = the average output voltage without overlap, and
Vr = the reduction voltage due to the overlap.
The overlap phenomena depends on the following factors:
i- Number of phases.
ii- The load current.
iii- The transformer leakage reactances.
Example 2-8: If the load current is (10)A and the transformer leakage reac-
tance (ωL) per phase is (5)Ω, nd the reduction in the output voltage due to
the overlap for the following cases :
i- Single phase center-tap rectier.
ii- Single phase bridge rectier.
iii- Three phase half-wave rectier.
iv- Three phase full-wave rectier.
Solution:
mId 2ωL m ∗ 10 ∗ 10 25m
Vr = = =
4π 4π π
i- m=2, Vr = 50
π = 16 volts.
ii- m=4, Vr = 32 volts.
iii- m=3, Vr = 24 volts.
iv- m=6, Vr = 48 volts.
Example 2-9: A three-phase full-wave bridge uncontrolled rectier is con-

nected to 3-phase supply, 50 Hz and (220) v / phase. If the load current is (10)
A and the transformer secondary leakage inductance per phase is (0.02) Henery,
calculate:
i- The reduction voltage due to the overlap.
21
ii- The net average output voltage.
Solution:
6 ∗ Id ∗ 2 ∗ (ωL) 6 ∗ 10 ∗ 2 ∗ 50 ∗ 3.41 ∗ 0.02

Vr = = = 60 volts.
√ 4π √ √ 4π
3 3Vph(m) 3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220
Vd = = = 515 volts.
π π
Vdu = Vd − Vr = 515 − 60 = 455 volts.
2.10 Post-test
1. If a mean load voltage of a three phase half-wave rectier is (257) V,
calculate the r.m.s phase voltage supply.
2. If a mean load voltage of a 3-phase, full-wave, bridge, uncontrolled rectier
is (515) V, nd the r.m.s phase voltage of the supply?
3. A 3-phase full-wave bridge uncontrolled rectier fed a load current of (10)
A when the transformer secondary leakage output voltage is (455) V, nd
the r.m.s of the supply voltage?
4. (a) A 3-phase bridge uncontrolled rectier supplied by 220 V/ phase,
3-phase supply. The rectier is feeding a load of (10).
(b) Six-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectier is supplied by a six-phase
supply of (380) V/ phase. The rectier is feeding a similar load that
dene above.
Compare the two circuits regarding the following:
i- Average output voltage, current and power.
ii- Average current in each diode.
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-c, 3-d,4-a, 5-c, 6-a, 7-b, 8-a, 9-b, 10-d.
B- Post-test
1- 220V/phase.
2- 220V/phase.
3- 220V/phase.
4- (a) Vd = 515 V, Id = 51.5 A, Pd = 26.5 KW
(b) Vd = 513 V, Id = 51.3 A, Pd = 26.3 KW
22
Chapter 3
Application of Transistor and Operational

Amplier in Power Electronics
Before the introduction of the thyristors in the year 1957, a number of devices
were used for the control of electrical power equipment. The main requirement
of these applications was a control of voltage or in certain cases a control of
frequency. Some of the earlier devices used for voltage control were rheostats,
reactors or auto transformers with changeable taps, which were later supple-
mented by magnetic ampliers. These devices had, in general, the limitation
of low eciency or low power factor and had in addition to that a large bulk.
Among the electronic devices, the vacuum tubes could not be used for electrical
power applications as they are basically meant for low current and if they were
to be manufactured for handling the normal power current their size would have
to be enormous. The electronic devices which could be used for such purposes
were the thyratron and the mercury arc rectier. Both of these were capable of
handling large current due to the phenomena of secondary emission and break-
down inside the tube which resulted in a more or less constant voltage drop
across the tube. Although reasonable in large voltage rating tubes, this drop
(about 25V) represented a sizeable loss in small voltage applications. Besides,
these devices had further limitations due to their bulk and fragile glass construc-
tion, slow switching time limiting the maximum operating frequency to about
1 kHz, and back-ring resulting in short circuit and faulty operation. These
problems have led to their being gradually eased out and replaced by thyristors.
The thyristors have the advantages of:
i- Small size and light weight.

ii- Fast operation.
iii- Small control power requirement.
iv- Small voltage drops during conduction (about 1.5V).
v- No moving parts and,
vi- Reliability.
The problems faced in thyristors are as follows:
i- Since its size is small, its thermal capacity is also limited and a slight
overheating raises its temperature very quickly. Thus to avoid damage to
the junction, temperature rise beyond a specied limit must be avoided.
23
Suitable heat sinks are used for this purpose. They conduct the heat from
the device and dissipate it to the surroundings.
ii- Over-voltages in the reverse direction can result in permanent damage to
the device. So they must be either avoided or sucient protection may be
provided against them.
iii- Although it is easy to turn a thyristor ON, it is rather dicult to turn it
OFF.
The above problems are generally overcome with suitable design of circuits hav-
ing adequate protection as well as cooling arrangements. Another semicon-
ductor device which could be used in power applications is the transistor, or
more specically the power transistor. When used in its `linear region', it has a
large internal voltage drop and results in large power dissipation. If used in the
switching mode, its internal losses are reduced. This is due to the fact that when
it is in the ÒN' state, it conducts a large current but with a small voltage drop
across it and in the ÒFF' state it conducts a small leakage current but has a
large voltage (almost the fully supply voltage) across it. The power dissipation
in either state is small. One major dierence between the transistor and the
thyristor is that whereas the transistor needs a continuous base drive to keep it
in the 'ON' state, the thyristor needs a signal only to turn it ÒN' and once it is
turned ÒN' the signal is no longer required. Although power transistors have
been developed to handle reasonable amount of power, the larger power devices
are normally controlled with the help of thyristors only.
3.1 Pre-test
A- The power transistor is used in the power system as:
a) Amplier. b) Invertor.
c) Switch. d) Regulator.
B- When the power transistor used as a switch, it operates in:
a) Linear region. b) Cut-o and saturation.
c) Reverse biasing. d) Forward biasing.
C- The over-driven techniques of the transistor is used to ensure the transfer

of the transistor to the:
a) Cut-o region. b) saturation region.
c) Linear region. d) Unstable operation.
D- When the transistor is used as a switch, it must be connected as:
a) Common base. b) Common collector.
c) Common emitter. d) Voltage follower.
E- When the transistor is operated in over-driven the base current must be-
comes:
a) Double. b) Three times.
c) Four times. d) Five times.
3.2 Power Transistors

Power transistor is classied into three common types:
24
3.2.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (B J T)
It is a three-layers, three-terminals, two junctions (PNP or NPN) semiconductor
device, as shown in Figure 3.1, below. Its input and output characteristics are
as show in Figure 3.2 and 3.3.
Figure 3.1: Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT).
Figure 3.2: Input Characteristics.
25
Figure 3.3: Output Characteristics
Forward current gain (α) = IC /IE which has a value less than one. The current
gain (β) = IC /IB which has a value greater than (20)
α β
β= , α=
1−α 1+β
3.2.2 MOSFET
It is a voltage controlled device , and there are two types of MOSFET:
1- Enhanced type.
2- Depletion type.
The enhancement type is of two types:
i- N-channel enhanced MOSFET.
ii- P-channel enhanced MOSFET.
3.2.2.1 Enhanced Type

In enhancement MOSFET as shown in Figure 3.4, there is an n-channel between
drain and source, but the N-type drained and the source are separated by a P-
type substrate. Over the surface of the substrate a very thin layer of SIO2
which acts as the gate. The input impedance is very high and it is of the order
of 1015 Ω. The main disadvantage of N-channel in between drain and source
gives large on-state resistance. This leads to a high power loss in N-channel.
Figure 3.4: N-Channel Enhanced MOSFET.
26
3.2.2.2 Depletion MOSFET
It is a similar to E-MOSFET in construction except that a lightly doped N-type
channel is introduced between the two heavily doped source and drain. It can
be divided into two types:
1. N-Channel DMOSFET.
2. P-Channel DMOSFET.
The systems are the same of N-channel E-MOSFET and P-channel E-MOSFET.
3.2.3 IGBT
This device subsumes the advantage of both MOSFET and BJT. So the IGBT
(insulated gate bipolar junction transistor) has high input impedance like a
MOSFET and low on-state power loss as in a BJT. IGBT is free from secondary
break down problem presented in BJT. It is widely used in medium power
applications, such as D.C. and A.C. motor drives, UPS, relays and contactors.
See Figures 3.5 and 3.6 .
Figure 3.5: Insulated Gate Bipolar Junction (IGBT).
Figure 3.6: IGBT Output and Transfer Characteristics.
3.3 The Power Transistor as a Switch

The power transistor can be used as an electronic switch as in Figure 3.7
below.
27
Figure 3.7: The Power Transistor can Be Used as an Electronic Switch.
Example 3-1: In the transistor circuit shown below, the voltage VBB =1.5 V,
β =45, VCE =0.15 V, and VBE =0.65 V, Find the resistance when the transistor
is used as a switch.
Figure 3.8: Circuit Diagram of Example 3-1.
Solution:
VL = VCC − VCE = 30 − 0.15 = 29.85 volts.
VL 29.85
IC = = = 14.92 mA
RL 2000
IC 14.92
IB = = = 332 µA
β 45
transistor in a saturation region (switch on)
VBB − VBE 1.5 − 0.65
RB = = = 2560Ω
IB 332 ∗ 10−6
28
3.4 Over Driven Operation of the Power Transistor as a
Switch
The over driven operation of the transistor can be obtained by using the current
shown in Figure 3.9 below. The current through the resistance (R1 ) must be
double the minimum current passing through the resistance (RB ), and the total
base current become 3-times of the minimum base current, which transfers the
transistor to saturation region.
Figure 3.9: Over Driven Operation Of the Power Transistor as a Switch.
Example 3-2: In the circuit shown in Figure 3.9, the transistor is used as over
driven operation as a switch. The triggering voltage Vin =1 volt, nd R1 and
RB when β = 50, VBE =0.65 volts, VCC =15 volts, VBB =5 volts, VCE =0, RL =
500 Ω.
Solution:
VCC − VCE 15
IC = = = 30 mA
RL 500
IC 30 ∗ 10−3
IBmin = = = 600 µA
β 50
I1 = double of IBmin = 2 ∗ 600 = 1.2mA
I1 R1 = VBB − VBE = 5 − 0.65 = 4.35 volts.
4.35 4.35
R1 = = = 3625 Ω
I1 1.2 ∗ 10−2
29
Vin − VBE
IBmin =
RB
1 − 0.65
600 ∗ 10−6 =
RB
0.35
RB = = 583 Ω
600 ∗ 10−6
3.5 Post-test
1. In the circuit shown in Figure 3.10. The transistor is used as a switch,
calculate the input voltage (Vin ) which transfer the transistor to the con-
duction state?
Figure 3.10: Circuit Diagram of Question 1, Post-test.
2. For the transistor circuit shown in Figure 3.10, nd:

a) VCE when Vin =0 V.
b) Minimum value of IB required to saturate (turn-ON) this transistor.
c) RB when Vin =5V.
A- Pre-test
A-3, B-2, C-2, D-3, E-2
B- Post-test
1-
VCC 10
IC ≈ = = 10 mA
RC 1000
−3
IC 10 ∗ 10
IB = = = 0.05 mA
β 200
30
Vin = IB RB + VBE = (0.0666 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 47 ∗ 103 ) + 0.7 = 3.83 volts
which is the minimum input voltage to transfer the transistor to the
ON-state (saturation region).
2- a) When Vin =0 so IB =0 (case of cut-o ). Then the transistor in
cut-o and VCE =VCC =10V.
b) When the transistor is saturated then:
VCC 10
VCE = 0, so IC = = = 10 mA
RC 1000
IC IC 10 ∗ 10−3
β= ⇒ IB = = = 0.05 mA
IB β 200
Which is the minimum base current to transfer the transistor
into (ON-state).
c) Voltage across RB :
= Vin − VBE = 5 − 0.7 = 4.3V

4.3
RB = = 86KΩ
0.05 ∗ 10−3
3.7 Pre-test
In the following multiple choices questions, please choose the correct answer:
1- The unijunction transistor consists of:
a) One terminal. b) Two terminals.
c) Three terminals. d) Four terminals.
2- The unijunction transistor consists of:
a) One-layer. b) Two-layers.
c) Three-layers. d) Four-layers.
3- The external terminals of the unijunction transistor is nearly:
a) 1KΩ b) 5KΩ
c) 10KΩ d) 20KΩ
4- The transistor stand-o ratio of the unijunction transistor is given as:

RB1 RB1
a) η= RB2 b) η= RB1 +RB2
RB2 RB2
c) η= RB1 d) η= RB1 +RB2
Where,
RB1 =resistance of base (1).
RB2 =resistance of base (2).
5- The voltage drop between the emitter and base-1 is given as:
a) VBE1 = η ∗ VBB b) VBE1 = VD

c) VBE1 = η ∗ VBB + VD d) VBE1 = η ∗ VD
Where,
VD =emitter junction voltage drop.
VBB =supply voltage between base(1) and base(2).
6- Variation of an external resistance connected in the relaxation oscillator
circuit will vary:
31
a) The output voltage. b) The output current.
c) The output frequency. d) The output power.
7- The characteristics of the unijunction transistor is similar to the charac-

teristics of the:
a) Diode. b) Two-junction transistor.
c) Photo-transistor. d) Thyristor.
8- The period of one cycle of the relaxation oscillator output pulse is given
as:
a) T = RCLn (1 − η) b) T = RCLn (1 + η)
1 1
c) T = RCLn (1+η) d) T = RCLn (1−η)
9- When the capacitor voltage reaches an initial value (valley point) the
transistor becomes:
a) Switch-ON. b) Switch-OFF.
3.8 The Unijunction Transistor

3.8.1 Construction, Electrical Symbol and Characteristics
It is a three-terminals semiconductor diode. It has two unequally doped regions
with three external leads. There is one emitter and two bases B1 andB2 . The
emitter is heavily-doped P-type material bar, whereas the base is a bar of N-
material with lightly-doped semiconductor material. There are two resistive
contacts connected to the base terminals. These terminals are called base-1 and
base-2 (B1 and B2 ) as shown in gures 3.11 and 3.12. The inter-base resistance
RBB = RB1 + RB2 , and it is nearly (10)kΩ.
Figure 3.11: The Unijunction Transistor Consturction, Electrical Symbol and

Characteristic.
32
Figure 3.12: Unijunction Transistor Curve
RBB = RB1 + RB2

RB1 RB1
η= = (Intrinsic stand − of f ratio)
RB1 + RB2 RBB
VB1 = η ∗ VBB
VBE1 = VB1 + VD = η ∗ VBB + VD
0.5 ≤ ζ ≤ 0.75
5kΩ ≤ RBB ≤ 10kΩ
VBE1 = Vp = VB1 + VD = η ∗ VBB + VD
3.8.2 UJT as a Relaxation Oscillator

UJT can be used as a relaxation oscillator or as a thyristor triggering circuit as
shown in Figure 3.13
Figure 3.13: Relaxation Oscillator Using UJT and Output Voltage Waveform
Of the Oscillator.
33
The relaxation oscillator circuit can be analysed as follow:
1
T = (R1 + Rx ) ∗ C ∗ Ln period of one cycle of the output pulse.
(1 − η)
1
Tmax = (R1 + Rx(max) ) ∗ C ∗ Ln maximum period of one cycle.
(1 − η)
1
Tmin = (R1 + Rx(min) ) ∗ C ∗ Ln minimum period of one cycle.
(1 − η)
1
Fmax = maximum pulse f requency.
Tmin
1
Fmin = minimum pulse f requency.
Tmax
VS − VP
(R1 + Rx(max) ) =
IP
VS − Vv
(R1 + Rx(min) ) =
Iv
W here Vv = initial capacitance voltage.
Vp = maximum capacitance voltage.
= η ∗ VBB + VD = VEB1
VS = supply voltage.
VS = VBB W hen R1 andR2 are very small values then
VC ≈ VEB1 = η ∗ VBB + VD W hen R1 andR2 are very small values.
Example 3-3: A UJT was used to build an oscillator, as shown in Figure

3.14 below. Calculate the minimum and maximum oscillator frequency of the
generated pulses.
34
Solution:
1
T = (R + RX ) ∗ C ∗ Ln
(1 − η)
1
Tmax = (100 + 2.2) ∗ 103 ∗ 0.1 ∗ 10−6 ∗ Ln = 10.73 mSec
1 − 0.65
1 1
Fmin = = = 93Hz
Tmax 10.73 ∗ 10−3
1
Tmin = (0 + 2.2) ∗ 103 ∗ 0.1 ∗ 10−6 ∗ Ln = 0.23 mSec.
1 − 0.65
1 1
Fmax = = = 4.3kHz
Tmin 0.23 ∗ 10−3
3.9 Post-test
1. In the circuit shown in Figure 3.15 below, assume that the values of R1
and R2 are very small, calculate the maximum capacitance voltage?
2. Draw the input and output voltage waveforms of the relaxation oscillator?
3. Determine a value of R1 and R2 in the UJT circuit shown in Figure 3.16
below, that will ensure proper turn-ON and turn-OFF of the circuit. The
characteristics of the UJT has the following values:
η = 0.5V, Vv = 1V, Iv = 10mA, IP = 20mA, and VBB = 30V
35
4. Draw the VEB1 − IE characteristics of the UJT?

A) Pre-test
1-c, 2-b, 3-b, 4-c, 5-b 6-c, 7-c, 8-d, 9-d
B) Post-test
1- VC = VEB1 = η ∗ VS + VD assuming VS = VBB due to very small
values of R1 and R2
2-
Figure 3.17: Input-output Voltage Waveforms, for Question 2, post-test.
3-
VP = VC = η ∗ VS + VD = 0.5 ∗ 30 + 0.6 = 15.6 volts
36
VBB − VP 30 − 15.6
R1(max) = = = 800kΩ
IP 20 ∗ 10−6
VBB − Vv 30 − 1
R1(min) = = = 2.9kΩ
Iv 10 ∗ 10−3
2.9kΩ ≤ R1 ≤ 800kΩ
4- See Figure 3.12.
3.11 Pre-test
In the following multiple choice questions, please choose the correct answer:
1- The operational amplier is a D.C. amplier with:
a) One input and two output terminals.
b) Two inputs and one output terminal.
c) Two input and two output terminals.
2- The main disadvantage of the operational amplier it requires:
a) One D.C. supply.
b) Two D.C. supplys.
c) Three D.C. supplys.
3- The main properties of the operational ampliers are:
a) High input impedance and low output impedance.
b) High input and output impedance.
c) Low input and output impedance.
d) Low input impedance and high output impedance.
4- In case of open-loop the operational amplier has:
a) No gain. b) Low gain.
c) Very high gain.
5- The non-inverting operational ampliers has the following voltage gain

formula:
a) Av = Rf ∗ Ri b) Av = Ri ∗ Rf
c) Av = −Rf ∗ Ri d) Av = 1 + Rf /Ri
Where Ri = input resistance, Rf = feedback resistance.
6- When the operational amplier is used as a comparator, it compares be-
tween two voltages:
a) One of them is constant and the other is variable.
b) Both of them are constants.
c) Both of them are variables.
7- When the operational ampliers are used as inverting ampliers only, the
voltage gain formula is given as:
37
a) Av = Rf ∗ Ri b) Av = Ri ∗ Rf
c) Av = −Rf /Ri d) Av = 1 − Rf ∗ Ri
8- The period of one cycle of the relaxation oscillator output pulse is given
as:
a) T = RCLn (1 − η) b) T = RCLn (1 + η)
1 1
c) T = RCLn (1+η) d) T = RCLn (1−η)
9- The output voltage of the operational ampliers depends on:
a) The input sine-wave. b) The resistance input voltage.
c) The biasing voltage.
3.12 Operational Amplier

It is a D.C. amplier with a very high gain. It has two input terminals; one
of them has an inverting to the signal and is called inverting input and the
other terminal not inverting to the signal and is called non-inverting input. The
output has only one terminal as shown in Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18: Operational Amplier.
The operational amplier has the following properties:

1- High input impedance (up to 2M Ω).
2- Very high gain (Av ) ; greater than 200000.
3- It requires two D.C. suppliers for biasing.
4- Its characteristics independent on temperature variation.
3.13 Open-loop Operational Amplier

In case of open-loop circuit, as shown in Figure 3.19, the gain of the operational
amplier cannot be controlled and may be approaches to innity (∞):
Vd = V1 − V2
Vo
Av = Open loop gain =
Vd
− VCC ≤ Vo ≤ VCC
38
The feedback connection leads to return some of the output voltage to the input
of the amplier and this will reduce the gain (Av ).
Figure 3.19: Operational Amplier Open-loop Circuit.
3.14 Inverting Ampliers

The input signal is applied through a series input resistor (Ri ) to the inverting
(-) input. Besides the output is fed back through Rf (feedback resistor) to the
same input. The non-inverting (+) input is grounded as shown in Figure 3.20.
Innity input impedance implies zero current at the inverting input. If there is
zero current through the input impedance, then there must be no voltage drop
between the inverting and non-inverting inputs. This mean that this voltage
at the inverting (-) input is zero, because the non-inverting input is grounded.
Since, there is no current at the inverting input, the current through (Ri ) and
the current through (Rf ) are equal as shown below.
Figure 3.20: Closed-loop Voltage Gain of Inverting Amplier.
Iin = If
Vin
Iin =
Ri
Vo
If = −
Rf
39
Vin Vo
=−
Ri Rf
Vo Rf
= Av = −
Vin Ri
3.15 Non-inverting Amplier

A closed-loop (feedback) of a non-inverting amplier is shown in the Figure
3.21. The input signal is applied to the non-inverting (+) input. The output
is applied back to the inverting (-) input through a feedback circuit formed
by (Ri ) and (Rf ). This creates negative feedback. Ri and Rf form a voltage
divider circuit which reduces Vout and connects the reduced voltage (Vf ) to the
inverting input. The feedback voltage is expressed as:
Vo
If =
Ri + Rf
Vo = If (Ri + Rf )
Vin = If Ri
Vo If (Ri + Rf )
Av = =
Vin If Ri
(Ri + Rf ) Rf
Av = =1+
Ri Ri
Figure 3.21: Closed-loop Voltage Gain Of Non-inverting Operational Amplier.
If Rf = 0 then Av = 1, and the circuit is called voltage follower, which has a

very high input impedance and very low output impedance, and the circuit is
used as a buer amplier for interfacing.
3.16 Inverting Summing Operational Amplier

The circuit shown in Figure 3.22 will sum the input signals which are connected
to the inverting terminal , when the non-inverting terminal will be connected
to the ground. This circuit is called the inverting adder.
40
Figure 3.22: Inverting Summing Amplier.
V1 V2 Vn
I1 = , I2 = , In =
R1 R2 Rn
Vo
If = −
Rf
If ≈ I1 + I2 + I3 + · · · + In
Vo V1 V2 V3 Vn
− = + + + ··· +
Rf R1 R2 R3 Rn
W hen Rf = R1 = R2 = R3 = · · · = Rn then
Vf = −(V1 + V2 + V3 + · · · + Vn )
3.17 Non-inverting Summing Amplier

R1 = R2 = R, then:
in Figure 3.23, If
Rf V1 + V2
Vo = (1 + )( )
Ri 2
If Rf = Ri then Vo = (V1 + V2 )
41
Figure 3.23: Non-inverting Summing Amplier.
3.18 Subtractor Operational Amplier

See Figure 3.24
Figure 3.24: Subtractor Operational Amplier.
Rf Rf
V◦ = (1 + )V2 − ( )V1
Ri Ri
If Rf = Ri then V◦ = 2V2 − V1
3.19 Integrator Operational Amplier

See Figure 3.25
42
Figure 3.25: Integrator Operational Amplier.
R
Q idt
V◦ = − = −
CZ C
1
V◦ = − idt
C Z
1
V◦ = − Vin dt
Ri C
3.20 Dierentiator Operational Amplier

See Figure 3.26
Figure 3.26: Dierentiator Operational Amplier.
43
(H)
Figure 3.27: Circuit Diagram and Its Output Waveforms For Dierentiator
Operational Amplier.
V◦ = −i ∗ Rf
dVin dQ
i=C =
dt dt
dVin
V◦ = −Rf C
dt
Example 3-4
In the dierentiator circuit shown in Figure 3.26, the resistance Rf = 10kΩ, the
capacitance is (1)nf and the input voltage waveform as shown below. Find the
waveform of the output voltage?
Solution
dVin +10 − (−10) 20

= = v/sec
dt 2 ∗ 10−3 2 ∗ 10−3
dVin
V◦ = Rf C
dt
20
= 10 ∗ 103 ∗ 0.001 ∗ 10−6 ∗
2 ∗ 10−3
44
= −0.1V between A&B
= +0.1V between B&C
3.21 Operational Amplier as Zero-crossing Detector

See Figure 3.28. In case of open loop, operational amplier is very sensitive to
the variations of the input voltage. When a sine - wave voltage applied to the
non-inverting - input terminal, the output voltage will alternate between + and
- . The zero-crossing point of the sine-waves can be then detected as shown in
Figure 3.28 below.
Figure 3.28: Zero-crossing Detector or Changing Sine-wave To Square-wave

Circuit or Zero-level Detection.
3.22 Operational Amplier as Comparator

Operational amplier compares two voltages, one of them is constant and it is
called reference voltage and the other varies with time Va(t) . The comparator
circuit is similar to the zero-crossing detector circuit, but the reference voltage
(VR ) is connected one of the input terminal to the earth.
45
Figure 3.29: Operational Amplier as Comparator.
3.23 Thyristor Triggering Circuit Using Operational Am-

plier as a Comparator
The operational amplier is used as a comparator to compare between two
singles. The circuit and waveforms are shown in gures 3.30 & 3.31 below. The
transistor is used as an electronic switch, depending on the single of its base.
The capacitance is used to generate a ramp signal to the input terminal of the
operational amplier during the charging and discharging process. The ramp
signal is applied to the operational amplier and then compared with a reference
signal (Vr ).
If Vr = Vc thenα = 180◦ delay angle.
If Vr = 0 then α = 0◦ delay angle.
Figure 3.30: Thyristor Triggering Circuit Using Operational Amplier as a

Comparator.
46
Figure 3.31: Input and Output Voltage Waveforms Of the Thyristors Triggering
Circuit by the Operational Amplier.
3.24 Post-test
1. Find the output voltage (V◦ ) of the subtractor circuit shown below:
Figure 3.32: Subtractor Circuit.
2. Draw the circuit diagram of an operational amplier used as comparator
47
to compare two input voltages, one of them Va = 20 sin wt connected to
the inverting input terminal and the other is (+10)V.D.C. connected to
the non-inverting terminal. Then draw the output voltage waveform of
the amplier, assuming that the biasing supply voltage are ±12V .
3. Draw the circuit diagram of an operational amplier used as comparator
to compare between two input voltage, one of them Va = 5 sin wt(v)
connected to the non-inverting input terminal and the other is (+3)V.D.C
connected to the inverting terminal assuming that biasing supply voltages
for the amplier, draw the output voltage waveform.
4. Draw a comparator circuit to compare between (10V-p-p sine wave) and
(5V D.C. source) and draw the output voltage waveform when the voltage.
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-b, 3-a, 4-c, 5-d, 6-a, 7-c, 8-c
B- Post-test
1. Solution
Rf Rf
V◦ = (1 + )V2 + (− )V1
Ri Ri
10 10
= (1 + ) ∗ 4 + (− ) ∗ 5 = +2V
5 5
2. Solution
Figure 3.33: A Circuit Diagram Of an Operational Amplier Used as Compara-

tor, Post-test, Question 2.
3. Solution
48
Figure 3.34: A Circuit Diagram Of an Operational Amplier Used as Compara-
tor, Post-test, Question 3.
4. Solution
Figure 3.35: A Comparator Circuit, Post-test, Question 4.
3.25 Pre-test
1- The opto-electronic devices made of:
a) Copper. b) Semiconducting material.
c) Glass. d) Alloys.
49
2- Increasing the intensity of light resulted in:
a) Increasing the photo conductive-cell resistance.
b) Decreasing the resistance of photo conductive.
c) Constant resistance of photo conductive cell.
3- The reverse leakage current of the photo-diode increased with increasing:
a) The reverse voltage.
b) Light intensity.
c) The load resistance.
4- The main dierence between the photo conductive cell and photo-diode is
that the photo-diode conducts the current in:
a) Forward direction.
b) Reverse direction.
c) Bidirectional.
5- The photo-transistor has no:
a) Base current.
b) Emitter current.
c) Collector current.
6- The base current in a photo-transistor is substituted by:
a) Voltage source.
b) Current source.
c) Light source.
7- The light emitting diode is connected in the circuit with:
a) Reverse biasing.
b) Forward biasing.
c) Forward and reverse biasing.
8- The photo-conductive cell is used in the circuits as a:
a) Switch. b) Constant resistance.
c) Variable resistance. d) Light dependent resistance.
9- The photo diode is used in the circuits as a:
a) Switch. b) Resistance.
c) Inductance. d) Capacitance.
10- The photo-transistor is used in the circuits as:
a) A relay.
b) A switch.
c) A resistance.
50
3.26 Opto-electronics
Opto-electronics involve the study of a photo-sensitive devices such as photo-
conductive cell, photo-diode, photo transistor and light emitting diode.
3.27 Photo-conductive Cell

Photo-conductive cell is a semiconductor device whose resistance varies inversely
with the intensity of light that falls upon its photo sensitive material. These de-
vices are also known as photo resistive cells or photo resistors or light-dependent
resistors. The symbol and characteristic of the light dependent resistor (LDR)
are shown in Figure 3.36. With no incident light, the cell resistance is maximum
and this called dark resistance. As the light intensity increases the resistance
decreases.
Figure 3.36: The Symbol and Characteristic Of the Light Dependent Resistor
(LDR).
3.28 Photo-diode
The photo-diode is a P-N junction device that operates in a reverse biasing at
a constant reverse voltage (Vr ). The symbol, circuit and characteristic of the
photo diode are shown in Figure 3.37.
51
Figure 3.37: The Symbol and Characteristic Of Photo Diode.
With increasing the light intensity the diode leakage current will increase and
the diode resistance will decrease. The photo diode diers from the photo
conductive cell in that it conducts current in only one direction while the LDR
conducts current in two directions.
Example 3-5: For a certain photo diode at a given light intensity, the reverse
resistance is (200) kΩ and the reverse voltage is (10) V. What is the leakage
current through the diode?
Solution:
Vr 10
Iλ = = = 50 µ A
RL 200 ∗ 103
3.29 Photo-transistor
It has alight-sensitive collector-base P-N junction. When there is no incident
light, that is a small thermally generated current (collector-base leakage current
ICB ) called dark current. When light strikes the collector-base P-N junction a
base current Iλ is produced, that is directly proportional to the light intensity.
This action produces a collector current (IC ) which increases as:
IC = β ∗ Iλ
A photo-transistor can be either a two leads or three leads device which is a
sensitive to a certain range of wavelength. Its symbol, circuit and characteristics
are shown in Figure 3.38. The photo-transistor characteristics are shown in
Figure 3.39.
Figure 3.38: Photo Transistor.
52
Figure 3.39: Photo Transistor Characteristics.
The Angstrom A◦ is a unit of wave length, and A◦ = 10−10 meter. The

amount of light emitted from the source to the photo-device is measured in
lumens / meter2 2
(Lm/m ) falling on a specied surface area. Or the amount of
2
light is measured by the unit of Foot-Candle or Watt per square meter (W/m ).
See Figure 3.40.
Figure 3.40: Light Distribution.
3.30 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LEDs were rst introduced in the early 1960s as indicators to the light and
had low eciency. By the 1980s, red LED performance increased to more than
(20) lumens/Watt, and today produces more than (30) lumens/Watt .LEDs
are now used in many applications such as trac and street lights. LEDs are
based on the semiconductor diode, which consists of low layers P-type, powered
by a low D.C. voltage (2-4) volts .Electrons released from N-type to combine
with holes from P-type layers. When electron-hole pairs combine, a photon of
53
light is emitted from the active layer. The LED construction, symbol and inner
operation are shown in Figure 3.41.
Figure 3.41: The LED Construction, Symbol and Inner Operation.
Example 3-6: In the circuit shown below, calculate the current passes through
the LED when its voltage is (1.6)V,VBE =0.7 V, VCE =0.4 V, VCC =20 V?
Solution:
VCC = IC RC + VLED + VCE
20 = 1000 IC + 1.6 + 0.4
20 − 2
IC = = 18mA
1000
3.31 Some Applications

1- Light-operated relay circuit with photo-transistor.
54
Figure 3.43: Light-operated Relay Circuit.
2- Darkness-operated relay circuit with photo-transistor.
Figure 3.44: Darkness-operated Relay Circuit.
3- A smoke detection circuit.
55
Figure 3.45: Somke Detection Circuit.
4- Photo-diode as a switch
Figure 3.46: Photo-diode as a Switch.
3.32 Post-test
1. If the reverse leakage current of the photo-diode is (100)µA at (10)V re-
verse voltage, nd the current limiting resistor of the circuit?
2. In the circuit shown in Figure 3.47, nd the LED voltage drop if the
current passes through it is 8 mA?
56
3. In the circuit shown in Figure 3.48 below, If the voltage VBE is (0.6) and
The resistance RB is (20)K Ω. Find the minimum input voltage Vin to
transfer the transistor into saturation?
57
4. What is the main dierence between the photo-diode and the photo-
conductive cell?

A) Pre-test
1-b, 2-b, 3-b, 4-b, 5-a 6-c, 7-b, 8-d, 9-a, 10-c.
B) Post-test
1-
Vr 10
R= = = 100 KΩ
Ir 1000 ∗ 10−6
2-
VCC = IC RC + VLED + VCE
10 = 8 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 1000 + VLED + 0.5
10 = 8 + VLED + 0.5
VLED = 1.5 volts.
3-
VCC − VLED − V CE 20 − 1.5 − 0.5
Ic = = = 18mA
RC 1000
IC 18 ∗ 10−3
IB = = = 0.00018 A = 0.18mA
β 100
Vin = IB RB + VBE = 18 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 20 ∗ 103 + 0.6 = 3.6 + 0.6 = 4.2 volts
4- The main dierence between the photo-diode and the photo-conductive
cell is that the photo-diode is operated in reverse direction (reverse
biasing) while the photo-conductive cell is operated in two directions.
58
Chapter 4
Thyristor Concepts in Power Electronics
4.1 Pre-test
1- Complete the following sentences with suitable words:
a-) the thyristor is made of material.
b-) the thyristor consists of layers.
c-) the thyristor has terminals.
d-) the thyristor has a terminal to control its operation.
e-) the thyristor is used as a .
2- In the following multiple choice questions, circle the correct answer:
i- The thyristor has:
a) two layers and two junctions.
b) three layers and three junctions.
c) four layers and two junctions.
d) four layers and three junctions.
ii- The thyristor is diers from the diode because it has:
a) reverse characteristics.
b) forward characteristics.
c) forward blocking-state characteristics.
d) no characteristics.
iii- the thyristor is used in electrical systems as:
a) manual switch.
b) automatic switch.
c) electronic amplier.
d) magnetic relay.
iv- the minimum current below which the thyristor reverse to the low
state (forward blocking state) is called:
a) blocking current.
b) holding current.
c) lead current.
d) transient current.
59
v- the minimum anode current required to maintain the thyristor into
conduction state is called:
a) reverse current.
b) high current.
c) latching current.
d) anode current.
4.2 The Denition and Characteristics of Thyristor

Thyristor symbol is shown in Figure 4.1. It is a semiconducting material device
that consists of 4-layers (P-N-P-N ) and 3-junctions (J1,J2,J3) .It acts as an
electronic switch and can handle a large current and because of that it is used
in power system applications.
Figure 4.1: Thyristor Symbol
The main characteristics of a thyristor depict the relation between the applied
voltage and current for both forward and reverse biasing of the thyristor as
shown in Figure 4.2. When a forward voltage is applied a cross the thyristor, a
small current ows in the forward direction. As this voltage gradually increased
till a point is reached an avalanche multiplication process starts within the device
as shown in Figure 4.3. Beyond this point the current increases rapidly and the
voltage at this point is called break over voltage, and the current is limited to
an external load resistance.
Figure 4.2: Thyristor Layers When No Biasing, Forward and Reverse Biasing.
60
Figure 4.3: Forward Biasing.
There is a minimum current below which the thyristor reverts to the low forward
current (forward blocking state), and this current is called holding current (Ih ).
Further, the minimum anode current which requires to maintain the thyristor
into conduction state is called latching current (IL ). One method of bringing
the device into the conduction state is to increase the forward voltage, and the
electric eld (E) in the junction (J2) reaches a value sucient to cause avalanche
forward state, as shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: Thyristor Characteristics without Gate Current (Ig =0).
The other method, by applying the gate to cathode signal or pulse and the
characteristics as shown in Figure 4.5 below. When a reverse voltage is applied
making the anode negative with respect to the cathode, the junction J2 may be
61
a forward biasing but junction J1 and J3 are reversed bias. For small voltage,
the current passing through the device is only small leakage current .With more
increasing the voltage the leakage current remains constant, till the applied
voltage is sucient to cause avalanche breakdown. At this voltage the reverse
electric eld across the junction is sucient to cause avalanche multiplication
of electrons and holes and this results in a sudden rise of current.
Figure 4.5: Thyristor Characteristic with Gate Signal
4.3 Thyristor Family

1. Shockley diode: is a device as shown in Figure 4.6, that conducts current
only when a certain voltage level is conducted a cross its two terminals. It
will continue to conduct until the current drops below a specied minimum
value.
Figure 4.6: Shockley Diode.
2. Silicon controlled rectier (SCR): This device as shown in Figure 4.7,

has three terminals (Anode, Cathode and gate) and also called (triode
62
thyristor). When a short duration positive voltage (triggering pulse) is
applied to its gate terminal, the device becomes switch ON and conducts
current from anode to Cathode.
Figure 4.7: Silicon Controlled Rectier (SCR).
3. Silicon controlled switch (SCS): is a device as shown in Figure 4.8, that is

similar to SCR except that it has four terminals (it is called also tetrode
thyristor ), two of them are called control terminals , those can be used
to turn-ON and turn-OFF the device .
Figure 4.8: Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS).
4. Bidirectional diode thyristor (Diac): is a device as shown in Figure 4.9,

has a two terminals, three layers without control terminal, that permits
current to ow in either direction, according to the polarity of voltage a
cross the terminals.
63
Figure 4.9: Bidirectional Diode Thyristor (Diac), Symbol and Characteristic.
5. Bidirectional triode thyristor (Triac): As shown in Figure 4.10, it is similar

to Diac but with third terminal for controlling the turn-ON of the device
in either direction (it conducts in two directions). Triac characteristics are
similar to two SCRS connected in inverse-parallel.
Figure 4.10: Bidirectional Triode thyristor (Triac): Symbol and Construction.
4.4 Post-test
1. In the following multiple choice questions, please circle the correct answer:
i- In case of thyristor forward biasing:
a) The junctions J1 and J2 are forward but the junction J3 is

reverse bias.
b) The junctions J1 and J3 are forward but the junction J2 is

reverse bias.
c) The junctions J2 and J3 are forward biasing but the junction

J1 is reversed biasing.
d) The junction J2 is forward biasing but the junctions J1and J3

are reversed biasing.
ii- Increasing the gate pulse current will reduce:
64
a) The reverse voltage.
b) The forward voltage.
c) The break over voltage.
d) The break down voltage.
iii- The Triac is a similar of:
a) Two transistors connected in parallel.
b) Two diodes connected in parallel.
c) Two thyristors(SCRS) connected in inverse-parallel.
d) Two Diacs connected in inverse-parallel.
iv- The tetrode thyristor (SCS) is a semiconducting device consisting of:
a) Two terminals.
b) Three terminals.
c) Four terminals.
d) Five terminals.
v- The main dierent between the thyristor and diode characteristics is

that the thyristor has:
a) A reverse blocking region.
b) A forward blocking region.
c) A saturation region.
d) A cut-o region.
2. Draw the thyristor characteristics with indications with and without gate
signal?
3. Draw the Diac characteristics?
4. Draw the Triac characteristics?

A- Pre-test
1. a. Semiconducting.
b. Four.
c. Three.
d. Gate.
e. Electronic switch.
2. i. b
ii. c
iii. c
iv. c
v. b
B- Post-test
1) a-2, b-3, c-3, d-3, e-2
2) See Figures 4.4 and 4.5.
3) See Figure 4.9.
4) See Figure 4.10
65
4.6 Pre-test
1. The thyristor (SCR) can be represented by :
a) Two diodes. b) Two transistors.
c) Three rectiers. d) Two inverters.
2. The thyristor can be represented by two transistors :
a) Both are (NPN). b) Both are (PNP).
c) One NPN and the other PNP. d) One UJT and the other FET.
3. The thyristor is a semiconducting device consisting of :
4. The leakage current Ico of the two transistors, which are represent the
thyristor, ows through their :
a) Collectros. b) Bases.
c) Emitters.
5. Without gate signal the anode current is given as :
α1 α2 Ico
a) Ia = Ico . b) Ia = 1−(α1 +α2 ) .
Ico
c) Ia = (α1 + 1)(α2 − 1). d) Ia = 1+(α1 +α2 ) .
6. With gate signal, the anode current is given as:
Ico Ico
a) Ia = α1 +α2 . b) Ia = 1+(α1 +α2 ) .
α2 Ig +Ico α2 Ico
c) Ia = 1−(α1 +α2 ) . d) Ia = 1−(α1 +α2 ) .
4.7 Thyristor Representation by Two Transistors

A convenient way which is normally used to explain the operation of a thyristor
is to consider it as equivalent to two transistors (one P-N-P and the other N-P-
N) connected as shown in Figure 4.11. The middle layers N1 and N2 are shared
by the two transistors. Initially the gate current is assumed to be zero. The
current owing through the leads of the transistors are shown in the equivalent
circuit. In addition, there will be thermal leakage current owing through the
collector junction of each transistor. The summation of these two gives the
leakage current Ico owing across junction J2 of the thyristor.
66
Figure 4.11: Thyristor Representation by Two Transistors.
let Ico = leakage current of the two transistors ows through there collectors.
The total current (Ia ) through the device can be written as:
Ia = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ico
let the gain of collector emitter of both transistors be ( α1 and α2 ) respectively,

then:
Ic1 = α1 IE1 = α1 Ia
Ic2 = α2 IE2 = α2 Ia
∴ Ia = α1 Ia + α2 Ia + Ico , or
Ico
Ia =
1 − (α1 + α2 )
The leakage current Ico is normally small and if the summation of the current
gains ( α1 + α2 ) is small as compared to unity, the anode current (Ia ) will
remain small; this corresponds to the forward blocking state of the thyristor.
In order to bring the device into a state of conduction, the term ( α1 + α2 )
must approach unity, then Ia may approaches innity; this correspond to the
switching action of the thyristor. The current (Ia ) is limited to the external
resistance.
The variation of (α) with the collector current (Ic ) is shown in Figure 4.12. For
low values of (Ic ), α is small. With increasing (Ic ) and α increases to a peak
value and then reduced.
67
Figure 4.12: Variation of Collector Current with Current Gain(α).
If a positive gate signal (Ig ) as shown in Figure 4.13, is applied to the gate of
the thyristor, by connecting a source between the gate and cathode, a current
ows in the local circuit. This amount to injunction of the holes from the gate
into the P2 layer which helps in triggering the thyristor.
Figure 4.13: Current Flow Relations.
The current equation is written as:
68
Ia = Ic1 + Ic2 + Ico
= α1 IE1 + α1 IE2 + Ico
= α1 Ia + α2 (Ia + Ig ) + Ico
= (α1 + α2 )Ia + α2 Ig + Ico
α2 Ig + Ico
Ia =
1 − (α1 + α2 )
4.8 Post-test
1. Represent the thyristor by two transistors.
2. State a formula to calculate the anode current with and without gate
signal, in terms of the current gain of the two transistors and the leakage
current.
3. Draw the relation between the current gain (α) and the collector current
when the thyristor is represented by two transistors?
4. What is the main function of a thyristor in electrical power systems?
5. What is the value of (α1 + α2 ) to bring the thyristor into conduction
(forward) state?

A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-c, 3-a , 4-b , 5-c
B- Post-test
1)
69
2)
Ico
W ithout gate signal Ia =
1 − (α1 + α2 )
α2 Ig + Ico
W ith gate signal Ia =
1 − (α1 + α2 )
3) See Figure 4.12.
4) The transistor is used as automatic switch in electrical power systems.
5) When the term ( α1 + α2 ) approaches unity the thyristor will bring
into conduction state.
4.10 Pre-test
1. Thyristor Turn-ON may be obtained by impinging a beam of light on the
silicon wafer in the vicinity of junction:
a) J1 b) J2 c) j3 d) j1 and J3
2. The thyristor is Turned-ON if the forward voltage reached the:
a) Reverse breakdown voltage b) Forward breakdown voltage
c) Forward voltage drop d) Peak reverse voltage
3. In a gate Turn-ON method , the signal is applied in the form of:
a) D.C. current b) A.C. sine-wave
c) Pulse d) Series of pulse
4. In rate of rise of voltage Turn-ON a forward voltage is applied between

anode and cathode in a from of:
a) Constant voltage b) High (dv/dt) voltage
c) Sine-wave voltage d) D.C. voltage
5. The ecient method of thyristor fring as:
a) Voltage Turn-ON b) Light Turn-ON
c) dv/dt Turn-ON d) Gate Turn-ON
4.11 Modes of Thyristor Triggering (ring)

There are four ways in which a thyristor can be turned-ON:
I. Thermal or light Turn-ON: An increase in the temperature of silicon
material increases the generation rate of charge carriers resulted in thyris-
tor switch-ON The generation of electronics and holes (thyristor Turn-ON)
may be obtained by impinging a beam of light on the silicon wafer in the
vicinity of junction J2.
II. Voltage Turn-ON: increasing the forward voltage increases the electric
eld at junction J2. When it has reached a suciently large value, the
thyristor will Turns-ON.
III. Gate Turn-ON: If a positive signal is applied to the gate by connecting
a source between gate and cathode, a current ows in the local circuit.
This amounts to junction of holes from the gate into the layer which helps
α2 Ig +Ico
trigger the thyristor. The current equation is given as: Iα = 1−(α1 +α2 )
Gate Turn-ON is commonly used for ring the thyristor. The signal is
applied in the form of pulses with duration sucient to turn it ON. Once
the thyristor Turns ON, the gate current is not required.
70
IV. Turn-ON by rate of rise of voltage (dv/dt): If the forward voltage
is allowed to rise suddenly, the thyristor may trigger even without the
application of gate signal or the forward voltage reaching the forward
break over level. This type of trigger is avoided by limiting the rate of rise
of the forward applied voltage.
4.12 Behavior of Anode Current During Thyristor Turn-

ON
When a gate pulse is applied, the anode voltage and anode current follow, the
wave shapes shown in Figure 4.15. The time taken by the anode current to
reach its nal value can be divided into three parts:
Figure 4.15: Behavior of Anode Current During Thyristor Turn-ON.
I. Delay time (td ): This time is taken by the anode current to reach 10%
of its nal value after application of gate pulse.
II. Rise time (tr ): In this duration, the current rises rapidly from 10% to
90% of the nal value. The rise time depends upon the device parameters
and the supply voltage and the type of load whether resistive or inductive.
The turn-ON time is the sum of (td + tr ).
III. Spreading time (ts ): the time taken for the whole area of the thyristor
becomes conducting. If the rate of the anode current is high, it will cause
high current density in the small conducting area. This may load to ex-
cessive heating and result in a damaging the thyristor. The rate of rise of
thyristor current is specied by connecting inductance in series with the
thyristor to keep di /dt within permissible limit.
4.13 Post-test
Complete the following sentences with suitable words:
1. The thyristor is turned-ON, if the forward voltage reached volt-
age at zero gate current.
2. The gate signal is applied between gate and cathode in the form of
to trigger the thyristor.
3. The common method of thyristor turn-ON is .
4. There are modes of thyristor triggering.
71
5. By impinging a beam of light on the junction , the thyristor becomes
as a switch ON.
6. If the term (α1 +α2 ) approaches unity, the thyristor transfers into
state.
7. The time taken by the anode current to reach its nal value can be divided
into three parts , and .
8. In case of very high rate of rise of anode current the thyristor may be
.
9. The time taken by the anode current to reach 10% of its nal value is
called time.
10. The rate of rise of thyristor current can be limited by connecting an
in series with the thyristor.

A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-b, 3-d, 4-b, 5-d
B- Post-test
1. break over voltage
2. pulses
3. gate turn-ON
4. four
5. J2
6. conduction
7. delay time , rising time and spreading time
8. damaged
9. delay
10. inductance
4.15 Pre-test
I. The main condition must be satised to turn-OFF the thyristor is that:
a) The anode current must be greater than the holding current.
b) The anode current must be equal the holding current.
c) The anode current must be less than the holding current.
d) The anode current must be negative.
II. The thyristor can be turned-OFF by connecting a reverse voltage between:
a) Anode and gate. b) Anode and cathode.
c) Cathode and gate. d) Anode and load.
III. The commutation method of the thyristor rectier is called:
a) Forced commutation. b) Gate turn-OFF.
c) Self commutation. d) Switched commutation.
IV. When a reverse voltage applied to the thyristor to turn it OFF , its forward
current starts:
a) Reducing. b) Increasing.
c) Jumping. d) Pulsating.
72
V. The turn-OFF time depends upon:
a) The thyristor weight. b) The thyristor layers.
c) The gate pulses. d) Tthe forward current and re-

verse voltage
4.16 The Thyristor Turn-OFF (Commutation)

When the thyristor started conducting, the gate does not exercise any control
over the device. When the thyristor to be switched-OFF, the anode current must
be reduced to a value below the holding current. In A.C. circuits application,
the voltage reverses every half cycle, and the thyristor turn-OFF is not dicult.
But in D.C. circuits application, the D.C. ows through the device and its
reduction requires some additional circuit for its commutation. Three methods
can be used which are:
i. Natural Commutation:
the thyristor current can be reduced to zero by opening a switch connected
in series with the thyristor or closing a switch connected in parallel with
the thyristor or by increasing a series resistance to reduce the current
below the holding current for a sucient time to turn the thyristor OFF,
as shown in Figure 4.16 below.
Figure 4.16: Thyristor Natural Commutation.
ii. Forced Commutation:

In this case a reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor which forces
the current down to zero. Forced commutation can de further divided into
two categories:
a-) self commutation (the voltage across the device reversed automati-
cally. The A.C. line commutation is classied as self commutation.
b-) commutation by external devices (generally a pre-charged capacitor).
Also the forced commutation is classied into six categories as follows:
1. Class A-self commutation by resonating the load.
73
2. Class B-self commutation by an L-C circuit
3. Class C-commutation by a charged capacitor switched by another
load currying thyristor.
4. Class D-commutation by a charged capacitor switched by an auxiliary
thyristor.
5. Class E-external pulse commutation.
6. Class F- A.C. line commutation, when the thyristor is supplied by
an alternating source, the voltage across the thyristor reverse every
half cycle. This helps in turning OFF the thyristor.
74
Figure 4.17: Types of Thyristor Forced Commutation.
iii. Gate turn-OFF:

The device turns ON when a positive gate signal is applied, but turns OFF
with a negative gate signal. This thyristor switch is made only for small
ratings. Its forward voltage drop is much more than that of an ordinary
thyristor and its turn ON time is also more longer.
4.17 Turn-OFF Behaviour

When a reverse voltage is applied to a thyristor to turn it OFF as shown in Fig-
ure 4.18, its forward current starts to be reduced, the rate of current reduction
depends largely on the external circuit.
Figure 4.18: Thyristor Turn-o Behavior Recovery.
75
trr =reverse recovery time.
tgr =gate recovery time.
tq =turn-OFF time of the thyristor.
The turn-OFF time depends upon:
i) The junction temperature; if the temperature junction is high the (tq ) is

also high.
ii) The forward current to be switched-OFF, the larger the current, the larger
turn-OFF time.
iii) The reverse voltage, the large the reverse voltage, the shorter the turn-
OFF time.
4.18 Post-test
1. What are the types of commutation?
2. What is the main condition must be satised to turn-OFF the thyristor?
3. Classify the forced commutation? What are the main factors aecting the
turn-OFF time.
4. Draw a forced commutation circuit to turn-OFF a thyristor using 4 aux-
iliary thyristors and one capacitance.

A- Pre-test
1-c, 2-b, 3-c , 4-a , 5-d
B- Post-test
1) i- natural commutation.
ii- forced commutation.
iii- gate turn-OFF.
2) The forward current must be less than the holding current.
3) class-A, class-B, class-C, class-D, class-E.
i- junction temperature.
ii- forward current.
iii- reverse voltage.
4)
76
4.20 Pre-test
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the main reasons for series and parallel connection of thyristors?
2. What is the advantage of resistances which are connected in parallel with
the thyristors in case of series connection of thyristors?
3. In case of series connection of thyristors, what is the main factor aecting
to dv /dt across each thyristor?
4. Why shunt capacitances are added across each thyristor in case of series
connection?
5. Why a reactor is used in case of parallel connection of thyristors?
4.21 Series and Parallel Operation of Thyristors

Whenever the voltage and current requirements of a load exceed the ratings of
the available thyristors, thyrristors can be connected in series and parallel to
cope with these requirements. To handle large current they are connected in
parallel and to handle large voltage they are connected in series.
4.21.1 Series Operation

The shunt resistances as shown in Figure 4.20 ( r1 , r2 and r3 ) are used in
equalizing the steady state voltage across the thyristors. They are not helpful
during transient periods, when the voltage across the chain thyristors rising.
The voltage across each thyristor during the transient period depends upon its
depletion layer capacitance of junction J2.
77
Figure 4.20: Series Operation of Thyristors.
The smaller the capacitance, the larger voltage across the thyristor during
this period. The dynamic voltage dv /dt across the junction J2 is given as:
dQ d(C( j2)v) dv
i= = = C( j2)
dt dt dt
dv i
= , C( j2) = capacitance of the depletion layer J2 .
dt C( j2)
To balance these dynamic voltages are to be used additional shunt capacitances

with suitable values across each thyristor. When the thyristors in the OFF-state
these shunt capacitors would get charged, but as soon as they are triggered
the charged capacitors cause a large discharge currents to ow through them.
Damping resistances (current limiting resistances) are used in series with each
capacitor to limit these currents.
4.21.2 Parallel Operation

A reactor as shown in Figure 4.21, is used to balance the currents I1 &I2 . If
I1 greater than I2 a voltage will be induced in the left half reactor, trying to
oppose the current I1 with polarity as shown. This induced voltage acts in
such direction as to increase the current in the thyristor T H2 and equalize the
currents. During the turn-ON period, also if the current through one thyristor
rises faster, the reactor tends to balance it by trying to increase the current in
the other branch also.
78
Figure 4.21: Thyristors Parallel operation.
4.22 Post-test
1. Draw the circuit diagram of two thyristors connected in series.
2. Draw the circuit diagram of two thyristors connected in parallel.
3. State a formula from which the dynamic voltage dv /dt across the junction
J2 can be calculated.
4. The capacitance of junction J2 is (20) PF. the turn-ON charging current
of a thyristor is (16)mA . Determine the critical value of dv /dt .
5. Three series-connected thyristors, provided with a static and dynamic
equalizing circuits, have to withstand an OFF-state voltage of (8) KV.
The static equalizing resistance is (8) KΩ and the dynamic equalizing
circuit has R=40Ω and C=0.06µF. The thyristors have leakage currents
of (25)mA, (23)mA and (22)mA respectively. Find the OFF-state volt-
age across each thyristor and the discharge current of each capacitor at
turn-ON time.

A Pre-test
1- To handle a large current, they are connected in parallel. To handle
a large voltage, they are connected in series.
2- To equalize the steady-state voltage across each thyristor.
3- The capacitance of the depletion layer of junction J2 is the main
factor aecting the dynamic voltage dv /dt .
4- To balance the dynamic voltages.
5- To balance the current passes through the thyristors.
B Post-test
1)
79
2)
3)
dv i
=
dt C( j2)
4)
dQ dv
i= = C( j2)
dt dt
80
dv i 16 ∗ 10−3
= = = 8 ∗ 108 v/sec
dt C( j2) 20 ∗ 10−12
= 800V /µsec
5) Solution:
let i = total leakage current during OF F − state :
V1 = r ∗ (i − 0.025) = 8000(i − 0.025)
V2 = r ∗ (i − 0.023) = 8000(i − 0.023)
V3 = r ∗ (i − 0.022) = 8000(i − 0.022)
OF F − state = V1 + V2 + V3
8000 = 8000 ∗ 3 ∗ i − (0.025 + 0.023 + 0.022) ∗ 8000
i = 03566 A
V1 = r ∗ (03566 − 0.025) = 2653V
V2 = r ∗ (03566 − 0.023) = 2668V
V3 = r ∗ (03566 − 0.022) = 2693V
V1
Discharge current through T H1 = at turn − ON time
R
2653
= = 66.325A
40
V2
R
2668
= = 66.7A
40
V2
R
2693
= = 67.32A
40
4.24 Pre-test
1. The circuit used to protect the thyristor from high dv/dt is called :
a) Clamp circuit. b) Snubber circuit.
c) Control circuit. d) Short circuit.
2. An inductance is connected in series with the thyristor to protect it from:
a) High di/dt. b) High dv/dt.

c) High load resistance d) High load inductance.
3. A resonant circuit is connected before the thyristor circuit to protect it

from the harmonics of:
a) Load side. b) Source side.
c) Over side. d) Range side.
4. The gate protection circuit protects the gate from:
a) High current. b) High dv/dt.

c) High resistance. d) High capacitance.
5. A fast acting fuse can protect the thyristor from:
a) Over load current. b) Over voltage.
c) Over temperature. d) Harmonics.
81
4.25 Thyristor Protection
Due to the small thermal capacity of the thyristor, its junction temperature
lends to rise very quickly in the event of any over voltage or over current. The
ratings of the device must not exceed even under fault condition. This achieved
by the following ways:
i- By choosing a thyristor with sucient voltage and current margins over

and above its continuous ratings.
ii- By introducing additional protective devices or circuits to make sure that
the thyristor current and voltage are kept within safe limits.
4.25.1 Over-voltage Protection

R1 &R2 and C1 as shown in Figure 4.24 are used to protect the thyristors from
the source side. The transient voltage from the supply may happen due to
the switching action of the contactors. The inductance (L1 ), resistance (R1 )
and capacitance (C1 ) represent a series resonant circuit to reduce the from the
source side. The resistance R2 is used for discharging the capacitance (C1 ). Also
a network of R3 and C2 are connected across the thyristor to reduce dv/dt on
the thyristors due to the load acting. This network R3 & C2 is called (Snubber
circuit), which is a resistance and capacitance connected in series across each
thyristor.
Figure 4.24: Over-voltage Protection.
4.25.2 Over-current Protection

The eect of over current is to increase the junction temperature. A sharp rise
in the device current can cause severe overheating and instant damage. Over
currents are interrupted by fast acting fuses which must melt before the thyristor
gets damaged. High dv/dt causes high current density in the small conduction
region, the heat will rise and the device will damage. The thyristor normally
provides by inductance connected in series as shown in the Figure 4.25 with it
to limit dv/dt.
82
Figure 4.25: Over-current Protection.
4.25.3 Gate Protection

The gate circuit can be protected from the instant variation of voltage and
current, which may produce undesirable voltages across the terminals between
the gate and cathode as shown in Figure 4.26.
Figure 4.26: Gate Protection Circuit.
R and C circuit is used to protect the gate from dv/dt when D.C. voltage is
used in the triggering of the thyristor. When the thyristor is trigged by A.C the
zener diodes Z1 & Z2 are used to obtain xed positive and negative alternating
voltage across the gate to trigger the thyristor.
Example 4-1: The thyristor in Figure 4.27 has a latching current level of (50µA
), is red by a pulse of length 50msec and is shown that without resistance (R)
the thyristor will fail to turn-ON. Then nd the maximum value of (R) to ensure
ring. Neglect the thyristor volt-drop.
83
Solution: After the thyristor turn-ON the thyristor current is given as:
100
i = I(1 − e−t/T ), where I = = 5A
20
L1
T = = 0.025 sec
R1
Af ter 50m sec
−50∗10−3
i = 5 ∗ (1 − e 0.025 ) = 10µA
Then the thyristor has failed to reach the latching current. The additional
resistance (R) must draw a current of
50-10=40 µA
to ensure thyristor turn-ON.
100 100∗106
R= 40∗10−6 = 40 = 2.5 M Ω
Example 4-2: A thyristor has forward characteristic which may be given as:
v = 1.0 + (1.1/60) ∗ i
Where (v ) and (i) are the forward voltage and current respectively. Estimate
the mean power loss for:
i-) A continuous current of (32) A.
ii-) A half sine wave of mean value (18) A.
Solution:
i-)
1.1
At i = 32A, v = 1 + ∗ 32 = 1.42V
60
P ower loss v ∗ i = 1.42 ∗ 23 = 32.7W
ii-)
T he maximum sine wave current is given as :
Im
Iav = , ∴ Im = π ∗ Iav = (18π)A
π
1.1
v =1+ ∗ Im sinθ
60
1.1
v =1+ ∗ 18π ∗ sinθ
60 Z π
1
Ploss = v ∗ i ∗ dθ
2π 0
84
Z π
1 1.1
= (1.0 + ∗ 18πsinθ) ∗ 18πsinθ ∗ dθ
2π 0 60
= 32.6W
4.26 Post-test
1. A D.C. voltage source of (200)V fed a resistive load of (40)Ω by means
of a thyristor. The communication circuit is class-B, which consists of
capacitance (5)µF and inductance of (2)mH. Draw the circuit diagram and
calculate the conduction time of the thyristor and the maximum current
ows through it.
2. The latching current of the thyristor used in phase control circuit, com-
prising an inductive load of R=10Ω in series with L=0.1H, is (10)mA.
The supply voltage is 325 sin(314t)volts . Obtain the minimum gate pulse
width required for reliable triggering of the thyristor, if it is gated at an
angle (π/4) in every positive half cycle. The load current of the circuit is
given as:
h h −R
ii
Vm
i= Z sin(wt + α − θ) − sin(α − θ)e L t
where Vm =325, w=314 rad/sec. , θ=P.F. angle
3. The junction capacitance of a thyristor is (20) P.F. The limiting charging
current to turn-ON the thyristor is (15)mA. If capacitor of (0.01)µF is
connected across the thyristor, determine the critical value of dv/dt?
4. Two thyristor are connected in parallel to share a total load current of
(600)A. The forward voltage drop of one thyristor is (1.0)V at (300)A,
and that of other thyristor is (1.5)V at (300)A. Determine the value of
series resistances to force current sharing with 10% dierence, when the
total voltage drop in each branch is (2.5)V.
5. The thyristor shown in Figure 4.28 below has a latching current of (15)mA.
Find the duration of the required pulse to re the thyristor. Neglect the
thyristor voltage drop.
6. If a gate-cathode junction of thyristor has a V-I characteristic which is

a straight line passing through the origin with gradient of (3000)V/A.
Calculate the minimum gate-source resistance, given that the available
gating voltage is (10)V and that the maximum permissible gate dissipa-
tion is (12)mW.
85
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-a, 3-b, 4-b, 5-a
B- Post-test
1) Solution:
1
f◦ = √
2π LC
1
= √
2π 2 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 5 ∗ 10−6
= 15991.5 Hz
1 1 1
Tconduction = T◦ = ∗ = 3.14 ∗ 10−4 second
2 2 f◦
Vs 200
ILmax = = = 5A
R 40
2) Solution:
Vm h −R
i
iload = sin(wt + α − θ) − sin(α − θ)e L t
Z q
Vm p
= 325/ R2 + XL2 = 325/ (10)2 + (3, 14)2 = 9.85A
Z
3.14
θ = tan−1 = 1.26 radian
10
π R 10
α = = 0.78 radian, = = 100
4 L 0.1
iL = 9.85 sin(314t − 0.47) − sin(−0.47)e−100t

di
= 9.85 cos(314t − 0.47) ∗ 314 + 100sin(−0.47)e−100t

dt
di
|t=0 = 9.85 [314 ∗ cos(−0.47) + 100sin(−0.47)]
dt
= 9.85 [314 ∗ 0.98 − 100 ∗ 0.452] = 2298 A/sec
4I 4I 0.01
= 2298, ∴ 4t = = = 4.35µsec.
4t 2298 2298
86
3) Solution:
dV i 15 ∗ 10−3
= =
dt [Cj2 + Cparallel ] [20 + 10] ∗ 10−12
6
= 500 ∗ 10 V /sec.
= 500V /µsec.
4) Solution:
total voltage drop in each branch=2.5 volts

1
270 ∗ ( + R1 ) = 2.5
300
∴ R1 = 5.9 ∗ 10−3 Ω
1.5
330 ∗ ( + R2 ) = 2.5
300
R2 = 2.6 ∗ 10−3 Ω
The dierence 10 % means one thyristor carries 270 A and the other
carries (330)A.
5) Solution:
87
−t
ilatch = I(1 − e r )
−t
0.05 = I(1 − e 0.025 )
−t
0.01 = 1 − e 0.025
− t/0.0025 = Ln(0.99) = −0.01

t = 0.00025sec. = 250µsec.
6) Solution:
Figure 4.32: Vg/Ig Characteristics, Question 6, Post-test.
Vg /Ig = 300 = Rgk

Vg ∗ Ig = 12 ∗ 10−3 watt
or Ig2 Rgk = 12 ∗ 10−3
p
Ig = 12 ∗ 10−3 /300 = 2 ∗ 10−3 A
Vs = (Rs + 300) ∗ Ig
10 = (Rs + 300) ∗ 2 ∗ 10−3
Rs = 2000Ω = 2KΩ
4.28 Pre-test
1. D.C. voltage and resistance is one method of thyristor:
a) Over heating. b) Firing.
c) Damaging. d) Repairing
2. The relaxation oscillator is one method of:
a) Directed voltage triggering. b) A.C. voltage triggering.
c) Pulse current triggering. d) Three phase triggering.
3. The pulse current triggering method can be obtained by:
a) Battery. b) A.C. generator.
c) Operational amplier. d) Diode rectier.
4. Triggering by sweep generator and blocking oscillator is used with:
88
a) Variable A.C. voltage. b) Variable D.C. voltage.
c) Variable pulse current. d) Variable resistance.
5. The main factor which is used to control the thyristor output voltage is
called:
a) Cut-o angle. b) Saturation angle.
c) Power factor angle. d) Delay angle.
4.29 Thyristor Triggering Techniques

i- Triggering by D.C. voltage: The direct voltage method is used to
control the thyristor triggering when the temperature and load current
variations are not considered. The triggering signal can be obtained from
an independent D.C. source or from a part of anode voltage by the follow-
ing methods:
a- Resistance only: Figure 4.33a below shows the method of supplying
the gate by the required triggering signal. The variable resistance
is used to control the delay angle (α). Figure 4.33b below shows
another model of triggering circuit using resistance only. The diode
D1 is added to pass the positive half cycle of anode voltage.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.33: Triggering Circuit Using Resistance Only.
Example 4-3:
In gure 4.33b above, calculate the resistance (R) to satisfy a delay
◦
angle of (30 ) if:
Ig = 40 mA, Vgk = 3V, Vs = 350 sin wt
Solution:
350 sin(wt) = 40 ∗ 10−3 ∗ R + 0.7 + 3
but wt = α = 30◦
175 − 3.7
R= = 4.3 KΩ
40 ∗ 10−3
The diculty in the variation of triggering angle to value greater

◦
than (90 ) limits the utilization of the method.
89
b- Resistance and capacitance: To delay angle more than (90 ),
◦
a circuit of resistance and capacitance is used as shown in Figure

4.34a below. The diode D1 is used to remove the charge on the
capacitance (C1 ) at the end of every half-cycle. Figure 4.34b shows
an independent source voltage to supply the control circuit. In this
circuit the ring angle (α) can be varied from 0◦ to 180◦ , while the
resistance and capacitance are connected to the secondary winding
of a step-down transformer.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.34: Triggering Circuit Using Resistance and Capacitance.
ii- Triggering by pulse current: The thyristor conduction by pulse current

method is more ecient than the other methods. The triggering pulse can
be generated by dierent methods such as:
(a) Zero-crossing detector: Figure 4.35 shows a simple method of
triggering pulses generation using zero-crossing detector. The tran-
sistor is used as electronic switch to generate the required pulses of
thyristor triggering.
Figure 4.35: Triggering by Pulse Current.
(b) Relaxation oscillator: The UJT is used to build up the relaxation

oscillator, and this oscillator generates a chain of short pulses agree
with thyristor triggering. Figure 4.36 shows a practical circuit for
this application.
90
Figure 4.36: Relaxation Oscillator.
iii- Triggering by A.C. voltage: In this method, as shown in Figure 4.37, a

part of supply voltage is used to feed the gate-cathode circuit with suitable
signals. The gate signal is displaced in phase by using a resistance and
capacitance. The angle can be calculated from the relation:
φ=α
Xc
tanφ =
R
Figure 4.37: Triggering by A.C. Voltage
Example 4-4: A thyristor has the following data:

Ig(min) = 150 mA, Ig(max) = 4A, Vgk = 3V
It is connected as shown in Figure 4.38 below; calculate the series variable
resistance and the corresponding maximum and minimum ring angle.
Solution:
91
Vgk 3
Rgk = = = 20Ω
Ig(min) 150 ∗ 10−3
Vs(max)
Rmax + Rgk =
√Ig (min)
2 ∗ 240
Rmax + 20 = = 2.263 kΩ
150 ∗ 10−3 √
Vs(max) 2 ∗ 240
Rmin + Rgk = = = 84.85Ω
Ig (max) 4
R = 84.85 − 20 = 64.85Ω
√min
2 ∗ 240 ∗ sin(αmax ) = (Rmax + Rgk )Ig(min)
(2243 + 20) ∗ 150 ∗ 10−3
sin(αmax ) = √ ≈1
2 ∗ 240
∴ α = sin−1 (1) = 90◦
√ max
2 ∗ 240 ∗ sin(αmax ) = (Rmin + Rgk )Ig(min)
84.85 ∗ 150 ∗ 10−3
sin(αmin ) = √ ≈ 0.037
2 ∗ 240
αmax = sin−1 (0.037) =
Example 4-5: In this circuit shown in Figure 4.35, the supply voltage
of the bridge rectier is (6)V, calculate the voltages and currents of the
important parts of the circuit, then draw the output voltage waveform of
each part in the circuit given that:
RB = 8.2KΩ, RC = 1KΩ, C = 100µF, VBE = 0.7, VEC = 0.6V
Solution:
√
Va(max) = 2 ∗ 6 = 8.4 V olts
2Va (max)
Vb = F ull − wave rectif ier
π
2 ∗ 8.4
= = 5.4V olts
π
VB(max) − VBE 8.4 − 0.7
IB(max) = = = 0.95 mA
RB 8.2 ∗ 103
VC = Va(max) = Vb(max) = 8.4V olts
VC = IC RC + VCE
8.4 = 1000IC + 0.6
∴ IC = 8 mA
IC 8
Current gain = = = 8.4
IB 0.95
The output voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 4.39
92
Figure 4.39: Output Waveforms of the Zero-crossing Detector.
Example 4-6: An electric heater has a resistance of (8)Ω operates on

(220) V, 50Hz, single phase A.C. supply as shown in Figure 4.40 below.
Calculate the load power when the switch (S) in connected to position (1)
or (2).
At position 1:
√
Vs(max) 2 ∗ 220
VL(rms) = = = 155.56V
2 2
2
VL(rms) (155.56) 2
Pout = = = 3025 W att
RL√ 8
Vm 2 ∗ 220
Vd = = = 98.8 volt
π π
2 2
Pd = Vd /RL = (98.8) /8 = 1220W
At position 2:
VL(rms) = 220V
93
VL2 (220)2
Pout = = = 6050 W att
RL 8
Vd = 0
Pd = 0
4.30 Thyristor Triggering Circuits

To turn-ON a thyristor in a shortest time. It is desirable to have a gate current
with a fast rise time up to the maximum permitted value. This rise time is
achieved by pulse techniques, where the ring circuit generates a fast rise pulse
of sucient length to allow the anode current enough time to reach its latching
value. The advantage of the pulse is that much less power is dissipated in
the gate compared to a continuous current, and the instant of ring can be
accurately timed.
i- Triggering by sweep generator and blocking oscillator:
In Figure 4.41 a block diagram of thyristor triggering system when a vari-
able D.C. supply voltage (0-3)V is used. The ring angle (α) can be
controlled easily from 0◦ to 180◦ . The circuit consists of linear sweep
generator to control the switching transistor, which is used to control the
operational of blocking oscillator. The blocking oscillator is used to gener-
ate the triggering pulses of thyristor. Figure 4.42 shows the output voltage
waveforms of sweep generator and blocking oscillator.
Figure 4.41: Sweep Generator and Blocking Oscillator.
Figure 4.42: Triggering by Sweep Generator and Blocking Oscillator.
94
ii- Triggering by operational amplier
The operational amplier is widely used in the generation of triggering sig-
nals of thyristors. The operational amplier can be used as Zero-crossing
detector or as comparator depending on the required signal. Figure 4.43
shows the circuit diagram of thyristor triggering by an operational ampli-
er.
Figure 4.43: Triggering by Operational Amplier.
iii- Thyristor triggering by a transistor:

Figure 4.44 below shows a thyristor triggering circuit using the Bi-polar
transistor. Initially with zero voltage on C1 , the transistor is OFF, but
when the voltage onC1 reaches a high level, the transistor starts to con-
duct. Feedback action via the transformer winding raises the base current
so the transistor turns-ON, discharging C1 rapidly into the thyristor gate
via the transformer.
Figure 4.44: Thyristor Triggering by a Transistor.
iv- Thyristor triggering by a relaxation oscillator:

The UJT is used sometimes to build the relaxation oscillator, which is
used for thyristor triggering, as shown in Figure 4.45.
95
Figure 4.45: Thyristor Triggering by a Relaxation Oscillator.
4.31 Post-test
1. Express the formula calculating the minimum and maximum oscillating
frequency of the relaxation oscillator?
2. Find the minimum base current which makes the common emitter tran-
sistor conducting if IC = 10 mA and β = 50?
3. Dene the blocking oscillator and sweep generator?
4. if Vgk = 3V , Ig(min) = 40 mA of a thyristor, calculate the resistance Rgk
between the gate and Cathode ?
5. Draw a triggering circuit to vary the triggering angle from 0◦ to 180◦ .

A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-c, 3-c , 4-b , 5-d
B- Post-test
1.
1
Fmin = = 1/Rmax C ∗ Ln(1/(1 − η))
Tmax
1
Fmax = = 1/Rmin C ∗ Ln(1/(1 − η))
Tmin
2.
IC
β=
IB
IC 10 ∗ 10−3
∴ IB = = = 0.2 mA
β 50
3. The sweep generator is a system used to generate a triangular (ramp)

output signals which are used to control the switching ON and OFF
of the transistor when is used as a switch. The blocking oscillator is
used to generate the triggering pulses to operate the thyristor.
Vgk 3
4. Rgk =Ig(min) = 40∗10−3 = 75Ω
5. The circuit is shown in Figure 4.37.
96
Chapter 5
Controlled Rectication
5.1 Pre-test
1. Controlled rectier means that the rectier consists of:
a) diode. b) thyristors.
c) transistors. d) switches.
2. The main factor of the controlled rectier which controls the output volt-
age is called:
a) delay angle. b) cut-o angle.
c) over-lap angle. d) saturation angle.
3. In case of resistive load, the formula of output average voltage of the single
phase half-wave controlled rectier is given as:
Vm Vm
a)
π [1 + cos(α)]. b)
4π [1 + cos(α)].
Vm Vm
c)
2π [1 + cos(α)]. d)
2π [1 − cos(α)].
4. In case of single phase half-wave controlled rectier with resistive load the
average output voltage is given as :
Vm Vm
a)
π [cos(α) − cos(β)]. b)
π [cos(α) + cos(β)].
Vm Vm
c)
2π [cos(α) − cos(β)]. d)
2π [cos(α) + cos(β)].
5. The average output voltage of the controlled rectier equals the average
output voltage of the uncontrolled rectier when the delay angle equals
to:
π π
a)
3. b)
2.
c) 0◦ . d)
2π
3 .
5.2 Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load

In a single phase, half-wave rectier as shown in Figure 5.1, when a diode is
replaced by a thyristor, the average output voltage can be controlled and made
variable by controlling their conduction period, during the half-cycle. In the
forward biased state the thyristor starts is conducting when a suitable signal is
97
applied to its gate. If this signal is applied at the beginning of a half cycle, the
thyristor conducts for the entire half cycle, from 0 to π, at the end of which it
turns-OFF by natural communication
Figure 5.1: Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load.
The input and output waveforms are shown in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2: Input and Output Waveforms.
2π
wt = 2π ⇒∴ T =
Z w
1 T
Average = f (t)dt
T 0
98
1 T /2
Z
Vd = Vm sin(wt)dt
T α/w
Z π/w
1
= Vm sin(wt)dt
2π/w α/w
Z π/w
wVm
= sin(wt)dt
2π α/w
wVm h π n wα oi
= −cos(w ) − −cos( )
2πw w w
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)] volts
2π" # 12
1 T 2
Z
r.m.s = f (t)dt
T 0
Z π
1 2 1
V◦(r.m.s) = [ {Vm sin wt} dwt] 2
2π α
2 Z π 12
Vm 2
= sin (wt)dwt
2π α
2 Z π 21
Vm 1 − cos(2wt)
= dwt
2π α 2
2 π 21
Vm sin(2wt)
= wt −
4π 2 α
2 π 12
Vm sin(2π) sin(2α)
V◦(r.m.s) = π− −α+
4π 2 2 α
" sin(2α) 2
#1
Vm π − α + 2
V◦(r.m.s) =
2 π
Example 5-1: A small heater has a resistance of (10)Ω. If a half-wave single

phase controlled rectier is used with delay angle (π/3) to supply the heater
from 240V A.C. supply; Calculate:
i- The heater load (average) voltage.
ii- The load average power .
iii- The r.m.s voltage across the heater .
Then draw the complete input and output voltage waveforms.
Solution:
i-
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
√ 2π
2 ∗ 240
= [1 + cos(60◦ )]
2π
= 81V
ii- Pd = Vd2 lRL = (81)2 /10 = 6561 watts
iii-
" # 12
Vm π − α + sin(2α)
2
V◦(r.m.s) =
2 π
99
√ "
3.14 sin(120◦ )
# 21
2 ∗ 240 3.14 − 3 + 2
=
2 π
= 152.2V
Figure 5.3: Input and Output Voltage Waveforms Of Example 5-1.
5.3 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-

inductive Load
The eect of introducing an inductance in the load circuit as shown in Figure
5.4 has two cases:
i- The current waveform is no longer a replica of the voltage waveform during

the conduction period.
ii- The thyristor continues to conduct even beyond (π ) radian up to an an-
gle (β ) even when the supply voltage has a negative value. The current
through a circuit builds up more slowly and reaches a peak value later
than the voltage maximum, as shown in Figure 5.5.
100
Figure 5.4: Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive
Load.
In the uncontrolled rectier, the conduction starts in the beginning of every

positive half cycle. The start of conduction of a controlled rectier can be varied
by controlling the triggering angle of the thyristor. The conduction extends to
the negative half cycle until the energy stored in the inductance is dissipated or
returned to the supply.
1 β
Z
Vd = Vm sin(wt)dwt
T α
Vm
Vd = [cos(α) − cos(β)]
2π
Id = Vd /RL , Pd = Vd ∗ Id = Vd2 /RL
Vd = average output voltage (V )
Id = average output current (A)
Pd = average output power (W )
101
α = f iring angle = delay angle = triggering angle
φ = conduction angle
β = cut − OF F angle = extinction angle
β =α+φ
Example 5-2: In the circuit shown in Figure 5.6, determine the mean load
voltage and current?
Solution:
Vm
√ 2π
2 ∗ 240
= [cos(30◦ ) − cos(228◦ )]
2π
= 83V
Vd 83
Id = = = 8.3A
R 10
5.4 Post-test
1. Why the thyristor continues to conduct even if the supply voltage is neg-
ative in case of resistive-inductive load?
2. Derive an expression to calculate the average load voltage in case of single
phase, half-wave uncontrolled rectier.
3. In the circuit shown in Figure 5.7 below, calculate the cut-OFF angle when
◦
the delay angle is (60 ), and the average load current is (7.8)A.
102
4. In a single phase half-wave controlled rectier with resistive load if the

average output voltage is (81) V and the r.m.s. supply voltage is (240) V;
calculate the ring angle?
5. In the circuit shown in Figure 5.8 below, calculate the average load current
when β = 210◦ and α = 45◦ ?
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-a, 3-c, 4-c, 5-c
B- Post-test
1) Because of the thyristor turn-OFF condition (Ia > Ih ) is not satised
due to the load current is lagging the load voltage.
Vm
2) Vd = 2π [1 − cos(β)]
3)
Vd = Id ∗ R
= 7.8 ∗ 10 = 78V
Vm
2π
330
78 = [0.5 − cos(β)]
2π
2π ∗ 78
70.5 − cos(β) = = 1.484
330
cos(β) = 0.5 − 1.484 = −0.984
103
β = cos−1 (−0.984) = 185◦
4)
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
2π
√
2 ∗ 240
81 = [1 + cos(α)]
2π
2π ∗ 81
1 + cos(α) = √
2 ∗ 240
2π ∗ 81
cos(α) = √ − 1 = 0.5
2 ∗ 240
α = cos−1 (0.5) = 60◦
5)
Vd Vm
Id = = ∗ [cos(α) − cos(β)]
√ R 2πR
2 ∗ 100
= [cos(45◦ ) − cos(210◦ )] = 3.18A
2π ∗ 10
5.5 Pre-test
1. The freewheeling diode is connected with the load in:
a) Series. b) Parallel.
c) Compound.
2. The freewheeling diode is connected with the load in case of:
a) Resistive load. b) Capacitive load.
c) Resistive-inductive load.
3. The freewheeling diode is used for circulation of:
a) Load resistance. b) Load current.
c) Load inductance. d) Load capacitance.
4. The example of a back e.m.f as a load of the rectier is a:
a) battery charging. b) heater.
c) fan. d) an amplier.
5. In case of a back e.m.f in the load the condition of thyristor triggering is

that :
a) α < δ. b) α = δ.
c) α ≥ δ. d) δ ≤α≤π−δ
5.6 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with In-

ductive Load and Freewheeling Diode
The freewheeling diode Df is connected across the inductive load as shown in
Figure 5.9. The input and output voltage and current waveforms are shown in
Figure 5.10.
104
Figure 5.9: Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive Load
and Freewheeling Diode.
Z π
1
Vd = Vm sin wtdwt
2π α
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
2π Z
β
Vm
Id = sin wtdwt
2πR α
Vm
Id = [cos(α) − cos(β)]
2πR
When the supply voltage is positive the thyristor is forward biased and starts
conducting as soon as the gate signal is applied to it. The conduction continues
till the end of the half cycle. Also during this period the diode Df reversed
bias and remains in the non-conducting state. When the voltage changes to
the negative half period, the diode become forward biased and provides a short
circuit across the load (R&L). The stored energy in the inductance causes a
105
current to ow through R, L and Df till this energy is dissipated or a new
cycle of voltage starts. The negative voltage of the supply is applied across the
thyristor which is turned-OFF and remains so during the negative half cycle.
During the diode conduction the load current decays exponentially according to
the equation:
iL = I◦ e−R/Lt
Where I◦ is the current of the load at the beginning of the freewheeling period.
The supply voltage, load voltage and the load current curves are shown in the
Figure 5.10 above. For a large value of time constant (τ =L/R ) the load current
becomes continuous and the angle (β ) is: β = 2π + α in half-wave rectier with
continuous conduction case.
5.7 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive-

load and Back e.m.f
Very often the rectier is used to control the speed of a D.C. motor or for battery
charging. In either of these cases, the rectied supply encounters a back e.m.f.
in addition to the usual load impedance. A simple analysis is carried out by
assuming the back e.m.f. to remain constant. A circuit representing the rectier
with an R-L load and back e.m.f. (Vb ) is shown in Figure 5.11, and the related
waveforms for two dierent values of angle (α) are shown in Figure 5.12.
Figure 5.11: Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive-load

and Back e.m.f.
Figure 5.12: Waveforms for Two Dierent Values of Angle α.
106
The rectier conducts when the net voltage in the circuit biases the thyristor
positively. Thus as long as Vs = Vm sinwt is less than Vb , there is no possibility
of conduction even if a gate signal is given to the thyristor. The ring angle (α)
must be greater than angle (δ ) and less then (π − δ ), where δ is dened as:
−1 Vb
δ = sin ( )
Vm
The voltage equation during the conduction period is:
Vs = VR + VL + Vb
di◦
Vm sin wt = i◦ R + L + Vb
dt
The solution of this equation with initial condition that t◦ = 0 at t=α/w =

δ/w gives:

Vm Vb Vb Vm RS −R
i◦ = sin(wt − φ) − + − sing(δ = φ) ∗ e W L ∗ e L
Z R R
p Z
Where Z=circuit impedence= R2 + XL2
φ=impedance angle=tan−1 XRL
The average load current (Id ) can be found on the basis that the net integral
of voltage across the inductance over one period equal zero. Hence: Average
output voltage = average voltage across resistance + average back e.m.f
Z β
1
Vs dwt = Id R + Vb
2π α
Or
Z β
Vm Vb
Id = sin wtdwt −
2πR α R
Or
Vm Vb
Id = [cos(α) − cos(β)] −
2πR R
Example 5-3: A resistive load contains a back e.m.f of (170)V as shown in Fig-
ure 5.13. If the supply voltage is (240)V, 50Hz, calculate the range of triggering
angle (α) that the thyristor able to conduct?
107
Solution:
From Figure 5.13, the output waveform at point (a):
Vb = Vm sin wt
wt = δ
∴ Vb = Vm sin δ
Vb
sin(δ) =
Vm
170
δ = sin−1 ( √ ) = 30◦
2 ∗ 240
π − δ = 180◦ − 30◦ = 150◦
∴ Range of α is 30◦ ≤ α ≤ 150◦
Example 5-4: A single phase half-wave controlled rectier with zero delay
angle, connected to (240) V, 50Hz supply. Determine the instantaneous load
current, the mean load current and the main load voltage for a load of:
a) pure resistance of (10)Ω
b) an inductance of (0.1) H in series with (10) Ω resistance, and the conduc-
◦
tion angle θ is (265 ).
Solution:
a-) for pure resistance load:
√
Vm = 2 ∗ 240 = 339.4V
Vm 339.4
Im = = = 33.94 A
R 10
i◦ = Im sin wt = 33.94 sin(314t)
Vm 339.4
Vd = [1 + cos(α)] = [1 + 1]
2π 2π
= 108 V
Id = Vd / R = 108 / 10 = 10.8 A
b-) for resistive-inductive load:

q p
Z= R2 + XL2 = (10)2 + (3.14)2 = 32.97 Ω
XL 31.4
φ = tan−1 = tan−1 = 72.3◦
R 10
τ = L / R = 0.1 / 10 = 0.01 second
Vm h i
i◦ = sin(wt + α − φ) − sin(α − φ) ∗ e(−R / L)t
Z
α = 0◦
i◦ = 10.3 sin(314t − 72.3◦ ) + 9.8e−100t
but α = 0◦ , β = α + θ = 265◦
∴ Vd = 58.8V
Id = Vd / R = 58.8 / 10 = 5.88 A
Example 5-5:A single phase half-wave controlled rectier with a freewheeling

diode connected across the load. The supply voltage is 339.4 sin (314t). Find
◦
the mean load voltage for ring angle (45 ).
Solution:
Z π
1
Vd = Vm sin wtdwt
2π α
108
Vm
= [ 1 + cos(α) ]
2π
339.4
= [1 + 0.707]
2π
= 92V
5.8 Post-test
1. A single phase half-wave controlled rectier with a commutating diode
(freewheeling diode) is used to supply a heavily inductive load of up to
(15)A from (240)V , 50Hz A.C. supply . Find the mean load voltage for
◦
ring angle (90 ).
2. In a half-wave, controlled rectier circuit, the load is (10)Ω resistance in
◦
series with (0.1) H inductance. When the delay angle is (60 ) and the
supply voltage is 330 sin(314t) , determine:
a-) The instantaneous load current at t=0.01 sec.
b-) The cut-OFF angle (β ) when the mean load current is (3)A
3. Find the range of delay angle in a single phase rectier with back e.m.f, if
the maximum supply voltage 300V and the back e.m.f=200V.
4. What is the main advantage of freewheeling diode?
5. State the equation of the load current during the freewheeling period?
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-c, 3-b , 4-a , 5-d
B- Post-test
1)
Vm π
Z
Vm
Vd = Vm sin φdwφ = [1 + cos(α)]
2π
√ α 2π
2 ∗ 240
Vd = [1 + 0] = 54V
2π
2) a-)
Vm h R α
i
iL = sin(wt − φ) − sin(α − φ) ∗ e L ( w −t)
qZ p
Z = R2 + XL2 = (10)2 + (31.4)2 = 32.7Ω
XL 31.4
φ = tan−1 = tan−1 = 72◦ = 1.256 Rad
R 10
α = 60◦ = π/3 = 1.047 Rad,
L
τ= = 0.01 sec
R
at t = 0.01h
1.047
i
iL = 0.01 sin(3.14 − 1.256) + sin(12◦ ) ∗ e100∗( 314 −0.01)
iL = 0.01 [0.951 + 0.208 + 0.513] = 10.7A
b-)
Vd = Id ∗ R = 3 ∗ 10 = 30V
Vm
2π
Vm
30 = [0.5 − cos(β)]
2π
32.5
cos(β) = − = −0.071
330
109
β = cos−1 (−0.071) = 180◦ + 86◦ = 266◦
3)
Vb 200
δ = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 (0.66) = 41◦
Vm 300
4) i- To obtain a continuous load current and this is very important
in case of D.C. motor fed from a controlled rectier.
ii- To increase the average load voltage due to the thyristor com-
mutation occurs at the end of positive half cycle.
5)
−Rt −t
iL = I◦ e L = I◦ e τ
Where, I◦ = the instantaneous load current at the beginning of free-
wheeling period.
τ = L/R time constant of the load in seconds.
5.9 Pre-test
1. The controlled rectier means that all the components of the rectier are:
a) Diods. b) Thyristors.
c) Diode and thyristors. d) Transistor.
2. The single phase full-wave controlled center-tap rectier consists of :
a) Two thyristors. b) Three thyristors.
c) Four thyristors. d) Five thyristors.
3. The single phase full-wave controlled bridge rectier consists of:
c) Four thyristors. d) Five thyristors.
4. The formula of the average output voltage for a single phase full-wave
controlled rectier is given as:
Vm Vm
a) Vd = π (1 − cos(α)) b) Vd = 2π (1 + cos(α))
Vm Vm
c) Vd = 2π (1 − cos(α)) d) Vd = π (1 + cos(α))
5. The continuous conduction occurs when β is equal or greater than:
a) π. b) π + α.
π
c) 2π . d)
2
5.10 Single Phase Controlled Full-wave Rectier with Resistive-

load
In the full-wave rectier, the positive half pulses of A.C. voltage are applied
to the load at periodic intervals of (π ) radians. If the conduction angle (θ ) is
less than (π ), the current goes to zero once during every half cycle and the load
current is discontinuous. The load current conducts continuously if (θ ) is greater
than (π ). In case of full-wave single phase rectier there are two connections:
i-) center tap. ii-) bridge, as shown in Figure 5.14.
110
Figure 5.14: Single Phase Controlled Full-wave Rectier with Resistive-load.
In case of resistive load only:

1 π
Z
Vd = Vm sin(wt)dwt
π α
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
π
Z π 12
1 2
V◦(r.m.s) = {Vm sin(wt)} dwt
π α
2 Z π 12
Vm (1 − cos(2wt))
= dwt
π α 2
2 1
Vm sin(2wt) π 2
= {wt − }α
π 2
1 1
Vm π − α + 2 sin(2α) 2

= √
2 π
Example 5-6: single phase full-wave controlled rectier is connected to 300 sin wt volts
◦
supply. Calculate the average output voltage at delay angle (60 )?
Solution:
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
π
300 450
= [1 + 0.5] =
π π
= 143.3 volts
5.11 Single Phase Full-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-

inductive Load
Figure 5.15 shows the circuit diagram of single phase, full-wave controlled rec-
tier with resistive-inductive load for both cases: center-tap connection and
bridge connection.
111
Figure 5.15: Single Phase Full-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-
inductive Load.
1 β
Z
Vd = Vm sin wtdwt
π α
Vm
π
5.12 Single Phase Full-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-

inductive Load and Back e.m.f
In case of resistive-inductive load with back e.m.f as shown in the Figure 5.16,
the angle β (extinction or cut-OFF angle) and the conduction angle (θ ) depend
upon the following factors:
i-) The impedance angle (φ): The angle (β ) increases with increasing the
inductive component of the load impedance. Theoretically for purely in-
ductive load angle α = 0◦ , the angle β approaches a maximum of 360◦ .
ii-) The triggering angle (α): As the ring angle is delayed the angle (β )
reduces due to the energy stored in the inductance is reduced.
iii-) The back e.m.f Vb : An increase of Vb reduces the net positive voltage
applied to the load impedance, resulting in the reduction of β as well as
of θ.
Figure 5.16: Single Phase Bridge Rectier with R-L Load and Back e.m.f(Vb ).
There are two conduction cases:

i-) Discontinuous Conduction:
Figure 5.17 shows the output voltage and current waveforms for discon-
112
tinuous case. The angle β is less than (π + α). The average output voltage
and current across the load have double magnitudes of that in case of fully
controlled half-wave rectier as:
Vm
π
Vd − Vb
Id =
R
Vm Vb
[cos(α) − cos(β)] −
πR R
Figure 5.17: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for Discontinuous Case.
ii-) Continuous conduction: In this case, as shown in Figure 5.18, the con-
duction starts at an angle (α), Then π radian later there is still some
residual current owing in the load circuit. When the second set of thyris-
tors are red they take over conduction and the current starts increasing
from an initial value equal to the residual value of the last half cycle. The
angle (β ) is equal or greater than (π + α) or the angle (θ ) is equal or
greater than (π ). The instantaneous current equation is given as:
initial condition:
i◦ = 0 at wt = 0
i◦ = 0 at wt = θ
Vm Vb Vb Vm
i◦ = {sin(wt + α − φ)} − +{ − sin(α − φ)}−t/τ
Z R R Z
Vm Vb Vb Vm R α
i◦ = sin(wt − φ) − +{ − sin(α − φ)}e L ( w −t)
Z R R Z
The average output voltage and current can be found as:
1 π+α
Z
Vd = Vm sin wtdwt
π α
2Vm
Vd = cos(α)
π
Vd − Vb
Id =
R
2Vm Vb
Id = cos(α) −
πR R
113
Figure 5.18: The Average Output Voltage and Current.
5.13 Uncontrolled Bridge Rectier with a Thyristor

The A.C. is rectied by a full-wave, diode bridge, whose output is given to the
load through a series thyristor as shown in Figure 5.19. The output voltage
can be controlled by the thyristor. This circuit normally used for resistive load.
If the load is inductive, the stored energy dissipated by continuing the ow of
current in the thyristor and through the two alternative paths D1 and D2 or
D3 and D4 . When the supply voltage reverses, the load current commutated to
the appropriate diode but TH continues to conduct and can be controlled the
triggering pulses. The introduction diode D5 reduces this problem by bypassing
the thyristor and the bridge diodes.
Figure 5.19: Uncontrolled Bridge with a Thyristor.
Example 5-7: A single phase fully-controlled bridge rectier supplies a con-

stant current to a highly inductive load. Derive an expression for the average
output voltage and r.m.s value of load current with and without freewheeling
diode. If the ratio R/XL is increased such that R = 8Ω and XL = 4Ω, nd the
extinction angle (β ) if the triggering angle α = 75◦ .
114
Solution:
Z β
1
Vd = Vm sin wtdwt
π α
Vm
= [cos(α) − cos(β)]
π
i- without freewheeling diode, due to the highly inductive load, the load
current is continuous and β =π+α
2Vm
∴ Vd = cos(α)
π
Z π+α 12
1 2
Irms = Id dwt = Id
π α
ii- with freewheeling diode β=π

Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
π 12 1
1 π 2

π−α 2
Z
Irms = I dwt = Id
π α d π
iii- with freewheeling diode β = π without freewheeling β can be calculated
as:
XL
β =π+φ−∆ , φ = tan−1 (
) = 26.5◦ and ∆ ≈ 9◦
R
∴ β = 180◦ + 26.5◦ − 9◦ = 197.5◦
∆ = 0◦ − 25◦
φ = 0◦ − 75◦
Example 5-8:: A fully-controlled, center-tap with 2:1 turns ratio transformer,

single phase rectier. Draw the circuit diagram and calculate the average load
◦
voltage at ring angle (45 ), resistive inductive load, with and without free-
wheeling diode, for continuous and discontinuous conduction cases, when the
◦
cut-OFF angle is (210 ) and the supply voltage is (240) V, 50Hz.
Solution:
115
i-) for continuous conduction:
a- with freewheeling diode
1 π
Z
Vm
Vd = Vm sin (wt) dwt = [1 + cos(α)]
π α π
√
2 ∗ 60
= [1 + cos(45◦ )] = 46 V
π
b- without freewheeling diode
1 π+α
Z
2Vm
Vd = Vm sin (wt) dwt = [1 + cos(α)]
π α π
√
2 ∗ 2 ∗ 60
= cos(45◦ ) = 37.8 V
π
ii-) for discontinuous conduction:
a- with freewheeling diode
Z π
1
Vd = Vm sin (wt) dwt = 46 V
π α
Vm
= [1 + cos(α)]
π
b- without freewheeling diode
1 β
Z
Vm
Vd = Vm sin (wt) dwt = [cos(α) − cos(β)]
π α π
√
2 ∗ 60
= [0.7 − (−0.866)] = 37.8 V
π
Example 5-9: A eld winding of separately excited D.C. motor fed from half-
controlled bridge rectier. Determine the delay angle required to pass (1.8) A
through the windings at supply voltage (220) V, and eld resistance (100)Ω.
Solution:
Vd = Vf = If ∗ Rf = 1.8 ∗ 100 = 180V
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)] due to the half − controlled acts as f reewheeling
π√
2 ∗ 220
180 = [1 + cos(α)]
π
180 = 99 + 99 [1 + cos(α)] ∴ cos(α) = 0.818
α = cos−1 (0.818) = 35◦
5.14 Post-test
1. A single phase fully-controlled bridge-rectier is supplied from 120 V A.C.
◦
supply. Determine the mean load voltage for ring delay angle (45 ),
assuming continuous load current.
2. Single phase half-controlled bridge-rectier is supplied from 120V A.C.
◦
supply. Determine the mean load voltage at delay angle (135 ).
3. Determine the ripple factor for the following circuits:
a- Single phase half-wave uncontrolled rectier.
◦
b- Single phase half-wave controlled rectier with delay angle (90 ).
c- Single phase full-wave uncontrolled center-tap rectier.
4. A single phase semi-controlled bridge rectier is used to charge a set of ten
series-connected batteries. The total internal resistance of all the batteries
◦
is (0.6)Ω. For ring angle (45 ) and a voltage of 7.2V for each battery,
determine the average battery current, when the supply voltage is (220)
V.
5. Single phase, fully-controlled bridge rectier is connected to a supply of
116
300 sin(314t) volts. The load resistance is (10) Ω in series with (0.05)
H inductance and (60) V back e.m.f. Calculate the average load voltage
and current with and without freewheeling diode for both continuous and
◦
discontinuous conduction cases, when the delay angle (60 ).
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-a, 3-c , 4-d , 5-b
B- Post-test
1- Solution
1 π+α
Z
Vm
Vd = Vm sin φdφ = cos(α)
π α π
√
2 ∗ 120 ∗ 2
= cos(45◦ )
π
= 76 volts
2- Solution
1 π
Z
Vm
Vd = Vm sin φdφ = [1 + cos(α)]
π α π
√
2 ∗ 120
= [1 + cos(135◦ )]
π
= 16 volts
3- Solution
a- Single phase half-wave uncontrolled rectier:
r
Irms 2
Ripple f actors = r.f = ( ) −1
Id
Vd = Vm /π , Id = Im /π
Z π 21
1 Im
Irms = {Im sin(wt)}2 dwt =
r 2π 0 r 2
πIm 2 π 2
r.f. = ( ) − 1 = ( ) − 1 = 1.21
2Im 2
b- Single phase half-wave controlled rectier:

Vm Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)] = f or α = 90◦
2π 2π
Im
Id = Vd /RL =
2π 21
Z π
1
Irms = {Im sin(wt)}2 dwt
r 2π α
1 1
= Im (π − α + sin(2α))
2π 2
F or α = 90◦
r
1 π Im
Ir.m.s = Im ( )=
r 2π 2 2
2πIm 2 p
r.f. = ( ) − 1 = π2 − 1 ≈ 3
2Im
c- Single phase full-wave, uncontrolled rectier:
Vd 2Vm 2Im
Id = = =
RL πR
√L π
Ir.m.s = Im / 2
117
s
πIm
q √
r.f. = (√ )2 − 1 = (π/2 2)2 − 1 = 0.48
2 ∗ 2Im
4- Solution
T he total batteries voltage = 10 ∗ 7.2 = 72V
T otal internal resistance = 0.6
Vm
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
√π
2 ∗ 220
Vd = [1 + 0.707] = 168 V
π
Vd − Vb 168 − 72
Icharging = = = 160 A
R1 0.6
5- Solution
i-) Continuous
W ith f reewheeling diode : α = 60◦
Vm 300
Vd = [1 + cos(α)] = [1 + 0.5] = 143V
π π
Vd − Vb
Id = = 8.3 A
R
F or continuous without f reewheeling diode :
2Vm 2 ∗ 300
Vd = cos(α) = cos(60◦ ) = 95.5 V
π π
Vd − Vb 95.5 − 60
Id = = = 3.5A
R 10
ii-) Discontinuous
W ithout f reewheeling diode and discontinuous conduction :
XL 15.7
β = π + φ − ∆ , φ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 ( ) = 57.5◦
R 10
∆ = 0 → 25◦
φ = 0 → 75◦
57.5 ∗ 25 1437.5
∆= = = 19.1◦
75 75
β = 180 + 57.5 − 19.1 = 218.4◦
Vm
π
300 300 ∗ 1.2837
Vd = [0.5 − (−0.7837)] = = 122.6 volts
π π
Vd − Vb 122.6 − 60
Id = = = 6.25 A
R 10
5.15 Pre-test
1. Three phase, half-wave controlled rectier consist of:
a) 3 diodes. b) 3 thyristors.
c) 3 capacitances. d) 3 inductors.
◦
2. If the delay angle (α) is less or equal (30 ) the conduction is called:
a) continuous b) discontinuous
c) Unit step d) ramp
3. In case of resistive load and three phase half-wave controlled rectier and
continuous conduction the average output voltage is given as:
118
√
3 3
a) Vph(rms) cos(α) b)
2π Vph(rms) cos(α)
√ √
3VL(m) 3Vph(m)
c)
π cos(α) d)
π cos(α)
4. In three phase system the thyristor which starts to conduct if its anode
voltage is:
a) Negative biasing. b) Positive biasing.
c) More negative biasing. d) More positive biasing.
5. The freewheeling diode is connected across the load in case of:
a) Resistive load. b) Inductive load.
c) Capacitive load. d) Resistive with back e.m.f load.
5.16 Three phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier

5.16.1 With Resistive Load
The circuit diagram of this rectier is shown in Figure 5.21. The 3-anode of the
thyristors are connected to the positive polarity of the output voltage, while the
negative polarity is taken from the neutral point of the transformer secondary.
◦
If the delay angle is zero then every thyristor will conduct (120 ). The thyris-
tor is naturally commutated. Figure 5.22 shows the input and output voltage
waveforms when α > π/6.
Figure 5.21: Three phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load.
119
Figure 5.22: Input and Output Voltage Waveforms.
For thyristors conduction there are two cases:
i-) Continuous Conduction:

◦
It occurs when the triggering angle (α) is less or equal (30 ) when wt =
π
6 + α in terms of sin(wt) as a foundation of supply voltage or wt =
− π3 + α when cos(wt) is a foundation of supply voltage. The average
output voltage is given as:
vRN = V(m)ph sin wt
vSN = V(m)ph sin(wt − 120◦ )
vT N = V(m)ph sin(wt − 240◦ )
Z 5π
6 +α
1
Vd = 2π V(m)ph sin wtdwt
π
3 6 +α
√
3 3V(m)ph
Vd = cos(α) α ≤ 30◦
2π
or
Z π3 +α
1
Vd = 2π V(m)ph cos(wt)dwt
3 −π
3 +α
√
3 3V(m)ph
Vd = cos(α) α ≤ 30◦
2π
ii-) Discontinuous conduction:

◦
it occurs when the ring angle (α) is greater than (30 ) In this case the
phase voltage will reduced to zero before the triggering of the next thyris-
tor. The average output voltage in this case is given as:
Z π
1
Vd = 2π V(m)ph sin(wt)dwt
π
3 6 +α
120
3Vm(ph) h π i
= 1 + cos( + α) α ≤ 30◦
2π 6
◦
The load voltage and current in case of resistive load and (30 ) delay angle, can
be represented as shown in Figure 5.23.
◦
Figure 5.23: The Load Voltage and Current in Case of Resistive Load and (30 )
Delay Angle.
The eective (r.m.s) value of the output voltage is given as:
i-) In case of continuous conduction:

" 5π
# 21
6 +α
Z
1
V◦(rms)/ph = 2π {Vm(ph)sin(wt) }2 dwt
3 (π/6)+α
Vm(ph) 1
V◦(rms)/ph = √ (1 + 0.413 ∗ cos(α)) 2
2
ii-) In case of discontinuous conduction:

" # 21
Z π
1 2
V◦(rms)/ph = 2π {Vm(ph)sin(wt) } dwt
3 (π/6)+α
21
Vm(ph) 3 π
= 2.5 − α + sin( + 2α)
2 2π 3
Example 5-10: A resistive load is supplied by three phase half-wave, controlled

rectier. If the supply phase voltage is (230) V, calculate the average output
voltage at (π/6) and (2π/3) delay angle.
Solution:
121
i- α = π/6
√ continuous conduction
3 3V(m)ph
Vd = cos(α)
√ √ 2π
3 3 2 ∗ 230 ∗ cos(α)
= = 281.6V
2π
ii- α = 2π/3 = 120◦ discontinuous conduction

3Vm(ph) h π i
Vd = 1 + cos( + α)
√2π 6
3 ∗ 2 ∗ 230
= [1 + cos(150◦ )] = 20.8V
2π
Example 5-11: three phase, half-wave, controlled rectier fed from 220V/phase
supply. If the load resistance is (7)Ω and the load current is (32)A, nd the de-
lay angle.
Solution:
Vd = Id ∗ RL = 32 ∗ 7 = 224V
√
3 3V(m)ph
Vd = cos(α)
2π √ √
2π ∗ 224 = 3 ∗ 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220 ∗ cos(α)
cos(α) = 0.866
α = cos−1 (0.866) = 30◦
5.16.2 with Resistive-inductive Load

In case of resistive-inductive load and due to the stored energy in the inductance,
the thyristor will continue to conduct the negative half-cycle and the load current
becomes continuous as shown in Figure 5.24. To disconnect the load current, a
freewheeling diode is connected across the load, as shown in Figure 5.24.
Figure 5.24: A Freewheeling Diode is Connected Across the Load to Disconnect

the Load Current.
Example 5-12: Draw the output voltage waveform of three phase fully-controlled,
half-wave rectier at delay angle α = 90◦ for purely resistive of (10) Ω load and
highly inductive of (5) Ω load, with and without freewheeling diode. Then cal-
culate the eciency of rectication for both cases when the supply phase voltage
122
is (220) Volts.
Solution:
(a) (b)
Figure 5.25: In (a), Output Voltage Waveform without Freewheeling Diode

Highly Inductive Load α = 90◦ . In (b), Output Voltage Waveform with and
without Freewheeling Diode for Resistive Load and with Freewheeling Diode for
Highly Inductive Load.
Highly inductive load:

i- Without freewheeling diode:
π
3 +90
Z
3
Vd = Vm/ph cos(wt)dwt = 0 volts
2π − π3 +90
Id = 0
I 2 RL
η= 2 d =0
3Iph(rms)RL
ii- With freewheeling

π
diode:
3 +α
Z
3
Vd = Vm/ph cos(wt)dwt
2π − π +α
Z 903 ◦
√
3
Vd = 2 ∗ 220 cos wtdwt = 74 V olts
2π − π3 + π2
Vd 74
Id = = = 14.8A
RL 5
Id 14.8
Iph(rms) = √ = √ = 8.66A highly inductive load.
m 3
I( rms) = Id (highly inductive load)
I 2 RL Id2 RL
η= 2 d = Id 2
= 100%
3Iph(rms)RL 3( √ ) RL
3
iii- ResistiveZ load:π

with and without freewheeling diode
3 3 +α
2π −π
3 +α
If α ≥ 30◦ and half-wave rectier the output voltage is zero, then the term
123
( + α) must be equal (90◦ )
π
3
Z 90◦ √
3
Vd = 2 ∗ 220 cos wtdwt = 74 V olts
2π 30◦
Ifα ≥ 30◦ , the same result will obtained for Df or without Df .

Vd 74
Id = = = 7.4A
RL 10
" Z π3 +α √ # 21
1 2V cos wt 2
Iph(rms) = ( ) dwt
2π − π3 +α RL
"Z ◦ # 21
90
220
=√ (1 + cos 2wt)dwt
2π ∗ 10 30◦
hπ π i 12
= 8.77 − − 0.433 = 6.87A
2 6
Id2 RL (7.4)2
η= 2 = = 38.7%
3Iph(rms)RL 3(6.87)2
5.17 Post-test:
1. A three phase, half-wave controlled-rectier has a supply of (150) V/phase.
◦
Determine the mean load voltage at (30 ) delay angle, in case of continuous
load current.
2. Drive a general expression for the mean load voltage of an m phase, fully
controlled rectier.
◦
3. A three phase, fully-controlled, half-wave rectier with delay angle (30 ),
is connected to 220V/phase supply. The load is (10) Ω resistance, calculate
the r.m.s. current per phase.
4. Drive an expressions of average output voltage of three phase, half-wave
fully-controlled rectier with and without freewheeling diode for both re-
sistive and resistive-inductive loads.
5. In case of fully-controlled rectier, half-wave and three phase, if the phase
voltage is (220)V, and the back e.m.f. (100)V is connected in series with
the load, nd the minimum value of delay angle.
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-a, 3-b , 4-d , 5-b
B- Post-test
1. Due to the continuous conduction, the average load voltage is given
as:
Z π3 +α
3
2π − π3 +α
√
3 3V(m)ph
Vd = cos(α)
√ 2π√
3 ∗ 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 150 ∗ 0.866
= = 155V
2π
2. For m phase fully-controlled rectier
124
a-) in case of half-wave:
Z π3 +α
m
Vd = Vm/ph cos(θ)dθ
2π − π3 +α
mV(m)ph π
Vd = ∗ sin( ) ∗ cos(α)
π m
b-) in case of full-wave rectier:

2mV(m)ph π
Vd = ∗ sin( ) ∗ cos(α)
π m
3. Solution:
" Z π3 +α # 21
1 Vm(ph) cos(θ) 2
Iph(rms) = ( ) dθ
2π − π3 +α RL
" Z ◦ # 12
2 ∗ (220)2 90 [1 + cos(2θ)]
= dθ
2π(100) −30◦ 2
1
22 sin(2θ) 90 2
=√ {θ + }−30
2π 2
1
22 π π 0.866 2
=√ +0+ +
2π 2 6 2
≈ 11.4A
4. Solution:
Vs = Vm(ph) cosθ
i- inductive load without Df :

π
3 +α
Z
m
Vd = Vm(ph) cos(θ)dθ
2π −π
3 +α
ii- inductive load with Df :

Z 90◦
m
2π −π
3 +α
iii- Resistive load

π
α ≤ 30◦ :
3 +α
Z
m
2π −π
3 +α
iv- Resistive load α > 30◦ :

Z 90◦
m
2π −π
3 +α
5. Solution:
Vm (ph)cos(α) = Eb
125
√
2 ∗ 220 ∗ cos(α) = 100
√
cos(α) = 100/ 2 ∗ 220 = 0.32
α = cos−1 (0.32) = 71◦
Where (α) is measured from zero crossing but is accounted from the
crossing of the phase voltage, as shown in Figure 5.26.
∴ αmin = 71◦ − 30◦ = 41◦
Figure 5.26: Voltage Waveforms for Question 5, Post-test.
5.18 Pre-test
1. Three phase, bridge controlled rectier consist of:
a) Two thyristors b) 4-thyristors
c) Six thyristors d) Six diodes

◦
2. If the angle of delay is greater than (60 ) in the full-wave bridge three
phase controlled rectier, the output voltage is:
a) Maximum b) Minimum
c) Zero d) Positive
3. If three thyristor are replaced by 3-diode in a three phase bridge rectier,

then the rectier is called:
a) Controlled rectier b) Half-controlled rectier
c) Uncontrolled rectier
4. In case of positive load and three phase, bridge rectier, the average output
voltage is given as:
√ √
3Vm(line) 3 3Vm(ph)
a)
π b)
π cos(α)
√ √
3 3Vm(ph) 3 6Vm(L)
c)
2π d)
2π cos(α)
5. In case of inductive-load, three phase, bridge, controlled rectier, the av-
erage output voltage is zero at delay angle equal to:
a) 30◦ b) 60◦ c) 90◦ d) 135◦
126
5.19 Fully-controlled Full-wave Three phase Bridge Rec-
tier
The three phase circuit give the best utilization of the rectier transformer.
Hence the most common used circuit in poly phase rectier is the three phase
rectier. The simple three phase half wave rectier circuit suers from the defect
that it causes unidirectional currents to ow in the secondary windings on the
transformer supplying it. If they are star connected, the transformer core gets
saturated. One way to avoid this is to reconnect the transformer secondaries in
a Zig-Zag manner as shown in Figure 5.27.
Figure 5.27: Zigzag Transformer.
Since the output current of each phase ow in opposite directions in its two
halves during each cycle, the d.c. magnetization of each limb of the core is
zero and three is no saturation. A similar eect is achieved if the rectiers
elements are connected in a bridge formation shown in Figure 5.28 below. This
circuit may looked upon as consisting of two three phase half wave circuits; one
consisting of thyristorsT1 , T3 and T5 feeding positive half phase voltages to the
load, and the others consisting of T2 , T4 and T6 feeding negative half voltages at
any particular instant, the most positively biased thyristor of the rst group and
the most negatively of the second group conduct simultaneously. The magnitude
√
of the voltage across the load can easily be seen to be equal 3 times the phase
voltage.
From the previous gure, it is seen to have an output equivalent to that of
6 phase, half-wave rectier with a 6th harmonic ripple. The average output
voltage is given as:
√
3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = 2 ∗ cos(α) α ≤ 60◦ with resistive load
2π
√
3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = cos(α) volts α ≤ 60◦ with resistive load
π
Or
127
(H)
Figure 5.28: Circuit Diagram of Three Phase Bridge Controlled Rectier and
Output Waveforms.
128
√
3 3VLm
Vd = cos(α)
π
◦
α ≤ 60 with resistive load or inductive load with Df
W here
VLm = maximum line voltage.
√
VLm = 3Vm(ph)
The eect of increasing number of phases are as follow:
i- The output voltage increases.

ii- The ripple content reduces.
iii- The frequency of ripple increases and it is easier to lter.
iv- The eciency increases.
The disadvantage is:

The transformer connections, the trigger and control circuitry become more
complicated, thereby increasing the cost of the equipment.
(b) α = 90◦ Resistive Load.

(a) α = 45◦ Resistive Load.
Figure 5.29: The Output Voltage Of a Fully Controlled Bridge.
Figure 5.29 shows the output voltage of a fully controlled bridge rectier for
two dierent ring angles (α = 45◦ and α = 90◦ ). If a freewheeling diode
is used across the inductive load, this waveform remains unaltered for delay
angles up to 60◦ . If the load is purely resistive, conduction stops as soon as
the voltage applied to the load becomes zero. If it is not desired to reverse the
ow of power, three of the thyristors can be replaced by diodes to give a half
controlled bridge. Figure 5.30 shows the triggering pulses timing diagram and
the input and output voltage waveforms in case of three phase bridge , full-
◦
wave fully controlled rectier at delay angle (75 ) and resistive load . It can be
◦
shown that when (α) is greater than (60 ) in three phase bridge rectier the
output voltage become zero in a resistive load or in case of inductive load and
freewheeling diode.
129
Figure 5.30: Triggering Pulses and Output Voltage Waveform α = 75◦ , Resistive
Load.
Example 5-13:
A three phase, full-wave, fully-controlled bridge rectier to three phase supply,
50Hz and 220V/phase. Calculate the average load current when the load resis-
◦
tance is (10)Ω and the delay angle is (30 ).
Solution
√
3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = cos(α)
√ √ π
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220
= 0.866 = 445.8V
π
Id = Vd /RL = 445.8/100 = 4.46A
Example 5-14:
Drive an expression to calculate the average output voltage in case of three
phase Bridge, half-controlled rectier.
Solution
The average output voltage is the sum of two components, one is the average
voltage of three phase, half-wave, controlled rectier and the other is the average
voltage of three phase, half-wave, uncontrolled rectier.
√ √
3 3Vm(ph) 3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = cos(α) +
2π 2π
√
3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = [1 + cos(α)] three phase bridge half controlled
2π
5.20 Post-test
1. A resistive load supplied from full-wave bridge fully-controlled rectier
with three phase supply. If the phase voltage is (230) V, calculate the
average load voltage for α = 30◦ and α = 90◦ .
2. In a question (1) above, if the rectier is half-controlled, nd the average
130
output voltage at α = 30◦ .
3. Three phase, half-controlled, bridge-rectier, fed from (400) V line voltage,
delta-connected secondary of transformer. Draw the circuit diagram and
calculate the triggering angle when the average load voltage is (600) Volts.
4. A three phase, bridge, uncontrolled rectier, supplies a D.C. load of (300)
V from a transformer. Determine the diode rating.
5. A three phase, full-wave, bridge, fully-controlled rectier is connected to
three phase supply, 220V per phase with highly inductive load. Calculate
◦ ◦
the average output voltage at (30 ) and (30 ) delay angle with and without
freewheeling diode Df .
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-c, 2-c, 3-b, 4-b, 5-c
B- Post-test
1. Solution
Z π6 +α
1
α = 30◦ Vd = Vm(line) cos(wt)dwt
π − π6 +α
√
3 3Vm(ph)
= cos(α)
√ π√
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 230
= 0.866 = 466V
π
α = 90 ; due to the resistive load the output voltage is zero at α = 60◦
◦
√ √
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 230
Vd = ∗ cos(60) = 269V
π
2. Solution
√ √
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 230
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
π
◦
= 269[1 + cos(30 )] = 502 V olts
3. Solution
131
√ √
3 3 ∗ 2Vrms/ph
Vd = [1 + cos(α)]
2π
600 = 468[1 + cos(α)]
132 = 468cos(α)
cos(α) = 0.282 ∴ α = cos−1 (0.282) = 73.6◦
4. Solution
3Vm(ph) 3Vm(line)
Vd = =
pi π
3 ∗ Vm(line)
300 =
π
300π
Vm(line) = = 314V
3
5. Solution
α = 30◦
√
3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = cos(α)
2π
◦
α ≤ 60 with or without f reewheeling diode.
√ √
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220
= 0.866 = 445.8V
π
◦
α = 90 without f reewhieeling diode Vd = 0
α = 90◦ with f reewhieeling diode :
√ √
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220
Vd = cos(60◦ )
π
= 257.4V
5.21 Pre-test
1. The main factor leads to the overlap angle to appear is:
132
a) delay angle. b) number of phase.
c) the supply frequency. d) transformer leakage inductance.
2. The reduction voltage due to the overlap in single phase bridge is greater
than that of single phase center-lap transformer by:
a) double. b) triple.
c) half. d) 3-half.
3. The formula of the reduction voltage due to the overlap in single phase
bridge is given as:
2Id XL Id XL
a) . b)
π π .
4Id XL Id XL
c) . d)
π 2π .
4. The reduction voltage due to the overlap in three phase controlled rectier
is the same as that of three phase:
a) uncontrolled. b) half-controlled.
c) fully-controlled.
5. The reduction voltage due to the overlap in three phase rectier is given
as (half-wave):
6Id XL Id XL
a)
4π . b)
π .
2Id XL Id XL
c) . d)
π 4π .
5.22 Overlap in Single Phase Full-wave Circuits

In the single phase circuit, if the current is discontinuous, there is no question
of over lap since in this case the current in one thyristor reduces to zero before
the second thyristor starts to conduct. But whenever the output current is
continuous, it takes a denite time interval for the current to transfer from one
conduction device to the other and in this duration their currents overlap.
Figure 5.32: Single Phase Full-wave Circuits and Waveforms.
133
For mid-point single phase rectier the reduction in voltage due to over lap is
obtained by substitute m=2 in the expression for poly phase , and for bridge-
single phase rectier the reduction in voltage is double than that of mid-point
as: " #
−1 wI(L1 + L2 )
u = cos cosα − √ − α f or both mid − point and bridge.
2 2V sin π2
Vreduction = Vd − Vdu = Id w(L1 + L2 )/2π f or mid − point rectif ier.
Vreduction = Vd − Vdu = Id w(L1 + L2 )/π f or bridge rectif ier.
5.23 Overlap in Controlled Three Phase Rectier

The analysis is carried out in a similar manner to the uncontrolled rectiers.
The origin is assumed to be at the intersection of the phase voltage waveforms
of two phases (a & b) or (b & c) or (c & a), as shown in Figure 5.33.
Figure 5.33: Over-lap Phenomenon in Controlled Rectiers.
During the overlap period between phase (a) and (b), the voltage across the load
Va +Vb
is: VL = 2 which is the average voltage of the two phase. The reduction
3Id (2W L)
voltage due to the overlap can be found (in half-wave) as:VL =
4π = 6I4π
d XL
which is the same as for uncontrolled rectiers. The overlap angle (u) can be
calculated as:
" #
−1 2Id XL
u = cos cos(α) − −α
2Vm(ph)∗sin( π3 )
In case of uncontrolled three phase rectier the angle (α) is zero and the overlap
angle becomes:
" #
−1 Id XL
u = cos 1−
Vm(ph)∗sin( π3 )
If the overlap angle increases further, it is possible to have more number of
134
phases conducting simultaneously and its leads to heavy short circuit occurs.
The reduction voltage due to over-lap is given as:
mId ∗2∗XL
Vr = 4π ;
m=2 in single phase center-tap
m=4 in single phase bridge rectier
m=3 in three phase half-wave rectier
m=6 in three phase bridge or full-wave rectier
Example 5-15: A three phase, full-wave, bridge, controlled rectier is con-

nected to three phase supply, (50)Hz and 220V/phase. The load is highly induc-
◦
tive with (10)A load current at (30 ) delay angle .When the leakage inductance
of the transformer secondary per phase is (0.02)H, calculate :
a) The reduction voltage due to the overlap.
b) The overlap angle .
c) The average output voltage.
Solution:
a) Vr = mId ∗2∗X
4π
L
XL = 2πf L = 314 ∗ 0.02 = 6.28Ω

The reduction voltage due to the overlap in three phase bridge rectier is
2∗3∗10∗2∗6.28
double of that in case of half wave rectier: Vr = 4π = 60V
b)
" #
−1 Id XL
Vm(ph)∗sin( π3 )
" √ #
−1 10 ∗ 6.28 ∗ 2
= cos 0.866 − √ − 30◦
3 ∗ 220
= cos−1 [0.866 − 0.233] − 30◦
= 50.7 − 30 = 20.7◦
c)
√
3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = cos(α)
√ π√
3 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220
Vd = 0.866 = 445.8V
π
Example 5-16: A three phase, full-wave, bridge, half-controlled rectier is

connected to 220V/phase, 50Hz. The load is highly inductive with (10)A load
◦
current at (30 ) delay angle. The transformer secondary leakage inductance is
(0.02) H per phase, calculate:
a) The reduction voltage due to the overlap.
b) The overlap angle of thyristors and diodes.
c) The net average output voltage.
Solution:
d ∗2∗XL
a) Vr = 2∗m∗I4π
XL = 2πf L = 6.28Ω
Vr = 2∗3∗10∗2∗6.28
4π = 60V
135
b) For thyristors:
" √ #
−1 Id XL ∗ 2
VL(r.m.s)
" √ #
−1 10 ∗ 6.28 ∗ 2
= cos 0.866 − √ − 30◦ = 20.7◦
3 ∗ 220
For Diodes::
" √ #
−1 Id XL ∗ 2
u = cos 1− = cos−1 [1 − 0.233] = 40◦
VL(r.m.s)
c)
√
3 3Vm(ph)
Vd = [1 + cos(α)] = 480V
2π
Vdu = Vd − Vr = 480 − 60 = 420V
Example 5-17: A single phase, bridge, fully-controlled rectier is supplied

from 240V, 50Hz primary winding with turns ratio 2:1 and The transformer
secondary is earthed at the center. The load current is (10)A at (30◦) delay
angle. If the secondary leakage inductance is (0.04)H, calculate the overlap
angle and the net average output voltage, for continuous conduction case.
Solution:
for each half of secondary L=0.04/2=.02H,XL = 6.28Ω for each half.

−1 Id XL ∗ 2
2 ∗ Vm ∗ sin( π2)
2 ∗ 10 ∗ 6.28
u = cos−1 0.866 − √ − 30◦ = 52.7◦
2 ∗ √2 ∗ 60 ∗ 1
2Vm cos(α) 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 120 ∗ 0.866
Vd = = = 93.6V
π π
mId (2XL ) 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 10 ∗ 6.28 ∗ 2
Vr = = = 40V
4π 4π
Vdu = Vd − Vr = 93.6 − 40 = 53.6V
Note : In case of secondary center-tap or bridge with secondary-center earthed,

then XL and Vrms are halved.
5.24 Post-test
1. A three phase fully-controlled half-wave rectier is connected to 220V/phase,
50Hz, three phase supply. The load is highly inductive with (44.5)A aver-
◦
age load current at (30 ) ring angle. Find the r.m.s current per phase, the
overlap angle and the reduction in the load voltage when the transformer
secondary leakage inductance (0.02) H
2. A single phase, center-tap, fully-controlled rectier is supplied from (240)
V, 50Hz primary winding with turns ratio (2:1) and the load current is
◦
(10)A at (30 ) delay angle. If the secondary winding has (0.04) H leakage
inductance, calculate the overlap angle and net average output voltage
assuming a continuous conduction operation.
◦
3. A three phase bridge, half-controlled rectier, with triggering angle (60 )
connected to a transformer of secondary voltage (220) V/phase at (50)
136
Hz and (0.01) Henery leakage inductance per phase . The load is highly
inductive with (38.6)A load current. Find the reduction voltage due to
overlap and the net average output voltage.
4. A three phase, fully-controlled, bridge rectier is supplied from 220V/phase,
◦
50Hz, three phase supply with delay angle (30 ). If the leakage inductance
per phase of the secondary transformer is (0.01) Henry and the net average
output voltage is (350) V, calculate the overlap angle.
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-d, 2-a, 3-a, 4-a, 5-a
B- Post-test
1) Solution:
Id
Ir.m.s = √ f or highly inductive load
3 √
Ir.m.s = 44.5/ 3 = 26A
" #
−1 Id XL ∗ 2
u = cos cos(α) − √ −α
2 ∗ 2 ∗ Vph(rms) ∗ sin( π3 )
" √ #
−1 44.5 ∗ 6.28 ∗ 2
u = cos 0.866 − √ − 30◦
220 ∗ 3
u = 100◦ − 30◦ = 70◦
2) Solution:
2πf L 314 ∗ 0.04
XL/ph = = = 6.28Ω
"2 2 #
−1 Id XL ∗ 2
u = cos cos(α) − √ −α
2 ∗ 2 ∗ Vph(rms) ∗ sin( π2 )

10 ∗ 6.28 ∗ 2
u = cos−1 0.866 − √ − 30◦
2 ∗ 2 ∗ 60 ∗ 1
u = 82.7◦ − 30◦ = 52.7◦
Id XL 2 ∗ 10 ∗ 6.28
Vr = m = = 20V
4π 4π
m = 2 f or single phase, center − tap transf ormer
1 π+α
Z
Vd = Vm(ph) sin(wt)dwt
√π α
2 ∗ 60 210◦
= [−cos(wt)]30◦ = 46.8V
π
Vdu = Vd − Vr = 46.8 − 20 = 26.8V
137
3) Solution:
Id = 38.6A , XL = 2πf L = 2π ∗ 50 ∗ 0.01 = 3.14

−1 Id ∗ 2 ∗ XL
u = cos 1− f or set of diodes in the negative half − cycle
2 ∗ Vph(rms) ∗ sin( π3 )
38.6 ∗ 2 ∗ 3.14
u = cos−1 1 − √
2 ∗ 2 ∗ 220 ∗ 0.866
u = cos−1 [0.55] = 56.6◦
−1 Id ∗ 2 ∗ XL
u = cos 1− − α f or the set of thyristors
2 ∗ Vph(rms) ∗ sin( π3 )
38.6 ∗ 2 ∗ 3.14
= cos−1 0.5 − √ − 60◦
2 ∗ 2 ∗ 220 ∗ 0.866
u = 87◦ − 60◦ = 27◦ f or the positive − half cycle of thyristors
√
3 3V m(ph)
Vd = ∗ [1 + cos(α)] = 386V
2π
2 ∗ m ∗ Id ∗ XL
Vr =
4π
12 ∗ 38.6 ∗ 3.14
=
4π
= 116V
Vdu = Vd − Vr = 386 − 116 = 270V
4) Solution:
√
3 3V m(ph)
Vd = cosα
√ π√
3 ∗ 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 220 ∗ 0.866
= = 445.8V
π
Vr = Vd − Vdu = 445.8 − 350 = 95.8V
m ∗ Id ∗ 2 ∗ Xl
Vr = 2 ∗
4π
m = 3, XL = 2πf L = 3.14Ω
2 ∗ 3 ∗ Id ∗ 2 ∗ 3.14
95.8 =
4π
95.8
Id = = 32A
3.14 " #
−1 Id ∗ 2 ∗ XL
u = cos cosα − √ −α
2 ∗ 2 ∗ Vph(rms) ∗ sin( π3 )

32 ∗ 2 ∗ 3.14
u = cos−1 0.866 − √ − 30◦
2 ∗ 2 ∗ 220 ∗ 0.866
u = cos−1 [0.866 − 0.37] − 30◦
u = 60.5◦ − 30◦ = 30.5◦ overlap angle.
138
Chapter 6
D.C. to D.C. Converters (D.C. chopper)
A D.C. chopper is a device to convert D.C. from one voltage to another. The
output voltage is made controllable so that it gives a variable output voltage
for a xed input voltage. The principle of operation of a chopper is very simple.
The direct voltage is applied to the load through a switch (S). When the switch
is closed, the voltage is applied to the load, and when it is open, no voltage
is applied to the load. By controlling the time t1 for which the switch (S) is
kept 'ON' with respect to the time t2 for which it remains 'OFF', the average
value of the output voltage may be controlled. This leads to many methods of
controlling the output voltage.
6.1 Pre-test
1. The D.C. chopper is called:
a) Rectier. b) Diode.
c) D.C. transformer. d) A.C. regulator.
2. The average output voltage of the step-down chopper is given as

tof f
a) Vs T b) Vs tTon
c)
T
Vs tof f
d) Vs tTon
3. The average output voltage of the step-up D.C. chopper is given as
T
a) Vs tof f
b) Vs tTon
tof f
c) Vs tTon d) Vs T
4. The duty factor of the D.C. chopper is given as :
tof f ton
a) b)
T T
T T
c) d)
ton tof f
5. Four-quadrant operation of D.C. chopper requires a circuit similar to:
a) Single phase series inverter.
b) Single phase parallel inverter.
c) Single phase half-wave inverter.
d) Single phase bridge inverter.
139
6.2 DC/DC Converter (DC chopper)
The D.C. chopper, also known as D.C. transformer, converts a constant D.C.
voltage into a variable D.C. voltage. Like the A.C. transformer, if the output
voltage is less than the input voltage, the chopper is known as a step-down
chopper; otherwise, it is known as step-up chopper. The chopper is suitable to
supply D.C. motor armature circuits or eld excitation circuits to obtain variable
speed drive. Also it is used to supply a series-excited D.C. motor employed for
traction purposes.
Principle of Operation
The operation principle is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Principles of DC-DC Converter.
The chopper is simply an electronic switch connected between the input D.C.
supply and the output load. By closing and opening the switch, the output
voltage will be either equal to the input voltage or zero. Thus, by suitably con-
trolling the ON and OFF periods, it will be possible to vary the output from
zero to maximum, which is the input D.C. supply voltage.
Let tON =ON-period

tOF F = OFF-period of one cycle (ON and OFF periods).
Fc = 1/T chopping frequency (Hz)
γ = tON /T duty factor
Vo = Vs tON
T average output voltage
It is seen that the average output voltage can be controlled by:
i- Varying (tON ) and the method is called pulse width control method.
ii- Making (tON ) constant and varying (T), the method is known as frequency
control method.
6.3 Typical Commutation Circuit of D.C. Chopper

Figure 6.2 shows two typical commutation circuits which are used in the D.C.
chopper circuit. The thyristor (T Hm ) is the main thyristor through which the
ow of power is controlled, it acts as a switch in the previous gure. In Figure
6.2 (a), the capacitor (c) and the four thyristors (T H1 , T H2 , T H3 , T H4 ) are the
commutation circuit is to switch-OFF the main thyristor at the end of each ON-
period. The Li − Ci circuit in the input terminals is a lter circuit that reduces
the harmonics injected into the power source. The inductor in the output is
also a lter that smooths the current passing through the load. The diode Df
140
is a freewheeling diode; its function is to circulate the D.C. current through it
when the main thyristor is OFF. Figure 6.2 (b) shows another typical circuit,
it diers from the rst circuit by the commutation method, which is based on a
resonance; Li − Ci = input lter, L=output lter (smoothing inductor). Figure
6.2 shows a typical commutation circuit of D.C. chopper.
Figure 6.2: Typical Commutaion Circuit Of D.C. Chopper.
6.4 Chopper Types

The chopper can be classied in terms of the operation range as:
A- First quadrant operation ( 90◦ operation range):
The following circuit in Figure 6.3 shows the basic circuit of a chopper
that operates in the rst quadrant ( 90◦ range). This circuit consists of
the thyristor and freewheeling diode due to the resistive-inductive load,
and the commutation circuit is not shown.
◦
Figure 6.3: First Quadrant Operation (90 Operation Range).
When the thyristor is switched-ON or conducting the supply voltage will

be applied across the load, but when the thyristor commutated, the load
voltage becomes zero because the freewheeling diode becomes forward bi-
asing. The load currents still a unidirectional and the polarity of the load
voltage will not change. In case of resistive load the load voltage and cur-
rent waveforms will be similar and the freewheeling diode is not required.
141
In case of inductive load the waveforms of voltage and current are not
similar, and the load current may be discontinuous in case of low induc-
tive load and continuous in a highly inductive load. Figure 6.4 shows the
output voltage and current waveforms for the two cases continuous and
discontinuous conduction.
Figure 6.4: Discharge Operation: Current and Voltage Waveforms (Discontinu-

ous Conduction).
B- Two-quadrant operation ( 180◦ operation range):

Figure 6.5 below shows a circuit diagram of a D.C. chopper operating in
the rst and second quadrant. The polarity of the load voltage will not
change while the load current direction is either positive or negative. For
positive direction of load current the thyristor T H1 and the diode D1 will
operate while for negative direction of load current and for return the
stored energy in the load to the supply, thyristor T H2 and diode D2 must
be operated as step-up chopper .
142
Figure 6.5: Two-quadrant Operation ( 180◦ Operation Range).
◦
C- Four-quadrant operation (360 operation range). The circuit diagram in
Figure 6.6 shows a chopper operates in four-quadrant. In this circuit
the load voltage and current may be positive or negative. This circuit is
similar to the single phase bridge inverter. The regenerative process can
be occurred.
◦
Figure 6.6: Four-quadrant Operation (360 Operation Range).
6.5 Analysis of Output Waveform

6.5.1 Resistive Load
The output voltage waveform is shown in Figure 6.7, for the case of resistive load
and back e.m.f. Assume that the turn-OFF time of the thyristor is very small
compared with the total period of one cycle.
143
tON
Vd = Vs ∗
T
Vd = γVs
Vd − Vb
Id =
RL
if there is no back e.m.f
Vd
Id =
RL
Figure 6.7: The Output Volt-

age Waveform for the Case
of Resistive Load and Back
e.m.f.
6.5.2 Resistive-inductive Load with Baack e.m.f.

If the load is inductive with back e.m.f., the general dierentional equation
governing the load circuit is given as:
diL
V◦ = IL ∗ RL + L + Vb
dt
For discontinuous conduction: the solution of the general equation during the
thyristor conduction is:
Vs − Vb
iL (t) = [1 − e−t/τ ]
R
τ = L/R (second) time constant of the load circuit.
The load current iL (t) becomes maximum at the time tON :

Vs − Vb
iL (t) = Imax = [1 − e−tON /τ ]
R
For continuous conduction: the solution of the equation becomes:

Vs − Vb
IL (t) = (1 − e−t/τ ) + Imin e−t/τ
RL
At time t = tON , iL (t) = Imax
Vs − Vb
Imax = [1 − e−tON /τ ] + Imin e−tON /τ
RL
During the thyristor commutation the load voltage dies down to zero due to the
freewheeling diode and the load current becomes minimum, so:
Vb
iL (t) = Imin = − (1 − e−(T −tON )/τ ) + Imax e−(T −tON )/τ
RL
Then solve the two equations for Imax and Imin to produce:
Vs 1 − e−tON /τ Vb
Imax = ( )−
RL 1 − e−T /τ RL
Vs etON /τ − 1 Vb
Imin = ( T /τ )−
RL e −1 RL
144
For continuous conduction of the thyristor the time tON becomes equal (T)
then:
Vs − Vb
Imin =
R
Example 6-1: A D.C. chopper operates at ( 90◦ ) range, fed from (60)V D.C.
supply. The output voltage waveform consists of number of rectangular pulses,
each has (2) ms width in overall (5)ms period of one cycle. Draw the output
voltage waveform and calculate the average voltage.
Solution:
Vd = Vs ∗ γ
tON 2
= Vs ∗ = 60 ∗
T 5
= 24V
Figure 6.8: Ouput Waveform

Of Example 6-1.
Example 6-2: A D.C. chopper fed from (60) V D.C. supply .The load con-
sists of (5)Ω resistance in series with (10) mH inductance without back e.m.f..
Calculate the maximum and minimum load current when the ON-period is (2)
msec. in (5)msec. period of one cycle.
Solution:
tON = 2mSec, T = 5 mSec, τ = L/R, τ = 2 mSec
Vs 1 − e−tON /τ
Imax = [ ]
R 1 − eT /τ
−1
60 1 − e
= [ ] = 8.25A
5 1 − e−2.5
tON /τ
Vs e −1
Imin = [ ]
R eT /τ − 1
1
60 e − 1
= [ ] = 1.84A
5 e2.5 − 1
Example 6-3: An ideal D.C. chopper fed from (60) V D.C. supply. The chop-
per frequency is (200) Hz and the ON-period is (2) msec. The chopper supplies a
load of (5)Ω in series with (10) mH inductance and (11) V back e.m.f., Calculate
0
the time interval (t ) when the chopper operates in a discontinuous conduction
state.
Solution:
tON = 2 ∗ 10−3 sec.
τ = L/R = 2 ∗ 10−3 sec.
Imin = 0 f or discontinuous conduction.
Imin = 0 = [ T /τ ]−
R e −1 R
60 e1 − 1 11
0= [ ]−
5 0 e(tON +t0 )/τ − 1 5
e(tON +t )/τ = 9.37
145
(tON + t0 )/τ = ln(9.37) = 2.34
tON + t0 = τ ∗ (2.34) = 2 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 2.34 = 4.68 ∗ 10−3
t0 = 4.68 ∗ 10−3 − 2 ∗ 10−3 = 2.68 ∗ 10−3
= 2.68 mSec.
6.6 Parallel Capacitor-saturable Core Inductor Commu-

tation D.C. Chopper (Morgan Circuit)
The circuit is shown in Figure 6.9 below. The capacitor is initially charged
with dot positive.When thyristor (TH) is red, the capacitor starts discharging
around and saturable inductor (L).
Figure 6.9: Morgan Circuit Chopper.
If the inductor core is initially saturated in the reverse direction from the pre-
vious cycle, it quickly comes out of saturation and its inductance assumes high
value. The capacitor, therefore, discharges at a slow rate. After a certain delay,
the core again driven into saturation (in the forward direction), the inductance
reduces and the resonance process is accelerated. When the charge across the
capacitance reverse, the core again comes out of saturation, and after another
period of delay it goes into reverse saturation. Introducing the saturable reactor
in this circuit increases the ON-period of the thyristor, and in order to vary the
output voltage, the time period (T) must vary. The diode (D) may be used to
provide a path for the discharge of resonant capacitor current in excess of the
load current.
6.7 Step-up Chopper

For stepping-up the output voltage, the step-down circuit of the D.C. chopper
can be modied in a slight form as shown in Figure 6.10 below.
146
Figure 6.10: Step-up Chopper Circuit.
TH ) is (ON), and
(L) is an inductance which stores energy when the thyristor (
transfer this energy to the load when ( TH ) is OFF. It acts as a reservoir of
energy and is assumed to be suciently large to maintain the current through
it constant. Capacitor (C) smooths the output voltage. The diode (D) prevents
the capacitor from discharging through the chopper circuit and helps the ca-
pacitor in retaining a higher voltage than the supply. Assuming that the load
current is (Id ) and the output voltage remain constant.
Example 6-4: A step-up, D.C. chopper circuit is used to control the speed of
D.C. Motor in shunted connected winding. If the supply voltage is (24) V and
the OFF-period is (150)µsec at 4kHz chopping frequency , calculate the average
load voltage.
Solution:
1
Vd = Vs
(1 − γ)
1 1
T = = = 0.25 ∗ 10−3 sec
f 4 ∗ 103
tON = T − tOF F = 0.25 ∗ 10−3 − 0.15 ∗ 10−3 = 0.1 ∗ 10−3 sec
γ = tON /T = 0.1/0.25 = 0.4
1 24
Vd = 24 ∗ = = 40V
(1 − 0.4) 0.6
Example 6-5: An ideal D.C. chopper, fed from (60)V D.C. supply. The output
voltage has pulses with 2 mSec. ON-period in 5 mSec period of one-cycle. The
load has resistance (5)Ω in series with (10) mH inductance and (5) V back e.m.f.
Determine the maximum and minimum load currents.
Solution:
τ = L/R = 10 ∗ 10 ∗ −3/5 = 2 ∗ 10−3 sec.
Vs 1 − e−tON /τ Vb 5
Imax = [ ]− = 8.25 − = 7.25 A
R 1 − e−T /τ R 5
Vs etON /τ − 1 Vb 5
Imin = [ ]− = 1.84 − = 0.84 A
R eT /τ − 1 R 5
147
6.8 Multi Phase Chopper
In this case two or more sequentially switched choppers are used to supply the
same load; normally D.C. motor. In a single phase chopper (Figure 6.11a below),
when the motor operates at a low speed, the chopper is (ON) for a short period
as compared to the time of one-cycle. A large current is taken from the source
during this ON-time. This high current has a large r.m.s to the average current
ratio, which means that, for a certain output the losses are more and eciency
is less. A method to overcome of this problem is to permit two current pulses
by a two phase chopper as shown in Figure 6.11b below. But increasing the
number of chopper phases leads to increasing the cost. Instead of multiphase
operation, it is possible to use one of the following alternatives:
i- R-C ltering.
ii- Source voltage switching. If a number of batteries are used as a D.C.
sources, they may be switched in series or parallel with a view to improve
their.
(a) Single Phase Chopper.

(b) Two Phase Chopper.
Figure 6.11: Multi Phase Chopper Circuit.
6.9 Factors Governing the Chopper Performance

The choice of chopper circuit for a particular application depends upon its suit-
ability, cost and performance. These criteria are in general governed by the
following factors:
1. Flexibility of control which depends upon whether the time period (T)
can be varied or both T as well as tON can be varied.
2. Range of output voltage; theoretically the output voltage can be varied
from zero up to supply voltage. In practice there is a certain minimum
time for which the thyristor must remain (ON). This limits the minimum
output voltage , as:
tON (min)
Vd(min) = Vs
T
T − tOF F (min)
Vd(max) = Vs [ ]
T
3. Chopping frequency; which depends upon the thyristor turn-OFF time,

which in turn depends upon the forward current and the reverse voltage
applied across it.
4. Eciency; the loss of the chopper circuit takes place in the thyristor,
freewheeling diodes and commutation circuit.
5. Rating of components; the main thyristor has to carry a current which
equals at least the load current. The ratings of the auxiliary thyristors and
148
other components are also important in deciding the cost of the chopper.
6. Dependence upon load; wherever the capacitance makes use of a charg-
ing path through the load, its charging current becomes load dependent
and this aect the OFF-time of the chopper.
7. Reliability of commutation; this is an important factor to ensure
proper functioning of the chopper.
6.10 Post-test
1. An ideal D.C. chopper supplies average power of (245) W to (5)Ω resistive
load from (70)V D.C. battery. Determine the chopper frequency if the
ON-period is (0.005) second.
2. An ideal D.C. chopper is operating at frequency of (500) Hz, supplies
a load of (3)Ω resistance in series with (9) mH inductance from (60)V
battery. Assuming the load is shunted by a perfect commutating diode,
determine the load current, load voltage and load power for an ON/OFF
period ratios:
a) 1/1. b) 4/1. c) 1/4.
3. A step-up chopper is used to charge a battery bank from (160) V D.C.

supply. The battery bank consists of (100) identical batteries, each battery
voltage are (2.5). When each battery is charged up to (3.2) V the charging
process is completed. The average charging current is constant at (0.5)A
. Calculate the variation of duty ratio (γ ) for the charging process.
4. An ideal step-down D.C. chopper supplies a load of 1 mH in series with
(0.25)Ω resistance and (11) V back e.m.f. The supply voltage is (110) V
and the ON-period is 1 mSec in overall period of (2.5) mSec. Calculate:
i-) minimum and maximum load current in continuous conduction state.
0
ii-) the time interval (t ) a discontinuous conduction state.
5. An ideal D.C. chopper fed from (60)V battery. The chopper frequency is
(200) Hz and the ON-period is (2) m.second. The chopper supplies a load
of (5)Ω resistance in series with (10) mH inductance and a back e.m.f. If
0
the chopper operates in a discontinuous conduction with time interval (t )
equal to (2) m.second. Calculate the back e.m.f and the average output
voltage

A- Pre-test
1-c, 2-d, 3-1, 4-b, 5-d
B- Post-test
1- Solution:
Pd = Id2 ∗ R
p p
Id = Pd /R = 245/5 = 7A
Vd = Id ∗ R = 7 ∗ 5 = 35V
Vd = Vs ∗ γ
γ = Vd /Vs = 35/70 = 1/2
tON
γ=
T
1 0.005
=
2 T
T = 2 ∗ 0.005 = 0.01 second
1 1
f= = = 100Hz
T 0.01
149
2- Solution:
T = 1/f = 1/500 = 0.002 sec
τ = L/R = 3 ∗ 10−3 sec
tON
Vd = Vs ∗
T
Id = Vd /R
a-)
T
ON/OF F ratio = 1/1 or tON = tOF F = = 0.001 sec
2
Imax = [ −T /τ
]− = 11.65 A
R 1−e R
Imin = [ T /τ ]− = 8.35 A
R e −1 R
1
Vd = 60 ∗ = 30V
2
Vd 30
Id = = = 10A
R 3
Pd = Vd ∗ Id = 30 ∗ 10 = 300W
b-)
4
tON /tOF F = 4/1 or tON = T = 0.0016 sec.
5
1
tOF F T = 0.0004 sec.
5
Imax = 17A , Imin = 14.9A , Vd = 48V , Id = Vd /R = 48/3 = 16A
Pd = Vd ∗ Id = 48 ∗ 16 = 786W
c-)
1
tON /tOF F = 1/4 or tON = T = 0.0004 sec.
5
4
tOF F T = 0.0016 sec.
5
Imax = 5.13A , Imin = 3.01A , Vd = 12V , Id = 4A
Pd = Vd ∗ Id = 12 ∗ 4 = 48W
3- Solution:
1 Vs
Vd = Vs ∗ or =1−γ
(1 − γ) Vd
Vs
∴γ =1− , Vs = 160V
Vd
At beginning of charged , Vd = 250V
160
γ =1− = 0.36
250
At the end of charged , Vd = 320V
160
γ =1− = 0.5
320
T he duty ratio(γ) will vary between 0.36 to 0.5
4- Solution:
Imax = [ ]− = 8.8A
R 1 − e−T /τ R
150
Imin = [ ]− = 0.33A
R eT /τ − 1 R
in case of discontinuous conduction :
etON /τ − 1 Vb
Imin = 0 = Vs /R[ T /τ ]−
e −1 R
solve this equation to obtain : tON + t0 = 2.14 sec.
t0 = 2.14 − tON = (2.14 − 1) ∗ 10−3 = 1.14 ∗ 10−3 sec = 1.14msec.
5- Solution:
γ = L/R = 10 ∗ 10−3 /5 = 2 ∗ 10−3 sec.
T = 1/f = 1/200 = 5 ∗ 10−3 sec.
tON + t0 = 2 ∗ 10−3 + 2 ∗ 10−3 = 4 ∗ 10−3 sec.
tON /τ = 1 , (tON /τ ) = 2
Imin = [ T /τ ]− =0
R e −1 R
1
60 e − 1 Vb
0= [ 2 ]−
5 e −1 5
1.718 Vb
0 = 12 ∗ −
6.39 5
Vb
= 3.22 ∴ Vb = 16.1V
5
tON 2
Vd = Vs ∗ = 60 ∗ = 24V
T 5
151
Chapter 7
A.C. Regulators (Controllers)
The turn-ON and OFF property of the thyristor can be used suitably to control
the A.C. power developed to the load by controlling the r.m.s. value of the
output voltage. The component used for this purpose is called A.C. voltage
regulator or A.C. to A.C. converter. The thyristor triggering in A.C. regulator
can be obtained by three methods:
i- Phase voltage control: The supply voltage is applied across the load every
half-cycle depending on the value of delay angle.
ii- Integral cycle control: The supply voltage is applied across the load for
a number of cycles and then disconnected for a number of cycles. In
both cases the eective value of output voltage will be reduced, and has a
number of harmonics. Also, the supply power factor will be reduced with
the reduction of output voltage.
iii- The line commutated cycloconverter consists of a number of phase-controlled
converter circuits connected to an A.C. supply system that provides the
voltage necessary for natural commutation. The individual circuits are
controlled so that a low-frequency output voltage waveform is fabricated
from segments of the polyphase input voltages.
7.1 Pre-test
1. A.C. regulator is a system used to convert :
a) A.C. to D.C. b) A.C. to A.C.
c) D.C. to D.C. d) D.C. to A.C.
2. A.C. regulator consists of two thyristor connected in :
a) series b) parallel
c) inverse-parallel d) compound
3. The eective output voltage of single phase A.C. regulator with resistive
load is given as :
a) V◦(r.m.s) = Vsupply(r.m.s)
Vm(ph)
b) V◦ = √
2
h i
Vm(ph) 1 sin(2α)
c) V◦ = √
2 π (π −α+ 2 )
Vm(ph) 1 1
d) V◦ = √
2 π (π − α + sin(2α) ∗ cos(α) 2
152
4. The r.m.s output voltage of single phase A.C. regulator with resistive-
inductive load is given as:
Vm(ph)
a) V◦(r.m.s) = √
2
Vm(ph)
b) V◦(r.m.s) = β

sin(2β)−sin(2α)
Vm(ph) β−α−
c) V◦ = √
2 π
2
12
sin(2β)−sin(2α)
Vm(ph)
d) V◦ = √
2
θ+ 2
π
5. In case of A.C. regulator with resistive-inductive load, the conduction must

be satised for ring succeed:
a) α<φ b) α≥φ
c) α>φ d) α<β
6. In case of A.C. regulator with integral-cycle control method the eective
q
Vm(ph) N
a) V◦(r.m.s) = √
2 T
q
π N
b) V◦(r.m.s) = √
2 T
q
Vm(ph) T
c) V◦(r.m.s) = √
2 N
d) V◦(r.m.s) = ( N
T )
2
7. The supply power factor in integral-cycle control method is given as:

q
R N
a) b)
Z T
q
Vaverage T
c) d)
V(r.m.s) N
8. The output voltage is equal in A.C. regulator with resistive load and with
resistive-inductive load when an extra component is added to the output.
This component is called:
a) equalizing resistance b) freewheeling diode
c) balancing inductor d) parallel capacitor
7.2 Single Phase A.C. Regulator

A- With resistive load: The turn-ON and OFF property of the thyristor
can be used suitably to control the A.C. power developed to the load by
controlling the r.m.s value of the output voltage. The device used for this
purpose is called A.C. regulator or A.C. to A.C. converter. The thyristor
triggering in A.C. regulator can be obtained by two methods:
i-) Phase voltage control; the supply voltage is applied across the load
every half-cycle depending on the value of delay angle.
153
ii-) Integral cycle control ; the supply voltage is applied across the load
for number (N) of cycles and then disconnected for a number (M)
of cycles in a number (T) of control cycle. In A.C. regulator there
is no D.C. component in the output voltage and to satisfy this, the
two thyristors are connected in inverse-parallel. The circuit is shown
in the Figure 7.1. The two thyristors operate alternatively by gate
pulses with duration (π ) between them. The input and output volt-
age waveforms are shown in Figure 7.2.
Figure 7.1: Single Phase A.C. Regulator with Resistive Load.
Figure 7.2: The Input and Output voltage Waveforms.
let the supply voltage is given as:

Vs = Vm(ph) sin wt
154
Z π,2π
1
Vd = Vm sin (wt) dwt = 0
2π α,π+α
The r.m.s voltage V◦(r.m.s) is given as:

Z π 21
1 2
V◦(r.m.s) = {Vm sin(wt)} dwt = 0
π α
1
Vm 1 sin(2α) 2
V◦(r.m.s) = √ {π − α + }
2 π 2
The r.m.s load current is given as:
V◦(r.m.s)
V◦(r.m.s) =
RL
Z 2π
a◦ 1
= V◦ dwt
2 2π 0
Z 2π
1
an = V◦ cos(nwt) dwt
π 0
Z 2π
1
bn = V◦ sin(nwt) dwt
π 0
The amplitude (Cn ) and the phase displacement (ψn ) of the harmon-
ics can
pbe calculated as:
Cn = a2n + b2n
bn
ψn = tan−1( )
an
The load voltage (V◦ ) can be calculated as a sum of harmonic com-

ponents as:
a◦
V◦ = + a1 cos(wt) + b1 sin(wt) + a2 cos(2wt) + b2 sin(2wt) + ...
2
∞
a◦ X
= + (an cos(nwt) + bn sin(nwt))
2 n=1
a◦
2 = 0 (In case of A.C. regulator there is no D.C. component in the
output voltage)
B- With resistive-inductive load Figure 7.3 shows the circuit diagram
and the output voltage and current waveforms of an A.C. regulator with
resistive-inductive load. Each thyristor conducts up to the extinction angle
(β ), which depends on the delay angle and the power factor angle (φ).
155
Figure 7.3: Diagram and the Output Voltage and Current Waveforms with
Resistive-inductive Load.
The r.m.s output voltage can be calculated as:

" # 12
Z β
1
V◦(r.m.s) = {Vm sin(wt)}2 dwt
π α
1
Vm 1 sin(2α) − sin(2β) 2
Or V◦(r.m.s) = √ {β − α + }
2 π 2
The instantaneous load current can be expressed as:
Vm Vm R
i◦ = sin(wt + α − φ) − sin(α − φ)e− L t
Z Z
Vm h R α
i
or i◦ = sin(wt − φ) − sin(α − φ)e L ( w −t)
Z
Vm
at α = φ and β = π + φ thenI◦(r.m.s) = √
2∗Z
−1 XL
q
2 2
Z = R + XL , φ = tan
R
If the triggering angle (α) is equal to the phase angle (φ) the conduc-
tion angle (θ ) equals (π ) and there is no transient component in the load
current.
C- Integral-cycle control of A.C. regulator
When a thyristor triggering is used to permit cycles of load current fol-
lowed by complete cycles of cut-OFF (extinction) the method is called
burst ring or integral cycle control. A typical cycle shown in Figure 7.4
consists of (N) conducting cycles in a total period of (T) supply cycles .
156
Figure 7.4: A Typical Cycle Consists Of (N) Conducting Cycles.
" N
# 21
Z 2π
1 T
V◦(r.m.s) = {Vm sin(T wt)}2 dwt
2π 0
r
Vm N
V◦(r.m.s) = √ (volts)
2 T
r
N
= Supply power f actor
T
T he r.m.s output power is given as :
2
V◦(r.m.s) V2 N
P◦(r.m.s) = = m ∗ watt
RL 2RL T
7.3 Another Circuits of Single Phase A.C. Regulator

Although the previous circuit is the basic circuit used in the switching processes
of single phase A.C. supply, there is another forms illustrated in Figures 7.5 (a,
b and c). The losses of circuit (c) are high due to there are four diodes in the
circuit.
157
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7.5: Another Forms Of Switching Processes For Single Phase A.C. Reg-
ulator.
Example 7-1:
in Figure 7.6 shown taking the load resistor as (10)Ω, the full transformer sec-
ondary voltage as (100)V, with tapping at (70.7)V. Plot the output voltage wave-
form and derive an expression of load power assuming thyristors (T H1 &T H2 )
◦
are red at angle (60 ) while thyristors (T H3 &T H4 ) are red at angle zero.
Figure 7.6: Circuit Diagram Of Example 7-1.
Solution:
The output waveforms are shown in Figure 7.7 below. The r.m.s load power is
given as:
2
V◦(r.m.s)
P◦(r.m.s) =
Z α RL
√ Z π √

1 2 2
= {70.7 ∗ 2 ∗ sin θ} dθ + {100 ∗ 2 ∗ sin θ} dθ
10π 0 α
158
− 250 ∗ sin(120◦ )}
{500 ∗ π
3
= 1000 −
π
523 − 216.5
= 1000 − = 902.4W
π
Figure 7.7: Output Waveforms Of Example 7-1.
Example 7-2:
A resistive load of (10)Ω is controlled by inverse-parallel connection of two
thyristors from (120) V, 50Hz, single phase supply. If the r.m.s load current
is (8)A, calculate:
a-) The triggering angle.

b-) The load r.m.s power.
c-) The supply power factor.
d-) The range of delay angle if the load is inductive with time constant
(1)mSec.
Solution:
a-)
" # 21
sin2α
Vm π − α + 2
V◦(r.m.s) = I◦(r.m.s) ∗ R = √
2 π
" # 12
π − α + sin2α
2
8 ∗ 10 = 80 = 120 ∗
π
by using trial and error method : α = 95◦
b-) P = V◦(r.m.s) ∗ I◦(r.m.s) = 80 ∗ 8 = 640 W
159
12
sin(2α)
π−α+
c-) Supply power factor=
π
2
= 0.67 at α = 95◦
−3
d-) φ = tan−1 wL
R = tan
−1 2π∗50∗10∗10
( 10 ) = 72◦ , 72◦ ≤ α ≤ 180◦
Example 7-3:
A (10)Ω resistance connected in series to uncontrolled bridge single phase rec-
tier. Then the bridge rectier is connected to single phase A.C. regulator fed
from Em sin(wt) supply voltage. Calculate the average power at α = 60◦ ,
Em = 430V and f = 50Hz .
Solution:
For A.C. regulator:
" # 21
Vm π − α + sin2α2
V◦(r.m.s) = √
2 π
2π 1
340 3 + 0.433 2
V◦(r.m.s) = √
2 π
= 216.3V
V◦(max) = 305V = maximum input voltage to the bridge rectif ier
1 π
Z
Em
Vd = Em sin θ dθ = (1 + cosα)
π α π
305
Vd = (1 + 1) U ncontrolled rectif ier
π
Vd = 194V
Pd = Vd2 /RL = (194)/50 = 754W
Example 7-4:
A pair of parallel-inverse thyristors are connected to control a resistive-inductive
load of (10)Ω in series with (10) mH inductance. Each thyristor conduct for (9)
◦
msec every cycle. If the delay angle (30 ) and the supply voltage is (400 sin
(314t)), calculate the cut-OFF angle and the load voltage and power.
Solution:
f = w/2π = 314/2π = 50Hz
T = 1/f = 1/50 = 0.02sec.
9
θ = conduction angle = ∗ 2π = 162◦ = 2.827 radian
20
β = θ + α = 162 + 30 = 192◦
" sin(2α)−sin(2β) 2
#1
Vm θ + 2
V◦(r.m.s) = √
2 π
" #1
sin(60◦ )−sin(384◦ ) 2
200 2.827 + 2
= √
2 π
= 279 V
V◦(r.m.s) 279
I◦(r.m.s) = =p = 26.6A
Z (10) + (314 ∗ 0.01)2
2
P◦ = V◦ ∗ I◦ Apparent power
= 279 ∗ 26.6 = 7413.3V A
160
7.4 Post-test
1. A resistive-inductive load is connected to an A.C. regulator. If the sup-
◦
ply voltage is (230)V at (50)Hz and the delay angle (60 ) determine the
width of the triggering pulse required to ensure symmetrical load current
waveform at (10) msec time constant of the load.
2. A resistive heating load is controlled from a single phase supply using a
triac in the phase angle control mode. Determine the ring angle when
the load power is at 80% of its maximum value.
3. In the light dimmer circuit control by single phase A.C. regulator, the
◦
lamp resistance (3)Ω, nd the lamp power at delay angle (30 ) and (200)V
supply voltage.
4. Consider the single phase A.C. regulator in Figure 7.5(c) of the another
forms of A.C. regulator, with an impedance load. The supply voltage is
(220)V at 50Hz:
a-) which devices will conduct during the rst half-cycle and which dur-
ing the second half-cycle.
b-) for α = 120◦ , θ = 105◦ , nd the r.m.s load voltage and current.
5. A single phase A.C. regulator is controlled by integral cycle control. The
load is (10)Ω resistance and the supply voltage is (220)V. If the number of
conducting cycles (2) and the total period is (4) supply cycles, nd r.m.s
load voltage.

A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-c, 3-c, 4-c, 5-b, 6-a, 7-b, 8-b
B- Post-test
1- Solution:
wL
φ = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (wτ )
R
= tan−1 (314 ∗ 10 ∗ 10−3 ) = 72◦
T he pulse width must be at least equal to :
72◦ − 60◦ = 12◦
2- Solution:
100% load power at α "= 0◦ #
2 sin(2α)
V◦(r.m.s) Vm2 π − α + 2
P◦ = =
RL 2RL π
" #
80 π − α + sin(2α)
2
80%P◦ = = 0.8 =
100 π
By trial and error method, α = 60◦
3- Solution:
" #1
sin(2α) 2
Vm π − α + 2
V◦(r.m.s) = √
2 π
161
2
" ◦ # 12
V◦(r.m.s) (200)2 π− π
6 + sin(60
2
)
P◦ = =
RL 3 π
= 12948.6 W atts.
4- Solution:
a-) D1 , T H, D2 conduct in the rst half cycle. D3 , T H andD4
conduct in the second half cycle.
b-)
α = 120◦ , θ = 105◦ , β = 225◦
" # 12
θ + sin(2α)−sin(2β)
2
V◦ = 220
π
12
1.83 + −0.866−1

2
= 220 = 117.5V
π
V◦ 117.5
I◦ = = = 9.8∠ − 60◦ A
Z 12∠60◦
5- Solution:
r r
Vm N 2
V◦ = √ = 220 = 220 ∗ .707 = 154V
2 T 4 r r
N 2
Supply power f actor = = = 0.7
T 4
7.6 Pre-test
1. The three phase A.C. regulator consists, at least, of:

c) Four thyristora. d) Six thyristors.
2. In three phase system, the supply voltage are delayed from each other by
an angle of:
a) 120◦ b) 60◦
c) 180◦ d) 300◦
3. In three phase A.C. regulator, the ability of three thyristors are conducting
at the same time , if the delay angle is equal or less than:
a) 30◦ b) 60◦
c) 90◦ d) 150◦
4. There is an ability of no thyristor will conduct if the delay angle is greater
than:
a) 60◦ b) 75◦
c) 90◦ d) 120◦
5. The voltage ratings of the thyristors in three phase A.C. regulator depend
on the supply:
a) Phase voltage. b) Phase current.

c) Line voltage. d) Line current.
162
7.7 Three Phase A.C. Regulator
7.7.1 Circuit Conguration
Figure 7.8 below shows some circuit congurations of three phase, A.C. regula-
tor. In Figures 7.8a and 7.8b there are three parts of inverse parallel thyristors.
Each pair is connected with the supply line voltage and the line current will
pass through each thyristor. In Figure 7.8c the load is connected in delta and
the thyristor pairs are connected in the phases. In this case the thyristors will
carry the phase currents only, but they are subjected to a line voltage.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure 7.8: Three Phase, A.C. Regulator Circuit Congurations.
In Figure 7.8d the thyristor pairs are connected in delta to carry the phase
current and line voltage, while this circuit can be simplied in the following
Figure 7.8e by canceling of three thyristors to reduce the cost but it had a bad
163
performance.
7.7.2 Three Phase Line-controlled A.C. Regulator with

Star-connected Resistive-load
Figure 7.8a, in the previous section, illustrates the circuit diagram of this regu-
lator. If the delay angle is zero, the load voltages and currents are three phase
balanced quantities. In case of resistive load, the phase currents are in phase
with voltages. The three phase supply voltage can be represented as:
VR = Vm sin(wt)
VS = Vm sin(wt − 120◦ )
VT = Vm sin(wt − 240◦ )
The line-to-line voltages

√ become:
VRS = VR − VS = 3Vm(ph) sin(wt + 30◦ )
√
VST = 3Vm(ph) sin(wt − 90◦ )
√
VT R = 3Vm(ph) sin(wt − 210◦ )
For a current to ow in the circuit of Figure 7.8a, at least two-thyristors

◦
must conduct at the same time. Up to delay angle (60 ), conductions alternate
◦ ◦
between three thyristors. Above (60 ) up to (90 ) delay angle, at any given time
◦
two thyristors only are conducting. Above (90 ) delay angle, there are periods
when no thyristors are ON. Zero r.m.s load current is reached when the delay
◦
angle is (150 ). When three-thyristors are ON, the load phase current is given
as:
Vm(line)
ia = √ sin(wt)
3RL
But when only two thyristors are ON, the load phase current is given as:
Vm(line)
ia = sin(wt)
2RL
The load power is given as:
2
P◦ = 3I◦(r.m.s) RL 0◦ ≤ α ≤ 60◦
7.7.3 Three Phase Line-controlled A.C. Regulator with
Delta-connected Resistive-load
The previous Figure 7.8b, illustrates the circuit diagram of this type of con-
trollers. If there are 3-thyristors conducting the same time, the line-to-line
supply voltage will be applied across the load of delta-connected. If there are
two thyristors conducting at the same time, such as T H1 in line R and T H1
in line S, the voltages between the terminals R and S, S and T, and T and
R are VRS , VRS /2 and −VRS /2 respectively, while the applied line current is
(3VRS /2RL ) where RL is the load resistance per phase. The phase voltage is
given:
VRS = Vm sin(wt)
VST = Vm sin(wt − 120◦ )
VT R = Vm sin(wt − 240◦ )
Then the phase currents are:

iRS = (Vm /RL )sin(wt)
iST = (Vm /RL )sin(wt − 120◦ )
iT R = (Vm /RL )sin(wt − 240◦ )
164
The line currents are:
√
iR = iRS − iT R = ( 3Vm /RL )sin(wt)
√
iS = iST − iRS = ( 3Vm /RL )sin(wt − 120◦ )
√
iT = iT R − iST = ( 3Vm /RL )sin(wt − 240◦ )
Example 7-5: three phase resistive load is to be controlled by 3-Triacs from

415 line voltage supply. If the load power is (15) KW, determine the required
ratings of the Triacs.
Solution:
P 15000
IL = √ =√ = 21A
3VL√ 3 ∗ 415 √
IL(max) = 2IL(r.m.s) = 2 ∗ 21 = 30 A
√
peak line voltage = 2VL(r.m.s)
√
= 2 ∗ 415 = 587V
7.7.4 Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor by

Variation of Line-voltage (stator-voltage) using Three
phase A.C. Regulator
The torque-speed characteristics with dierent supply terminal voltages are
shown below in Figure 7.9. The torque is proportional to the square of ter-
minal voltage.
Figure 7.9: Speed Control of Three Phase Inductive Motor by Variation of

Line-voltage (Stator-voltage).
The terminal phase voltage (Vph ) can be varied by using three phase, A.C.
regulator using thyristors as shown in Figure 7.10 below.
165
Figure 7.10: Three Phase, A.C. Regulator Using Thyristors.
Speed control with a thyristor controller (regulator) is commonly used with

small squirrel-cage motors driving fan loads .In large power applications an
input lter is required due to a large harmonics ow in the supply line. Open
loop operation is not satisfactory if a precise speed control is desired. The closed
loop operation circuit is shown in Figure 7.10. If the motor speed falls due to
any disturbance, such as supply voltage uctuation, the dierence between the
set (reference) speed and the motor speed increases, this changes the ring angle
of the thyristors to increase the motor terminal voltage, which in turn develops
motor torque.
7.8 Post-test
1. A three phase, delta-connected load of resistance (27)Ω, in series with an
inductance of (0.09) H per phase, is controlled by inverse-parallel con-
nected thyristors using phase angle delay. Taking the supply voltage as
π
(415) V, line voltage, at (50) Hz. Determine the line current at (
2 ) delay
angle.
2. A three phase, delta-connected, A.C. regulator with resistive load of (10)Ω,
delta-connected. Taking the line voltage is (200)V
a-) What is the range of triggering angle.
b-) Draw the phase current at α = 90◦ .
c-) Find the thyristor peak voltage and maximum current.
3. A three phase variable inductor is controlled by a three phase, delta-
connected, A.C. voltage controller when the load is a pure inductor (L):
a-) Drive an expression for the inductor current as a function of delay
angle.
b-) What is the range of ring angle for current control in three phase
inductor.
166
c-) What is the extinction angle (β ) in terms of ring angle (α).
4. three phase 400V, 50Hz, 4-poles, star-connected induction motor operates
at (1300) r.p.m on full load. The rotor reactance and resistance per phase
are (4)Ω and (0.4)Ω respectively. The stator /rotor turns ratio is (1.25).
◦
Determine the motor eciency at full load when the delay angle is (60 )
◦
and conduction angle is (150 ), and the motor line current is (20)A at
(0.85) power factor.
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-a, 3-b, 4-c, 5-c
B- Post-test
1) Solution:
XL
q
Z= R2 + XL2 < tan−1 = 39.1 < 46◦ Ω
R √
Vab = Vm(line) sin(wt) = 415 ∗ 2sin(314t)
= 587sin(314t)
Vm h i
iL = sin(wt + α − φ) − sin(α − φ)e−(R/L)t
Z
π
α − φ = − 0.808 = 0.762
2
R/L = 27/0.09 = 300
iL = 15sin(314t + 0.762) − 10.35e−300t
2) Solution:
a-) The range of (α) is [0◦ ≤ α ≤ 180◦ ] .
b-) The waveform is shown in Figure 7.11 below:
Figure 7.11: Phase Current Waveform For Question 2, Post-test.
√
c-) Thyristor peak voltage is ( 2 ∗ 200 = 280V ):
Iph(max) = Vm(phase) /R = 280/10 = 28A
√
Iline(max) = 3 ∗ 28 = 49A
3) Solution:
V
a-) i◦(phase) = m(ph)
XL [sin(wt + α − φ) − sin(α − φ)]
φ = π/2, R = 0 f or purely inductor load
V
sin(wt + α − π2 ) − sin(α − π2 )

io = m(ph)
XL
167
b-) delay angle (α) can be varied from 0◦ → 90◦ due to purely inductive
◦ ◦
load (φ = 90 ) and (α + φ = 180 )
c-) at i◦(phase) = 0, wt = β
sin(β + α − π2 ) = sin(α − π2 )
cos(2β)−1
or tan(α) =
sin(β)
4) Solution:
" # 12
Vm(ph) θ − sin(2β)−sin(2α)
2
V◦(ph) = √
2 π
150 ∗ π
θ= = 2.618 rad.
180◦
β = θ + α = 150◦ + 60◦ = 210◦
12
2.618 − 0.886−0.866

2
V◦(ph) = 231 ∗
π
= 231 ∗ 0.913 = 211 volts
Pinput = 3 ∗ V◦(ph) ∗ I◦(ph) ∗ cosφ
3 ∗ 211 ∗ 20 ∗ 0.85 = 10761W
S = (N s − N r)/N s
= (1500 − 1300)/1500 = 0.133
2
3 ∗ S ∗ V◦(ph)∗Rr
T orque =
(2πN s/60) ∗ (a)2 ∗ {Rr2 + (SXr )2 }
W here,
S = slip, Rr = rotor resistance per phase (Ω)
N s = synchronous speed = 120 ∗ f /p
p = number of magnetic poles
Xr = rotor reactance per phase(Ω)
(a) = stator/rotor turns ratio
3 ∗ (211)2 ∗ 0.4 ∗ 0.133
T orque =
(2π ∗ 1500/60) ∗ (1.25)2 ∗ {(0.4)2 + (0.133 ∗ 4)2 }
= 65.7 N.m
2π ∗ 1300
Poutput = T ∗ wr = 65.7 ∗
60
= 8888 W mechanical power
Pout on the motor shaf t = Pm − rotational losses
let the rotational losses = 480W
Pout = 8888 − 480 = 8408W
Pout 8408
η= = = 0.78 = 78%
Pin 10761
7.9 Pre-test
1. What are the types of A.C. / A.C. cycloconverters?
2. Express the average output voltage of the half-wave, three phase controlled
rectier?
3. What is the main factor will be varied to obtain a variable-frequency
output voltage of the A.C. / A.C. cycloconverters?
4. What is the main defect in the frequency multiplication A.C. / A.C. cy-
cloconverters?
5. Fill the blanks in the following statements:
a-) Single phase to single phase cycloconverter can be represented by
168
rectier.
b-) The output frequency of the low-frequency cycloconverter depends
on the rate of variation of , not on the supply .
c-) In three phase to three phase cycloconverter, the number of thyristor
required are .
d-) In three phase to single phase cycloconverter, the number of thyristor
required are .
e-) In single phase to single phase cycloconverter, the number of thyristor
required are .
7.10 A.C. /A.C. Cloconverter

The A.C. line commutated cycloconverter consist of a number of phase-controlled
converter circuits connected to an A.C. supply system that provides the voltage
necessary for natural commutation. The individual circuits are controlled so
that a low-frequency output voltage waveform is fabricated from segments of
the poly phase input voltage.
7.11 Three Phase to Single Phase Cycloconverter

Consider a three phase, half-wave, phase controlled converter supplying an in-
ductive load which maintains current ow. The average output voltage of the
converter is given as:
Where is the ring angle and is the average output voltage at zero ring angle.
In Figure 7.12, at point (A) (zero delay angle) the output voltage is maximum
Figure 7.12: Output Voltages At Dierent Firing Angles.
At point B, the output voltage is slightly reduced by introduction of small delay

angle. Further reduction is obtained at point C, D and E. At point F, the
◦
ring angle is (90 ) and . However at ring angle between zero and 90◦ , the
net power ow from A.C. supply into the load. The average output voltage
of a phase controlled converter operating as inverter may also controlled in a
sinusoidal manner by suitable variation of the ring angle between degrees as
shown in Figure 7.13.
169
Figure 7.13: Variation of Firing Angle From 90◦ to 180◦ fi =supply frequency
fo =output frequency
The average output voltage of a phase controlled converter operating as in in-

◦
verter may also be controlled by variation of delay angle (α) between [90 −→
180◦ ] and has its maximum value (−Vd◦ ) at point (k) where α = 180 . By
reducing (α) , the average output voltage is reduced as shown in point L , M , N
, O P and Q . For inverter operation the net power ows into the A.C. supply.
If the ring angle is varied from 0◦ −→ 180◦ degree and back again to zero, one
complete cycle of the low frequency variation is superimposed on the average
output voltage. The superimposed frequency is determined solely by the rate of
variation of (α) and is independent of the supply frequency. The average output
voltage of the phase controlled converter can, therefore, be varied sinusoidally
through a complete cycle by suitable variation of delay angle. However, current
can only ow in one direction through the circuit and in order to produce a
complete cycle of low frequency output current, two similar circuits must be
connected in inverse-parallel as shown in Figure 7.14.
Figure 7.14: Three Phase to Single Phase Cycloconverter.
170
The positive converter group permits current ow during the positive half cycle
of the low frequency output voltage wave, while the negative group allows cur-
rent to ow during the negative voltage half cycle. Because, the positive and
negative groups are connected in inverse-parallel, there output voltages must
always be equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, in order to avoid large
circulating currents at the output frequency.
7.12 Three Phase to Three Phase Cycloconverter

When a three phase output is required, three single phase cycloconverters with
◦
phase displacement of (120 ) between their outputs are connected as shown in
gure 7.15. With a balance load, the neutral connected is no longer necessary
and may be omitted. It is possible to get output frequency larger then the input
frequency, but the losses in the thyristors will be increased considerably.
For maximum output frequency:
1
Normally the output frequency =
3 supply frequency
1
For more complex rectier circuit the output frequency =
2 supply frequency.
Figure 7.15: Three Phase / Three Phase cycloconverter.
7.13 Single Phase to Single Phase Cycloconverter

Figure 7.16 shows a single phase Bridge, fully-controlled rectier used as a sin-
gle phase cycloconverter. The load frequency is less than the supply frequency.
Thyristor (1) and (2) generate the positive half-cycle of the load voltage (Vo ),
while the thyristor (3) and (4) generate the negative half-cycle of the load volt-
ages. When T H1 & T H2 are red at the same time, the thyristor which has the
anode voltage more positive biasing will conduct.
171
Figure 7.16: Single Phase Cycloconverter.
If point (A) is positive, T H1 will conduct, while T H2 will conduct when point
(A) becomes negative, and the output load voltage will be positive during the
positive-half cycles of the supply voltage (Vs ). When the triggering pulses are
applied across the thyristors T H3 and T H4 1 at the same time T H3 will conduct
when point (A) is negative, while thyristor T H4 will conduct when point (B) is
negative. Thyristors T H3 and T H4 conduct the negative half-cycle of the load
voltage.
The r.m.s output voltage of the can be calculated as:
V(s)m π−α+ 12 sin(2α)
V◦(r.m.s) =√ [
2 π ]
Which is the same formula of the r.m.s output voltage for the single phase
bridge rectier. Also the single phase cycloconverter can be generated from
dual-bridge, fully-controlled single phase rectiers as shown below, in Figure
7.17.
172
Figure 7.17: Dual-rectier Single Phase Cycloconverter.
7.14 Frequency Multiplication Cycloconverter

Figure 7.18 shows the circuit diagram and output voltage of the multiplication-
frequency, single phase cycloconverter generated from three phase supply. The
output frequency depends on the commutation time of the forced commutation
cycloconverter.
Figure 7.18: Frequency-multiplication Cycloconverter.
173
7.15 Post-test
1. Draw a single phase , fully-controlled dual converter circuit with a resistive
load to implement the single phase to-single phase cycloconverter and then
draw the waveforms of the supply voltage, control voltage , and the load
voltage at dierent values of ring angle (α)?
2. A three-pulse cycloconverter feeds a single phase load of (200)V, 50A at
(0.8) power factor lagging. Estimate the required supply voltage, thyris-
tor rating and the supply power factor. Neglect the device and supply
impedance voltage drops.
3. Draw a single phase, dual converter, fully-controlled converter circuit to
implement single phase to single phase cycloconverter with resistive load.
The input supply voltage is (120)V at (60)Hz and the output frequency is
(15)Hz, then :
a-) Draw the waveforms of input, control and output voltage at α = 0◦
◦
and α = 90 .
◦ ◦
b-) Determine the r.m.s output voltage at (0 ) and (90 ).
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1- Solution
a-) Three phase to single phase cycloconverter
b-) Three phase to three phase cycloconverter
c-) Single phase to single phase cycloconverter
d-) Frequency multiplication cycloconverter
e-) Matrix converter
2- Solution
√
3 3Vm( ph)
Vd = cos(α)
2π
3- Solution Variation of the ring angle (α).
4- Solution The forced commutation of the thyristors and the load
current owing through the load are the main defects of the frequency
multiplication cycloconverter.
5- Solution
a-) Two, full-wave, fully controlled rectiers.
b-) Firing angle, supply frequency.
c-) Eighteen.
d-) Six.
e-) Eight.
B- Post-test
1- Solution As shown in Figure 7.19
174
Figure 7.19: Circuit Diagram and Its Output Waveforms For Question 1,post-
test.
2- Solution
The circuit diagram is as shown in gure 7.14
V◦(r.m.s) = Vd = Vd◦ (cosα) = 200V
p
3 3Vm(ph)
200 = cos(α)
2π
2π ∗ 200
Vm(ph) = √
3 3 ∗ cos(α)
T o obtain maximum load voltage, (α) must be equal to zero
√
[V◦(max) = 200 ∗ 2V at cos(α) = 1]
atα = 0◦ Vm(ph) = 593V peak reverse voltage of each thyristor
I◦(r.m.s) = 50A
√
I◦(max) = 50 ∗ 2 = 70A thyristor f orward current
s
2
r
I◦(r.m.s) (50)2
Ii(r.m.s)/ph = = = 29A
3 3
load power 200 ∗ 50 ∗ 0.8
Pin/phase = = = 2668W
3 3
Pin/phase
input power f actor =
Vi(r.m.s)/ph ∗ Ii(r.m.s)/ph
√
Vi(r.m.s)/ph = Vm(ph) / 2 = 242V
175
2668
input power f actor = = 0.38
242 ∗ 29
3- Solution
The circuit diagram of single phase dual converter, single phase cy-
cloconverter and its input and output voltage waveforms are given in
the solution of question (1). The waveforms and the calculation of
r.m.s output voltage are given in Figure 7.20.
Figure 7.20: Voltage Waveforms Of Question 3, Post-test.
Vm(ph)
V◦(r.m.s) = [1 + cos(α)]
√ π
2 ∗ 120
= ∗ [1 + 1] = 108V at α = 0◦
π √
2 ∗ 120
V◦(r.m.s) = [1 + 0] = 54V at α = 90◦
π
176
Chapter 8
D.C. to A.C. Converters (Inverters)
Inverters are used to convert D.C. to A.C. The inversion process is apparently a
reversal of the process of rectication. But, whereas rectiers can employ thyris-
tors as well as diodes, inverters make use of thyristors only. This is because the
process of inversion consists of a sequence of controlled switching operations for
which only controllable elements like thyristors can be used. The requirements
of the output of an inverter depend upon the specic application for which it is
to be used. The size of the inverter and the ratings of its components depend
upon the output power requirements. The other output quantities which merit
consideration are:
(a) The magnitude of the voltage-this may be made xed or variable.
(b) The frequency-this may again be xed or variable.
(c) The waveshape of the output-some applications may require a sinusoidal
supply whereas for others a square wave may serve the purpose.
The applications of inverters include the following:
(i) Speed control of A.C. drives by varying the frequency of supply.
(ii) Speed control of wound rotor induction motors by injecting a voltage at
slip frequency into the rotor circuit.
(iii) Regenerative braking of D.C. motors fed through controlled rectier by
reversing the ow of power and causing it to ow from the motor to the
A.C. supply.
(iv) Conversion of A.C. to A.C. (or vice versa) at either end of a High Voltage
D.C. transmission link between two A.C. systems.
(v) Standby A.C. power supplies.
(vi) Ultrasonic generators.
8.1 Pre-test
1- In the following multiple choice questions, please circle the correct answer:
i. The main advantage of inverter in:
a) speed control of D.C. motor b) speed control of A.C. motor
c) D.C. voltage regulation d) lamp intensity control
ii. The main disadvantage of series inverter is that the possibility of:
a) open circuit b) over-lap
c) short-circuit d) interference
iii. The main disadvantage of single-phase parallel-inverter is that it re-

quires:
177
a) inductive b) freewheeling diode
c) two-thyristors d) center-tapped transformer
iv. The type of commutation in inverter is:
a) Natural commutation b) self commutation
c) A.C. line commutation d) Forced commutation
v. Most inverter application require a controlling of the output volt-

age. This may be achieved by controlling the D.C. supply voltage or
controlling the voltage:
a) within the inverter b) out of the inverter
c) within the load d) out of the load
2- In the circuit shown in Figure 8.1 below, draw the output voltage (V◦ )
and current (i◦ ) in case of:
a- resistive load.
b- inductive load.
c- capacitive load.
Figure 8.1: Circuit Diagram of Question 2, Pre-test.
8.2 Single Phase and Three Phase Inverters

Inverters are used to convert D.C. to A.C. The inversion process is a reversal
of rectication. But rectiers can employ thyristors and diodes while inverters
make use of thyristors only. The requirements of the inverter output depend on
the specic application for which it is to be used. The requirements are:
i- The output voltage: This may be made xed or variable.
ii- The output frequency: This also may be made xed or variable.
iii- The output waveform: Some application may require a sinusoidal supply
whereas for other require a square wave. The inverter applications include
the following:
a- A.C. motor speed control by varying supply frequency.
b- Wound-rotor induction motor speed control from the rotor side.
c- regenerative braking of D.C. motor.
178
d- high voltage D.C. link between two A.C. lines.
e- stand-by A.C. power supply.
f- Induction heating systems.
8.2.1 Inverter Commutation Circuits

The operation of the inverters is controlled by the switching ON and OFF
of the thyristors used in its circuit. Since, the supply is D.C. like the case
of D.C. chopper, the thyristor turn-OFF in this case also is achieved by forced
commutation. The methods of forced commutation used in inverter are as follow:
1- commutation by capacitance: The capacitance is connected between

the anodes of two thyristors as shown in Figure (b) below. When the
thyristor (T H1 ) conducts, the voltage of point Va1 becomes zero while the
voltage of point Va2 Vs and the capacitance (C) will
becomes equal to
charge up to the voltage Vs or:
Va1 = 0V, Va2 ≈ +Vs , i1 = Vs /R1
When thyristor T H1 conduct, the capacitance will discharge through T H1
to commutate it. The voltage across T H1 will goes to zero, but Va1 will
becomes −Vs and then will rise rapidly to reach +Vs by triggering thyris-
tors T H1 and T H2 in sequence, the conduction and commutation of them
will generate the voltage waveform shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2: Commutation Circuit by Capacitance and the Voltage Waveform.
2- Commutation by series resonance: The circuit (R-S-C) in Figure

8.3 below performs a resonance circuit loads to a thyristor commutation.
The thyristor will conduct at the time of the triggering pulse reachs its
gate and the load current will oscillate and when it completes a half of
resonant cycle , the capacitance (C) will charged to the supply voltage
(−Vs ). When the load current reverses its direction in the second half-cycle
of the resonance, the thyristor will commutated. In the design of resonance
circuit, the maximum load current and the thyristor commutation time
must be considered.
179
Figure 8.3: Commutation by Series Resonance.
During the conduction period:

Vs = VL + VCZ + VR
diL 1
= + iL dt + iL R
dt C
Solution of this dierential equation loads to:

R
iL(t) = Im sin(wd t)e− t wd = damped oscillation speed in radian/second
2L
Vs VS
Im = =
sXL wd L
1 R2
wd = −
LC (2L)2
due to the thyristor conducts during the rst half-cycle of the resonance
circuit then:
wd t = π
π
Or t = tON =
wd
Example 8-1:
In the circuit of Figure 8.3 above, if R = 150Ω, Vs = 240V , tON = 10mS ,
im = 3A. Find (C) and (L)?
Solution:
π
wd = = 100π
tON
Vs Vs 24
Im = , ∴ L= = = 25mH
wd L wd Im 100π ∗ 3
1 R2
wd2 = −
LC 4L2
4L 4 ∗ 25 ∗ 10−3
C= =
[4L2 wd2 + R2 ] [4(25 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 314)2 + (150)2 ]
= 0.84µf
3- Self-commutation: The circuit is shown in Figure 8.4 below. The load
180
resistance is not a part of the resonant circuit. The capacitance initially
charged up to the supply voltage (Vs ). When the thyristor is connected
the supply voltage will be across the load (R) and the load current will
pass through the load resistance. The capacitance will discharge through
(T H and L ). The thyristor current has two components (load current +
resonant current). When the oscillation current reverses its direction, the
thyristor will be commutation and still turn-OFF during quarter of the
oscillation cycle.
Figure 8.4: Self Commutaion with Output Waveforms.
Example 8-2:
In the circuit shown in Figure 8.4; if iL = 3A, Vs = 24V , tON = 50Ω, nd
(C) and (L)?
Solution:
Due to resonance is natural then the w is not damped and is called natural
angular velocity (wn ).
1
wn = √ due to R = 0
LC
Vs
Im = due to Im = 2IL
wn L
Vs 2Vs
=
wnrL R
C 2
or =
L R
1
due to the commutation period = 4 resonant cycle
3
∴ conduction period = ∗ 2π = wn tON
4
∴ wn = 1.5π/tON
1 √ tON
√ = 1.5π/tON ∴ LC =
LC 1.5π
tON 2 0.4tON
C= ∗ = = 40µf
1.5π R R
2 −6∗
CR 40 ∗ 10 ∗ (50)2
L= = = 25mH
4 4
4- Commutation by capacitance and auxiliary thyristor: The circuit
181
is shown in Figure 8.5. This circuit can be used in commutation of this
thyristor in the D.C. chopper circuit. At the beginning thyristor T H2 is
red and the capacitance will be charged up to Vs with the polarity shown.
When the capacitance completely charged, thyristor T H2 will turn-OFF.
When thyristor T H2 is red, the capacitance will be discharged through
the resonant cycle the capacitance will be charged with opposite direction
and the diode (D) will prevent the current from owing in the reverse
direction. When thyristor T H2 triggered the capacitance will discharge
through the thyristor and the thyristor will be turned-OFF
Figure 8.5: Commutation by Capacitor and Auxiliary Thyristor.
8.2.2 Single Phase Parallel-inverter

The circuit conguration is shown in Figure 8.6 below.
Figure 8.6: Parallel-inverter.
The capacitance (c) is connected across thyristor T H1 and T H2 for their
182
commutation. The inductance (L) is connected in series with the supply to
obtain a constant current during the commutation process. The resistive load
(RL ) is connected through the center-tap primary transformer. The primary
winding has two identical section (A) and (B). The turn's ratio between primary
and secondary is (VA /NC = NB /NC ). If the thyristor T H2 in a conducting
state and thyristor T H1 in a non conducting state, the current will pass from
the supply (Vs ) through inductance (L), section B and back to the supply. The
current is assumed to be constant and the voltage drop across the inductance
is zero ( L di /dt = 0 due to di /dt = 0). The supply voltage across the winding
section B will generate a voltage in section A, by induction; equal to the supply
voltage due to the two sections has equal turns. The total voltage across section
A and B will charge the capacitance (C) up to 2Vs with dot positive. When
thyristor T H2 is triggered, the capacitor voltage will apply across thyristor T H2
and turns it OFF. The ow of current will become new from the supply through
inductance (L), section A and back to the supply, but the load current will be
reversed.
8.3 Analysis of Parallel-inverter Circuit with Resistive Load

When thyristor T H1 conducting, in Figure 8.7a:
(a) Actual Circiuit. (b) Equivalent Circuit.
Figure 8.7: Parallel-icircuit with Resistive Load.
NA 2
Re = equivalent load resistance = ( ) RL
NC
1 NA 1 NA 1
Ce = equivalent capacitance = Xce = =( )2 ∗ , but =
W Ce NA + NB WC NA + NB 2
1 1
= or Ce = 4C
Ce 4c
F rom the equivalent circuit in F igue8.7b :
Vs 2Vs
iT = iL + iC = + ∗ eα t ∗ sin(wdt)
Re Wd L
1
=α=
2Re Ce
Re Ce 1
tOF F = = turn − OF F time of each thyristor at maximum current
2 4α
1 wd
t= ∗ tan−1 ( )
wd α
1
Fmax = maximum outpur f requency of the thyristor
12Re Ce
183
π
tON = Re Ce =
wd
1
tOF F = tON
2
1
T = = period of one cycle of output voltage wavef orm
Fmax
T
= tON + tOF F
2
π q
wd = = W{2 circ} − α2
tON
1
W◦ = Wd2 + α2 =
2
LCe
1
∴ L= 2
W◦ Ce
Example 8-3: In a parallel-capacitor, single-phase inverter, the following data

is given:
i- Resistive load power =120W.
ii- Load voltage=240V.
iii- Inverter output frequency=400Hz maximum.
Determine the value of parallel capacitance and series inductance.
solution:
V◦2 (240)2
R= = = 480Ω
P◦ 120
NA 2 Vs
Re = ( ) ∗ R = ( )2 ∗ R = 1.2Ω
NC V◦
1
Fmax = 400 =
12 ∗ Re ∗ Ce
Ce = 1/12 ∗ 1.2 ∗ 400 = 173µf
Ce
C= 43µf
4
tON = Re Ce = 210µsec.
1 1
α= = = 2408
2Re Ce 2 ∗ 1.2 ∗ 173 ∗ 10−6
π π
wd = = = 14952
tON 210 ∗ 10−6
W◦2 = Wd2 + α2 = (14952)2 + (2408)2
1 1
L= 2 = 2 = 90.25µH
W◦ W◦ ∗ 173 ∗ 10−6
In case of resistive-inductive load, the load current will not reverse its direction
instantaneously with load voltage. In a part of each cycle, the voltage and
current are in the same direction, while in the remainder part they are ow in
a reverse direction. When the current passes opposite of voltage direction, the
capacitance in the primary side will oer a path of current ows through it,
but this requires increasing its capacity. The other solution can be obtained by
introducing freewheeling diodes Df 1 and Df 2 which are connected in inverter-
parallel with the thyristor T H1 and T H2 .
8.4 Single-phase Series Inverter

Figure 8.8 below the series inverter circuit and the output voltage and current
waveforms. The series circuit (C), (L) and (R) from an under damped oscillatory
184
circuit. The inductance is a part of load inductance.
Figure 8.8: Single-phase Series Inverter with its Output Waveforms.
When thyristor T H1 is red, the capacitance (C) charges up with the polarity
shown and a positive pulse of current ows through the load. At the end of
which turns-OFF, C retains its charge till is red, when it discharges resonantly
through T H2 , R and L . This reverses the charge on (C) while causing a ow
of current in the reverse direction through the load. Thus energy stored in the
capacitance is used to contribute the negative half-cycle of the load current.
When T H1 red again, the capacitor is recharged with the polarity shown.
Assume the remaining charge on the capacitor is VC2 and the initial current is
zero. The circuit equation during the conduction period of T H1 is given as:
VS = VR + VL + VC Z
1
= iR + Ldi/dt + idi + VC2
C
di
VC2 = VS − L at t = 0 and i = 0
dt
Dierentiating and dividing both sides by (L) to obtain:

d2 i R di 1
2
= + i=0
dt L dt LC
Solution of the above equation yields:

(Vs − VC2 )
i= ∗ e−αt ∗ sin(wdt) chargingcurrent
Wd L
−VC1
i= ∗ e−αt ∗ sin(wdt) dischargingcurrent
Wd L
W here,
r
1 R p
wd = − ( )2 = W◦2 − α2
LC 2L
R 1
α= , W◦ = √
2L LC
π
wd =
tON
VS VS
VC1 = −(αt )
= −(πα/wd)
1−e ON 1−e
α ∗ tON ≈ 1 approximately
185
(Vs − VC2 )
Im =
Wd L
1
but VC2 always negative and its value assumed to be Vs
2
1 1 2L
but tON = = =
π R/2L R
3 ∗ Vs ∗ 2 ∗ L 3Vs
Im = =
2πRL πR
πRIm
∴ Vs =
3
R π
αtON ≈ 1 = ∗
2L wd
R π
∴ L= ∗
2 wd
4L
C=
4L2 Wd2 + R2
1
T =
F
T
= tON + tOF F
2
T
tON = + tOF F
2
Example 8-4: Design a series inverter circuit when the following data is given:
Im = 1A, R = 150Ω, f = 400Hz, tOF F = 25µsec.
Solution:
1
T = = 1/400 = 2.5msec.
F
T 2.5
= = 1.25 ∗ 10−3 = tON + tOF F
2 2
tON = 1.25 ∗ 10−3 − 25 ∗ 10−6 = 1.225m sec.
π π
wd = = = 2560 rad/sec.
tON 1.225 ∗ 10−3
πRIm π150 ∗ 1
Vs = = 175V
3 3
R π 150 ∗ π
L= ∗ = = 92mH
2 wd 2 ∗ 2560
4L
C= = 15.7µF
4L2 Wd2 + R2
8.5 Limitations of the Series Inverter Circuit

i-) I thyristor triggered before turns OFF, the series combination short circuit
the supply.
ii-) If the output frequency is made much less than the resonance frequency,
the output waveform would be distorted due to the longer non-conducting
periods.
iii-) The commutating components have to carry the full load current and have
to be rated as such.
1
iv-) Maximum output frequency is limited by the formula: fmax = T =
1
2(tON +tOF F )
186
v-) Possibility of fully triggering of the thyristors due to high dv/dt caused
from the step voltage applied across the other thyristor.
8.6 Single-phase Modied Series Inverter

In the previous circuit of single-phase series inverter, the supply current ows
every cycle, but there is an ability to ow every half cycle, if a center-tap supply
is used .Figure 8.9 below shows the circuit diagram. The operation of this circuit
is similar to that of series inverter. When T H1 is triggered, the capacitance will
charge up to (Vs /2) and the thyristor T H1 will turn-OFF when the current try
to reverse its direction through the circuit. When thyristor triggered, the lowest
half of supply voltage becomes across R-L-C circuit, and this charge capacitor
with reverse polarity before T H2 turn-OFF due to the series resonance.
Figure 8.9: Modied Series Inverter.
8.7 Frequency-Range of Series Inverter

The maximum frequency of the series inverter is given as:
1 1 1
fmax = = =
T 2(tON + tOF F ) 2( wπd + tOF F )
and it is depending on the resonance frequency of the circuit components. By

using the modied circuit shown in Figure 8.10 below, the maximum frequency
can be increased by reducing the turn-OFF time for each thyristor. The series
inductance is replaced by two-coupled inductances L1 and L2 in series with T H1
and T H2 respectively.
187
Figure 8.10: Wide Frequency-range Series Inverter.
If the center-tap D.C. supply is not available, in can be replaced by ordinary

D.C. supply with two capacitance as shown below in Figure 8.11.
Figure 8.11: Series Inverter with Two Terminal D.C. Supply
If the load is resistive-inductive the load voltage and current are not varied at
the same time, due to the stored energy in the load inductance. To dissipate
this energy a freewheeling diodes are connected across the thyristors in inverse-
parallel connection.
188
8.8 Single-phase Half-bridge Inverter
The half-bridge circuit of single-phase inverter is shown below in Figure 8.12.
The supply is center-tap and thyristor T H1 and T H2 are GTO thyristors. Diode
D1 and D1 are known as feedback diodes due to they can feed back the reactive
energy of the load.
(a) Half Bridge Inverter.
(b) Output Voltage Waveforms.(A) Gate Signal for SCR T1. (B) Gate Signal for SCR
T2. (C) Output Voltage. (D) Output Current for R-L Load.
Figure 8.12: Single Phase, half-bridge inverter.
During the positive half-cycle of load voltage, T H1 turned-ON, which makes

V◦ = +Vs /2. During the negative half-cycle T H1 turned-ON, which makes. If
the load is reactive (lagging power factor load), the output current (i◦ ) lags the
189
output voltage by an angle (φ). The feedback diode D1 and D2 are conducting
when the voltage and current are of opposite polarity.
8.9 Single-phase Bridge Inverter

The circuit is shown in Figure 8.13 below. Only one thyristor in each leg can be
conducting at any time, for example or may be ON but not both simultaneously.
The feedback diodes provide path for the reactive energy to the D.C. supply.
Thyristors and are red during the rst half-cycle, while thyristors and are
red during the second half-cycle. The frequency of the ring pulses diodes the
inverter output frequency.
(a) Single Phase Bridge Inverter.
8.10 Forced Commutation Circuit of Single-phase Bridge

Inverter
If the thyristor used in single-phase bridge inverter are conventional, commuta-
tion circuits are required to turn it OFF. Many forms of commutation circuits
are used to commutate the thyristor. One type of those circuits is shown be-
low in Figure 8.14. This circuit is known as McMurray inverter. The elements
T H3 A, T H2 A, L and C from the commutation circuit of the half of the bridge
inverter and those can be operated to turn-OFF thyristors T H3 and T H2 . The
commutation current (iC ) ows opposite to the load current (i◦ ).
190
Figure 8.14: McMurray Commutation Circuit.
Thyristor T H3 A is red to commutate thyristor T H3 and the capacitance will

recharged up to the supply voltage (VS ) with opposite polarities. Thyristor
T H2 A is red to commutate and the capacitance will recharged to the supply
voltage with polarities shown.
Example 8-5: In single-phase bridge inverter circuit shown in the Figure 8.15
below, the load current is i◦ = 540 sin(wt − 45◦ ) and the D.C. supply voltage
is (300)V:
i- Draw the input and output waveforms.

ii- Determine the average value of supply current and the input power to the
inverter.
iii- Determine the load power.
iv- If the load power is replaced with pure inductance of (0.11)H and the
output frequency is (10)Hz, determine the maximum load current .
Solution
i- The waveform is shown in Figure 8.16 below:
191
Figure 8.16: Waveforms of Example 8-5.
ii-
1 π
Z
π
Is = 540 sin(wt − ) = 243.1 A
π 0 4
Ps = Vs ∗ Is = 72930W
iii-
4Vs
V◦(r.m.s) = √ f rom F ourier analysis.
π 2
V◦ = 270.1V
P◦ = V◦ I◦ cos(φ)
540
= 270.14 ∗ √ ∗ cos(45◦ )
2
= 72930W
iv-
XL = 2πf l = 2π ∗ 10 ∗ 0.1 = 2πΩ
8.11 Voltage Control of Single-phase Bridge Inverter

The inverter output voltage can be controlled by control the D.C. supply voltage
or by controlling the voltage within the inverter.
a- Variable D.C. supply voltage can be controlled by controlled rectier, D.C.

copper or uncontrolled rectier with auto-transformer.
b- The voltage control within the inverter can be obtained by the following
methods:
i- Pulse width control: by varying the phase relationship between the
ring of and with respect to and , a voltage control can be obtained
as shown in Figure 8.17 below.
192
(a)
Figure 8.17: Pulse Width Control.
δ = 0, α = 180◦
δ = retardation angle
α = pulse width
ii- Pulse width modulation (PWM): If the output of the inverter is

switched ON and OFF rapidly number of times during each half-
cycle, a train of pulses of constant amplitude are produced. The
amplitude of the inverter output voltage is controlled by varying the
ratio of total ON-time of pulses to the total OFF-time as shown below
in Figure 8.18.
193
Figure 8.18: PWM by Comparing a Triangular Carrier with Sine-wave
8.12 Three Phase Bridge Inverter

The simplest from of 3-phase bridge, six-step inverter is shown in Figure 8.19
below. The thyristors are numbered in a sequence in which are red to produce
positive phase sequence voltages VRS , VST and VT R at the output terminal R,
S and T. The output phase voltages with respect to the natural point (N) are
VRN , VSN and VT N . These voltages are illustrated in Figure 8.20.
Figure 8.19: Six Steps Three Phase Bridge Inverter.
194
Figure 8.20: Voltage Waveform of Three phase Bridge Inverter with Two Thyris-
tors Conducting at the Same Time and star-connected Load.
8.13 Post-test
1. Single-phase, parallel-inverter, has the following data:
• commutation capacitance =0.68µf
• load resistance =500Ω
• turns ratio (NA /NC )=(1/12)
Find the maximum frequency of the inverter?
2. Design a series inverter to obtain (1) A maximum load current at 2KHz
frequency in a load resistance of (33)Ω, if the turn-OFF time of each
thyristor is (50)µsec.
3. A series inverter has the following parameters :
• resistance=
• inductance=
• capacitance=
• D.C. supply voltage=
• thyristor turn-OFF time =
Calculate the maximum frequency and the maximum load current?
4. In a single-phase , half-bridge inverter , the following date is given :
• supply voltage=600v
• load frequency=1000Hz
• load resistance=0.5Ω
• load inductance=1/200πHenery
• load capacitive reactants=1/2wc 1.5Ω
Sketch the output load voltage and current and then determine their r.m.s
values?
5. Draw the output voltage waveform of Figure 8.12?
6. Draw a circuit diagram of single-phase bridge inverter without commuta-
tion circuit, when the load consists of capacitance connected in parallel
195
with a resistive-inductive circuit?
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1. i-b, ii-c, iii-d, iv-d, v-a
2. Solution:
(a)
(b)
(c) Output Waveforms of Question 2, Pre-

test.
The thyristors of the 3-phase bridge inverter can be replaced by power

transistors as shown below in Figure 8.22 to obtain the same output
results.
Figure 8.22: Replacing of Thyristors by Power Transistors in 3-phase Bridge

Inverter.
Also the harmonics of the output voltage of the inverter can be re-
duced by introducing a low-pass lter between the inverter output
and the load as shown below in Figure 8.23.
196
Figure 8.23: Low-pass Filter Between Inverter Output and Load.
B- Post-test
1- Solution
1
Fmax =
12Re Ce
Ce = 4c = 2.72 ∗ 10−6 F arad
NA 2 1
Re = ( ) R = ( )2 ∗ 500 = 3.47Ω
NC 12
1
Fmax = = 8830Hz
12 ∗ 3.47 ∗ 2.72 ∗ 10−6
2- Solution
T = 1/F = 1/2000 = 0.0005 sec.
T
tON = − tOF F = 0.00025 − 0.0005 = 0.0002 sec.
2
wd = π/tON = π/0.0002 = 15700 rad./sec.
πRIm π ∗ 33 ∗ 1
Vs = = = 34.5 V
3 3
R π 33 ∗ π
L= ∗ = = 3.3mH
2 wd 2 ∗ 15700
4L 0.0132 0.0132
C= = = = 1.2µf
4L2 wd2 + R2 4 ∗ 10 ∗ 10−6 ∗ (15700)2 + (33)2 10948.6
3- Solution
r
1 R p
wd = − ( )2 = W◦2 − α2
s LC 2L
1 (1.5)2
−6 −6
−
20 ∗ 10 ∗ 10 ∗ 10 4 ∗ (20 ∗ 10−6 )2
= 60000 rad./sec.
π π
tON = = = 5.23 ∗ 10−5 sec.
wd 60000
T
= tON + tOF F = 5.23 ∗ 10−5 = 1.0 ∗ 10−5
2
197
= 6.23 ∗ 10−5 = 62.3µ sec.
T = 124.6µ sec.
1 1
F = = = 8025 Hz
T 124.6 ∗ 10−6
πRIm
VS =
3
Im = 3VS /πR = 3 ∗ 100/(π ∗ 1.5) = 63A
4- Solution
XC = 10.5Ω
XL = 2πf L = 10Ω
XL − XC
φ = tan−1
R
= −45 ◦ due to loading power f actor
4VS /2
V◦(r.m.s) = √ = 270 V
π 2
V◦
I◦(r.m.s) =
s Z
270
= = 382 A
(0.5)2 + (−0.5)2
Figure 8.25: Output Voltage and Current of Question 4, Post-test.
198
5-
6-
199
Chapter 9
Power Electronic Application in Speed

Control of Electrical Motors
One form of energy can be obtained from the other form with the help of con-
verters. Converters that are used to continuously translate electrical input to
mechanical output or vice versa are called electric machines. The process of
translation is known as electromechanical energy conversion. An electric ma-
chine is therefore a link between an electrical system and mechanical system. In
these machines the conversion is reversible. If the conversion is from mechanical
to electrical, the machine is said to act as a generator. If the conversion is from
electrical to mechanical, the machine is said to act as a motor. Hence, the same
electrical machine can be made to operate as a generator as well as a motor.
Machines are called A.C. machines (generators or motors) if the electrical sup-
ply system is A.C. and D.C. machines (generators or motors) if the electrical
supply system is D.C.. In the electrical system the primary quantities involved
are voltage and current, while the analogous quantities in the mechanical system
are torque and speed. The coupling medium between these dierent systems is
the magnetic eld. The conversion of energy from electrical to mechanical form
or vice versa results from the following two electromagnetic phenomena:
1. When a conductor moves in a magnetic eld, voltage is induced in the

conductor. If a conductor of length (L) moves at a linear speed (s) in a
magnetic eld density (B), the induced voltage in the conductor is: (volts)
2. When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic eld, the con-
ductor experiences a mechanical force. For the current-carrying conductor
(I), the force produced on the conductor is: ( Newtons ).
The structure of an electric machine had two major components, stator and
rotor, separated by the air gap . Stator: This part of the machine does not move
and normally is the outer frame of the machine. Rotor: This part of the machine
is free to move and normally is the inner part of the machine. Both stator and
rotor are made of ferromagnetic materials. In most machines, slots are cut
on the inner periphery of the stator and outer periphery of the rotor structure.
Conductors are placed in these slots. The iron core is used for magnetic coupling
between the coils (formed by conductors) placed on the stator and rotor. If the
stator or rotor or both is subjected to a time varying magnetic ux, the iron core
is laminated to reduce eddy current losses. The windings in which voltage is
200
induced is called the armature windings. The windings through which a current
is passed to produce the primary source of magnetic ux in the machine is called
the eld windings. Permanent magnets are used in some machines to provide the
major source of magnetic ux in the machine. Rotating electrical machines take
many forms and are known by many names. The three basic and common ones
are D.C. machines, induction machines and synchronous machines. There are
other machines, such as permanent magnet machines, hysteresis machines and
stepper machines. In the D.C. machine, the eld winding is placed on the stator
and the armature winding on the rotor. A D.C. current is passed through the
eld winding to produce ux in the machine. Voltage induced in the armature
winding is alternating. A mechanical commutator and a brush assembly function
as a rectier or inverter, making the armature terminal voltage unidirectional.
In the induction machine the stator windings serve as both armature windings
and eld windings. When the stator windings are connected to an A.C. supply,
ux is produced in the air gap and revolves at the speed known as synchronous
speed. This revolving ux induces voltage in the stator windings as well as in the
rotor windings. If the rotor circuit is closed, current ows in the rotor winding
and reacts with the revolving ux to produce torque. The rotor speed is very
close to the synchronous speed. The rotor can have a winding similar to the
stator or a cage-type winding. The cage-type rotor formed by placing aluminum
or copper bars in the rotor slots and shorting them at the ends by means of rings.
In the synchronous machine, the rotor carries the eld winding and the stator
carries the armature windings. The eld winding is excited by direct current
to produce ux in the air gap. When the rotor rotates, voltage is induced in
the armature winding placed on the stator. The armature current produces
a revolving ux in the air gap whose speed is the same as the speed of the
rotor-hence the name synchronous machine. These three major machine types,
although they dier in physical construction, are governed by the same basic
laws. Their behavior can be explained by considering the same fundamental
principles of voltage and torque production. In D.C. machines the stator and
rotor ux distributions are xed in space and a torque is produced because
of the tendency of these two uxes to align with each other. The three basic
and commonly used machines; D.C., induction, and synchronous are discussed
for speed control methods in separate sections. In the following section, the
steady-state operation and speed control of D.C. machines are studied.
9.1 Pre-test
In the following multiple choice questions, please choose the correct answer:
1. There is no dierence between D.C. motors and D.C. generators in:
a) operation b) construction c) utilization
2. Dierent types of D.C. motor can be obtained by dierent connection

between:
a) Commutator and armature.
b) Commutator and eld windings.
c) Armature and eld windings.
3. The formula of speed control of D.C. motors is:

Vs −Iα Rα Vs +Iα Rα Vs
a) w= Kφ b) w= Kφ c) w= Kφ
201
Where: w = motor speed (rad./sec.).
Vs = supply voltage.
Iα = armature current.
φ=magnetic ux per pol.
K =machine constant.
4. The most common method used in speed control of D.C. motors is:
a) Supply voltage control.
b) Introducing external resistance.
c) Field winding control.
5. The torque formula of D.C. shunt motor is given as:
a) T = KIα b) T = KIα2 c) T = K 2 Iα
Where:
K = constant of the motor
Iα = armature current A
6. Torque formula of D.C. series motor is given as:
a) T = KIα b) T = K 2 Iα c) T = KIα2
7. The D.C. motor can be represented in electrical circuits by:
a) Resistance and inductance.
b) Resistance, inductance and back e.m.f.
c) Inductance and back e.m.f.
8. In a single-phase, half-controlled, bridge rectier, the diode are used as:
a) Zener diodes.
b) Isolating diodes.
c) Freewheeling diodes.
9. In a fully controlled, bridge-rectier which are used in speed control of

D.C. motors, the circuit requires (without regenerative power):
a) a freewheeling diode
b) a series inductor
c) a parallel capacitor
10. A regenerative braking of D.C. motor controlled from a chopper circuit

requires:
a) Step-down chopper.
b) Step-down and step-down chopper.
c) One-quadrant operation.
202
9.2 Introduction to Speed Control
In a D.C. machine, the armature winding is placed on the rotor and the eld
winding are placed on the stator. The stator has salient poles that are excited by
one or more eld windings, called shunt eld windings and series eld windings.
The eld windings produce an air-gap ux distribution that is symmetrical
about the pole axis.
The voltage induced in the turns of the armature winding is alternating. A

commutator-brush combination is used as a mechanical rectier to make the
armature terminal voltage unidirectional and also to make the MMF wave due
to the armature current xed in space. The brushes are so placed that when
the sides of an armature turn (or coil) pass through the middle of the region
between eld poles, the current through it changes direction. This makes all the
conductors under one pole carry current in one direction. Note that because of
the commutator and brush assembly, the armature M.M.F. is in quadrature with
the eld M.M.F. This positioning M.M.F.s will maximize torque production. In
the D.C. machine the eld winding is placed on the stator to excite the eld
poles, and the armature winding is placed on the rotor so that the commutator
and brush combination can rectify the voltage. Most D.C. machines, particularly
larger ones, have more than two poles, so most of the armature conductors
can be in the region of higher air gap ux density. As the armature rotates
in the magnetic eld produced by the stator poles, voltage is induced in the
armature winding. The voltage induced in all the turns connected in series
for one parallel path across the positive and negative brushes will contribute
to the average terminal voltage (E). The eld circuit and the armature circuit
can be interconnected in various ways to provide a wide variety of performance
characteristics. Also, the eld poles can be excited by two eld windings, a shunt
eld winding and a series eld winding. The shunt winding has a large number
of turns and takes only a small current (less than 5% of the rated armature
current), and it can be connected in parallel with the armature. The series
winding has fewer turns but carries a large current. It is connected in series
with the armature. If both shunt and series windings are present, the series
winding is wound on top of the shunt winding.
A rheostat is normally included in the circuit of the shunt winding to control

the eld current and thereby to vary the eld M.M.F.. Field excitation may
also be provided by permanent magnets. This may be considered as a form of
separately excited machine, the permanent magnet providing the separate but
constant excitation.
9.3 D.C. Motors Speed Control

The D.C. machine can be used as a motor or as a generator. It constant of
two circuits: eld circuit of the magnetic poles and armature circuit. These
two circuits can be interconnected in various ways to provide a wide variety
of performance characteristics. Various connections of the eld and armature
circuits are shown below in Figure 9.1.
203
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 9.1: Dierent Connections of D.C. Motor.
9.4 Speed Control of Synchronous Motors

A synchronous machine rotates at a constant speed in the steady-state. Unlike
induction machines, the rotating air gap eld and the rotor in the synchronous
machine rotate at the same speed, called the synchronous speed. Synchronous
machines are used primarily as generators. In this case they are called syn-
chronous generators or alternators. Synchronous generators with power ratings
of several hundred MVA (mega-volt-amperes) are quite common in generating
stations.
Like most rotating machines, a synchronous machine can also operate as both a
generator and a motor. In large sizes, synchronous motors are used for pumps in
generating stations and in small sizes they are used in electric clocks, timers and
record turntables when a constant speed is desired. In industry, synchronous
motors are used mainly where a constant speed is required.
An important feature of a synchronous motor is that it can draw either lagging
or leading reactive current from the A.C. supply system. A synchronous ma-
chine is a doubly excited machine. Its rotor poles are excited by a D.C. current
and its stator windings are connected to the A.C. supply. The air gap ux is
therefore the resultant of the ux due to both rotor current and stator current.
In induction machine, the only source of excitation is the stator current. There-
fore, induction motors always operate at a lagging power factor, because lagging
reactive current is required to establish ux in the machine. On the other hand,
in a synchronous motor, if the rotor eld winding provides just the necessary ex-
citation, the stator will draw no reactive current; that is, the motor operates at
204
unity power factor. If the rotor excitation current is decreased, lagging reactive
current will be drawn from the A.C. source to aid magnetization by the rotor
eld current and the machine operates at lagging power factor. If the rotor eld
current is increased, leading reactive current will be drawn from the A.C. source
to oppose magnetization by the rotor eld current and the machine will operate
at a leading power factor. Thus by changing the eld current, the power factor
of the synchronous motor can be controlled. If the motor is not loaded but is
oating on the A.C. supply system, it behaves as a variable inductor or capac-
itor as its rotor eld current is changed. In industry, synchronous motors are
sometimes used as synchronous condensers to improve the overall plant power
factor.
9.5 Torque-speed Characteristics

In many applications, D.C. motors are used to drive mechanical loads. Some
application require that the speed remains constant, and some applications re-
quire that the speed to be controlled over a wide range. An engineer who
wishes to use a D.C. motor for a particular application must therefore known
the torque-speed relation of the machine. Consider the separately excited D.C.
motor shown in Figure 9.2 below. The voltage, current, speed, torque, input
power, mechanical output power, shaft power and eciency are related as:
Eb = Vs − Is Rα
Eb = Kφw
Vs − Is Rα
w=
Kφ
Figure 9.2: Separately Excited D.C. Motor.
Also
T = K ∗ Is in case of separately and shunt motor
T = K ∗ Is2 in case of series motor
Pin = Vs ∗ Is (watt)input power to the motor
Pin = Eb ∗ Is (watt)mechanical output power
205
Pin = w ∗ T (watt) mechanical output power
Also
T = Pwin = Ebw∗Is (Newton-meters)
P◦ = [Pin − mechanicallosses]watt shaft power
η% = [P◦ /Pin ] ∗ 100 motor eciency
The speed control of D.C. machine can be controlled by the following methods:
i- Armature voltage (supply voltage) (Vs )
ii- Field excitation control (φ )
iii- Armature resistance control (Rα ). The torque speed characteristics of the
various D.C. motors are shown in Figure 9.3 below. The series motor
provides a variable speed over a wide range.
Figure 9.3: Torque-speed Characteristics.
Example 9-1:
A (12)Kw , (1000) r.p.m D.C. shunt motor is connected to (100) V D.C. supply.
At no load the motor runs at (1000) r.p.m and the armature takes (6)A. The
armature resistance is (0.1)Ω:
a-) Find the external eld resistance (Rex ) if the eld controlled is (0.99)A
and the eld resistance (Rf ) is (8)Ω
b-) Find the rotation losses of no load
c-) Find the speed, torque and eciency of the motor when the armature
current is (120)A.
Solution
a-)
Vs 100
Rex + Rf = = = 101Ω
If 0.99
Rex = 101 − Rf = 101 − 80 = 21Ω
b-)
Eb = Vs − Is Rα
= 100 − 6 ∗ 0.1 = 99.4V
rotational losses = Eb ∗ Iα = 99.4 ∗ 6 = 596.4W
c-)
Eb = Vs − Is Rα = 100 − 120 ∗ 0.1 = 88V
206
Eb no load W no load
=
Eb f ull load W f ull load
99.4 1000
=
88 Eb f ull load
∴ Eb f ull load = 885.3 r.p.m = 92.7 rad./sec.
Eb ∗ Iα 88 ∗ 120
T = = = 114N.m
w 92.7
P◦ = Pin − mechanical losses = 88 ∗ 120 − 596.4 = 9963.5W
Pin = Vs ∗ Is = 100 ∗ (120 + 0.99) = 12099W
P◦ 9963.5
η% = ∗ 100 = ∗ 100 = 82.4%
Pin 12099
9.6 D.C. Motor Starting
If a D.C. motor is directly connected to a D.C. power supply, the starting cur-
rent will be dangerously high. The starting current is given as:
V s − Eb
Is =
Rα
but the back e.m.f (Eb ) is zero at starting, therefore:
Vs
Is =
Rα
since Rα is small, the starting current is very large. It can be limited to a safe
value by inserting an external resistance in series with armature resistance (Rα )
or using a low terminal D.C. supply voltage (Vs ) at starting. The back e.m.f
increases as speed increases, and the external resistance can be gradually taken
out as the motor starts up. This can be done by a power electronic starter using
thyristors as shown in Figure 9.4 below.
Figure 9.4: Motor Starter using Thyristors.
ThyristorT H1 is operated (turned-ON) at starting of the D.C. motor. Thyristor

T H5 T H1 . The resistance-zener diodes circuit
is used to turn-OFF thyristor
combination is connected to a tacho-generator for turning-ON thyristors T H2 ,
T H3 and T H4 respectively, which are connected in series with the armature
207
circuit.
9.7 D.C. Motor Speed Control Using Power Electronic

Systems
There are numerous applications where control of speed is required, as in rolling
mills, cranes, hoists, elevators, machine tools and locomotive drives. D.C. mo-
tors speed control is less expensive than those of A.C. motors. In the armature
voltage control mode, the motor eld current is kept constant and the motor
supply voltage changes from zero to its rated value. The speed will charge from
zero to its rated speed, with constant torque. In the eld current control mode,
the speed to be obtained above the rated speed. The armature voltage remains
constant and the eld current is decreased to obtain higher speeds. The mo-
tor power still constant but the torque will decrease. In recent years, power
electronic converters using thyristors have been used as a replacement for the
old methods such as Ward-Leonard system, inserting external resistance with
the armature circuit and inserting variable resistance with eld circuit. The
converters used are controlled rectiers, and D.C. choppers.
9.8 Controlled Rectiers

The controlled rectiers can be used to convert a xed A.C. supply voltage
into variable D.C. supply voltage and then fed to the D.C. motor from the
armature side for the low speed control or from eld windings for high speed
control as shown in Figure 9.5 below.
Figure 9.5: D.C. Motor Control by Controlled Rectiers.
9.9 Single-phase Bridge Fully Controlled Rectier

The circuit and the output waveforms are shown in Figure 9.6. It is assumed
that the armature inductance (Lα ) sucient to ensure that the motor current
is continuous. The motor load current (i◦ ) ows from the supply through T H1
and T H2 T H3 and T H4 for the next half-cycle.
for one-half cycle and through
T H2 and T H4 are red during the interval (α < wt < π + α ) and connect the
motor to the supply ( V◦ = Vs ). At (π + α) thyristors T H3 and T H4 are red.
The supply voltage appears immediately across T H1 and T H2 as a reverse bi-
asing and turns them OFF. This called line commutated thyristors. The motor
208
current (i◦ ) is transferred to thyristors T H3 and T H4 . T H3 and T H4
Thyristors
conduct the motor current (i◦ ) during the interval (π + α < wt < 2π + α) and
connect the motor to the supply as (V◦ = −Vs ). The average output voltage
(V◦ ) in a continuous conduction case is:
1 π+α
Z
V◦ = Vm sin(wt)dwt
π α
2Vm
= cos(α)
π
rectier with its output waveforms at α = (45◦ )) ◦
and (135 ) Also:
V◦ = Eb + I◦ Rα
Where Eb a motor is back e.m.f andI◦ is the average motor load current. For
ring angles in the range 0◦ < α < 90◦ , the average output Voltage (V◦ ) is
positive and the current ows from supply to the load. For ring angles in the
range 90◦ < α < 180◦ , the output voltage is negative and the load current will
ow from the load to the supply. This mode of operation is used for regenerative
braking and the D.C. motor behaves as a D.C. generator.
209
Figure 9.6: Single Phase Bridge.
9.10 Single-phase Bridge Half-controlled Rectier

Single-phase, half-controlled rectier can be used for speed control of D.C. motor
as shown in Figure 9.7. The freewheeling action takes place through T H1 and
D1 during (α < wt < π +α) and through T H2 and D2 during (2π < wt < π +α).
The average output voltage is given as:
Z π
1
V◦ = Vm sin(wt)dwt
π α
Vm
= (1 + cos(α))
π
V◦ is always positive and the power ows from A.C. supply to the load. Half-
controlled rectier do not invert power, but chopper than full-controlled rectier
210
Figure 9.7: Half Controlled Rectier with D.C. Motor.
Example 9-2:
Single-phase, fully-controlled rectier is used to control the speed of (5) H.P., 110
V, 1200 r.p.m separately excited D.C. motor. The single-phase supply is (120)
V, 60Hz. Armature resistance Rα = 0.4Ω and armature inductance Lα = 5mH .
The motor voltage constant K = 0.09V /r.p.m.
i- For rectier or motoring operation if the load current is (30)A , nd the
ring angle and motor input power.
ii- For inverter (regenerating) operation, nd the ring angle to keep the load
current (30)A at (100) r.p.m speed and also nd the power feedback to
the supply.
Solution
1.
Eb = K ∗ N = 0.09∗!000 = 90V
V◦ = Eb + I◦ Rα = 90 + 30 ∗ 0.4 = 102V
√
2Vm 2 2 ∗ 120
V◦ = cos(α) = cos(α)
π π
◦
∴ α = 19.2
¶in = V◦ ∗ I◦ = 102 ∗ 30 = 3060W
2.
V◦ = −Eb + I◦ Rα = −90 + 30 ∗ 0.4 = −78V
√
2Vm 2 2 ∗ 120
V◦ = cos(α) = cos(α) = −78V
π π
◦
∴ α = 136.2
211
Feedback power =Eb ∗ I◦ = 90 ∗ 30 = 700W
Power losses = I◦2 Rα = 360W , net feedback power=2340W
9.11 Three Phase Bridge Fully-controlled Rectier

3-phase, fully-controlled converter is shown in Figure 9.8 below. It consists of
six-thyristors. It is most commonly used as the controlled rectier. Thyristors
T H1 , T H3 and T H5 are ring during the positive half-cycle of the 3-phase sup-
ply, and thyristors T H2 , T H4 and T H6 are red during the negative half-cycles
of the three-phase supply.
Assume that the output
π π
6 +π+ 3
Z
1
V◦ = π (VRN − VSN )dwt
π
3√ 6 +α
3 3Vm(ph)
V◦ = cos(α)
π
W here
VRN = Vm sin wt
VSN = Vm sin(wt − 120◦ )
Vm(ph) = maximum phase voltage.
212
Figure 9.8: Three Phase Bridge Fully Controlled Rectier Fed D.C. Motor.
Example 9-3:
A 3-phase-controlled converter is used to control the speed of separately excited
D.C. motor fed from 3-phase, 480 V, 60Hz supply. The resistance Rα = 0.1Ω
and the motor voltage constant (k) is (0.3)V /r.p.m and the load current is
(130)A.
a- Find the ring angle when the machine operates as generator at speed of
(1000) r.p.m.
b- Find the ring angle when the machine operated as a motor at (1500)
r.p.m speed.
Solution
a-
Eb = 0.3 ∗ 1000 = 300V
V◦ = −Eb + I◦ Rα = 270V
√
3 3Vm(ph)
V◦ = −270 = cos(α)
π
√ VL(r.m.s) √ 480 √
Vm(ph) = 2 ∗ √ = 2 ∗ √ = 277 2
√ √ 3 3
3 3 2 ∗ 277
− 270 = cos(α)
π
◦
α = 116.3
b-
Eb = K ∗ N = 0.3 ∗ 1500 = 450V
V◦ = Eb + I◦ Rα = 450 + 130 ∗ 0.1 = 463V
√ √
3 3 2 ∗ 277
V◦ = 463 = cos(α)
π
◦
α = 44.4
9.12 D.C. Chopper
The chopper converts a xed D.C. supply into a variable-voltage D.C. supply.
It can be used to control the speed of D.C. motor.
213
(H)
Figure 9.9: Chopper Fed a D.C. Motor Circuit and the Output Waveforms.
9.12.1 Step-down Chopper

The circuit diagram of step-down chopper with D.C. motor is show in Figure
9.9. The chopper can be conventional thyristor (SCR), GTO thyristor, power
transistor or MOSFET. When the chopper turned ON, the supply connected to
the load. When the chopper turned-OFF the load current freewheeled through
the diode Df . It is assumed that the load current is continuous; the average
tON
V◦ = Vs
T
V◦ = γVs
9.12.2 Step-up Chopper

The circuit diagram of step-up chopper with D.C. motor is shown in Figure
9.10. When the chopper is ON, the inductor (L) is connected to the supply VS
and VL = VS VL is the inductance voltage. When the
where chopper is OFF,
the inductor current (iL ) is forced to ow through the diode and D.C. motor.
The waveforms of V◦ , i◦ and VL are shown.
During ON-period:
diL
VL = VS = L
dt
∆I
=L
tON
During ON-period:
VL = VS − V◦
∆I
= −L
tOF F
T
VS = V◦
tOF F
V◦
VS =
(1 − γ)
214
(H)
Figure 9.10: Step-up Chopper
tON
γ=
T
9.12.3 Two-quadrant Chopper

It is used to control the speed of D.C. motor and regenerative braking of the
motor. It is a combination of step-down and step-up chopper. The circuit is
shown in Figure 9.11 below. If the chopper (1) and diode (D1 ) are operated, the
system operated as step-down chopper and the D.C. machine operates as motor,
and the chopper operates in the rst quadrant. If the chopper (2) and diode
(D1 ) are operated, the system operates as step-up chopper with (Eb ) as source
and the machine operates in regenerative braking mode. The output current
ows in negative direction and the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant.
Figure 9.11: Two-quadrant Chopper Operation with D.C. Motor.
215
Example 9-4:
The 2-quadrant chopper shown in Figure 9.11 is used for speed control and re-
generative braking of D.C. motor. The motor voltage constant is K = 0.1V /r.p.m.
The copping frequency fc = 250Hz and the armature resistance Rα = 0.2Ω.
The motor current is assumed to be ripple free. The supply voltage is VS = 120V
i- If the machine operates as motor at speed N = 400 r.p.m and load current
I◦ = 100A:
a- Draw the waveforms of V◦ , i◦ and IS .
b- Find tON of the chopper.
c- Find the power delivered by the motor, armature losses and the power
delivered by the source.
ii- If the machine operates as generator for regenerative braking of the motor
at N = 350 r.p.m and i◦ = −100A:
a- Draw the waveforms of V◦ , i◦ and IS .
b- Find tON of the chopper.
c- Find the power delivered by the motor, power loss in Rα and the
power ow to the source.
Solution
i-) a- The waveforms are shown in Figure 9.12.

b-
= 0.1 ∗ 400 + 100 ∗ 0.2 = 60V
ton 1
V◦ = VS = Vs
T 2
1
∴ tON = T = 1/(2 ∗ 250) = 2msec.
2
c-
Pm = Eb I◦ = 40 ∗ 100 = 4000W
PRα = I◦2 Rα = (100)2 ∗ 0.2 = 2000W
IS = (iS ∗ tON T )
2
Pin = VS ∗ IS = 120 ∗ 100 ∗ = 6000W
4
ii-) a- The waveforms are shown in Figure 9.12.

b-
= 0.1 ∗ 350 − 100 ∗ 0.2 = 15V
by replacing VS and V◦ with each other to obtain :
V◦ VS − V◦ 120 − 15 7
VS = ,γ = = =
(1 − γ) VS 120 8
tON 7 7 7
= ∴ tON = T = ∗ 4 ∗ 10−3 = 3.5msec.
T 8 8 8
c-
Pm = Eb I◦ = 35 ∗ (−100) = −3500W
PRα = I◦2 Rα = (−100)2 ∗ 0.2 = 2000W
216
1
Pin = VS ∗ IS = 120 ∗ (−100) ∗ = −1500W
8
Figure 9.12: Waveforms of Example 9-4.
9.13 Post-test
1. A series D.C. motor is supplied from uncontrolled bridge single-phase
rectier. The r.m.s A.C. supply is 240V and the total series resistance
RS = 2Ω. If the motor torque constant k = 0.32 and the load torque is
(20) N.m, calculate the average load current and speed.
2. A D.C. shunt motor is operating from single-phase, half-controlled, bridge
◦
rectier with delay angle (45 ) and the supply voltage is (330 sin wt )
volts and the back e.m.f is (75)V. Calculate the armature current and the
load torque, assuming that Rα = 5Ω, N = 1450 r.p.m and Lα can be
neglected.
3. A separately excited D.C. motor is supplied via fully-controlled, 3-phase,
bridge rectier. The lone-to-line voltage is (220) V from delta connected
secondary transformer. The motor parameters are: K = 2, Rα = 1.5Ω, Eb =
200V andα = 30◦ . Find the motor speed and torque.
4. A separately excited D.C. motor is supplied via half-controlled, 3-phase,
bridge rectier. The supply line voltage is (220)V at (50)Hz, and the motor
parameters are: Lα = 0.012H, Rα = 0.72Ω, K = 2V /(rad./sec.), Eb =
200V, α = 30◦ . Find the speed and motor torque.
5. A small separately excited D.C. motor is supplied via a half-controlled,
single-phase, bridge rectier. The supply is (240) V and the delay angle is
217
◦ ◦
(110 ) and the load current continues for (50 ) beyond the voltage zero
point. Find the motor speed at a torque of (1.8) N.m when Rα = 6Ω, k =
1.0N.m/A.
6. The armature of separately excited D.C. motor is fed from (72) V D.C.
battery via a chopper operating at (1000) Hz. Determine the motor volt-
age and current waveforms at speed of , with a load torque of (5) N.m .
The motor parameters are: , , can be neglected . 7. The speed of (10)
KW, 250V D.C. motor is controlled by 3-phase, semi-controlled, bridge
rectier from (120) V line voltage, 60 Hz, A.C. supply. Determine, for
continuous load current, the load voltage at ring angle α = 120◦ . Also
nd the output power when the motor current is (15).
7. One-quadrant, step-down chopper, is used to control the speed of separately-
excited D.C. motor, from (120) V D.C. supply voltage. If Rα = 0.15Ω, K =
0.5V /r.p.m, f c = 250HZ, N = 1200 r.p.m, Iα = 125 A, nd the duty ra-
tio and the chopper ON-period . Also nd the torque developed by the
motor and the motor input power.
Standard Answers
A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-c, 3-a, 4-a, 5-a, 6-c, 7-b, 8-c, 9-a, 10-b
B- Post-test
1. Solution
1 π
Z
2Vm
V◦ = Vm sin(wt)dwt =
π√ 0 π
= 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 230/π = 207V
r r
T 20
I◦ = = = 9.33A
K 0.23
Eb = V◦ + I◦ Rα = 207 − 9.33 ∗ 2 = 188.3V
E b I◦ = W ∗ T
W = Eb I◦ /T = 188.3 ∗ 9.33/20 = 88 rad./sec. = 838 r.p.m
2. Solution
Due to the armature inductance is neglected, the load is resistive
with back e.m.f
δ = sin−1 (Eb /Vm ) = sin−1 (75/330) = 13◦

1 π+δ
Z Z π+δ
V◦ = [ Vm sin(wt)dwt + Eb dwt]
π α π−δ
Z 167 Z π+δ
1
V◦ = [ Vm 330 sin(wt)dwt + (75)dwt] = 200V
π 45◦ 167◦
I◦ = (V◦ − Eb )/Rα = (200 − 75)/5 = 25A
T = Eb ∗ Iα /w = 75 ∗ 25/(1450 ∗ 2/pi/60) = 10 N.m
3. Solution
√
V◦ = 3 3Vm(ph) cos(α)/pi
√ √
= 3 3 2 ∗ 220 ∗ cos(30◦ )/π = 446V
I◦ = (V◦ − Eb )/Rα = (446 − 200)/1.5 = 164A
T = K ∗ I◦ = 2 ∗ 164 = 328N.m
218
W = Eb I◦ /T = 200 ∗ 164/328 = 100 rad./sec = 955 r.p.m
4. Solution
V◦ = 1.17Vph(r.m.s) + 1.17Vph(r.m.s) ∗ cos(α)
√ √ √
= 1.17 ∗ (200/ 3) + 1.17 ∗ (220/ 3) ∗ ( 3/2) = 277V
I◦ = (V◦ − Eb )/Rα = (277 − 200)/0.72 = 107A
T = K ∗ Iα = 200 ∗ 107/214 = 100 r.p.m
5. Solution
1 π Eb ∗ π
Z
V◦ = [ Vm sin(θ)dθ + (110◦ − 50◦ )
π α 180◦
V◦ = 71.1 + 0.33Eb ................................. 1
T
I◦ = = 1.8/1 = 108A
K
Eb = V◦ + I◦ Rα = V◦ − 10.8 .................. 2
Substitute equation(1) into (2) to obtain :
Eb = 90.4/1 = 90.4 rad./sec. = 864 r.p.m
6. Solution
1
AT w = 90 rad./sec., Eb = K ∗ W = ∗ 90 = 45V
2
V◦ = Eb ∗ I◦ Rα = Eb = 45V due to Rα = 0Ω
V◦ = γVS ∴ γ = V◦ /VS = 45/72 = 0.625
tON tON tON
γ= = = = 0.25
T 1/f c 1 ∗ 10−3
∴ tON = 0.625 m sec.
I◦ = T /K = 5/0.5 = 10A
7. Solution
√
3 3VL(m)
V◦ = (1 + cos(α))
√ 2π
= 3 ∗ 2 ∗ 120 ∗ (1 + cos(120◦ ))/2π
= 40.5V
P = V◦ ∗ I◦ = 40.5 ∗ 15 = 608W
8. Solution
Eb = K ∗ W = 0.05 ∗ 1200 = 60V
I◦ = (VV◦ − Eb )/Rα = (V◦ − 60)/0.15 = 125
∴ V◦ 78.8V = γ VS = γ 120
γ = 78.8/120 = 0.625
tON = γ ∗ T = 0.625 ∗ 4 = 2.5 m.sec.
60
T = Eb ∗ I◦ /w = ∗ 125 = 60 N.m
(2π ∗ 1200)/60
P = V◦ ∗ I◦ = 78.8 ∗ 125 = 9843W
9.14 Pre-test
1. The main advantage of induction motor is:
a) Fixed speed. b) Fixed poles.
219
c) Fixed frequency. d) Easy to manufacture and main-
tenance free.
2. The main advantage of induction motor is:
a) Fixed speed. b) No brushes.
c) High power / weight ratio. d) Robust.
3. The rotor speed of induction motor is always:
a) Equal to synchronous speed.
b) Less than the synchronous speed.
c) Greater than the synchronous speed.
4. The synchronous speed (Ns ) of the rotating magnetic eld inside the air
gap is equal to:
60P 120P 60P
a) Ns = f b) Ns = f c) Ns = P
Where p=No. of magnetic poles, f= supply frequency.
5. At motor starting , the slip is equal to:
3
a) 0 b) 1 c) 2 d)
2
6. The power electronic system used in variation of motor supply voltage is:
a) Chopper. b) Rectier. c) Regular. d) Inverter.
7. The power electronic system used in variation of motor supply frequency

is:
a) Chopper. b) Rectier. c) Regular. d) Inverter.
8. The motor eciency in terms of slip (s) can be expressed as:
a) η = s. b) η = 1 − s. c) η = 1 + s. d) η = 2s.
9. The induction motor operates in a regenerative mode when the slip be-
comes:
a) Zero b) Negative c) Positive
10. If the motor speed is near the synchronous speed , the torque formula can
be approximated as:
2 2 2
3Vph S Vph S 3Vph S 3Vph S
a) T = a2 ws Rr . b) T = aws Rr . c) T = a2 ws Rr . d) T = a2 ws .
Where,
a=Stator / rotor turns ratio.
Rr =Rotor resistance per phase.
ws =Synchronous speed.
Vph =Stator phase voltage.
9.15 Induction Motor Speed Control

The induction motor is one type of A.C. motors. It has a stator and rotor
mounted on bearings and separated by an air-gap. Both stator and rotor wind-
ings carry alternating currents. The A.C. supplied to the stator directly and
the rotor by induction. Three-phase induction motor are the most important
once and widely used in industry, the operation, performance characteristics,
eciency and speed control methods are studied in the following section.
220
9.15.1 Construction and Operation
Unlike D.C. motors, induction motors have a uniform air gap. The stator is
composed of laminations of sheet steel. A 3-phase winding is put in slots cut
on the inner surface of the stator-frame. The rotor also consists of laminated
ferromagnetic material, with slots cut on the outer surface. The rotor windings
may be either of two types, squirrel-cage type or wound rotor type. The squirrel
cage winding consists of aluminium or copper bars embedded in the rotor slots
and shorted at both ends by copper and rings. The wound rotor has the same
form as the stator winding. The terminals of the wound rotor winding are
connected to 3-slip rings , and can connected to an external circuit , such as 3-
phase resistor for speed control of the induction motor . Let a balanced 3-phase
current owing through the 3-phase winding of the stator as:
iR = Im cos(wt)
iS = Im cos(wt − 120◦ )
iT = Im cos(wt − 240◦ )
The resultant M.M.F wave at any point in the air gap, dened by an angle (θ ),
can be expressed as:
3
M.M.F(θ )=
2 N Im cos(wt − θ)
Where:
Im =Maximum phase current.
N =Number of turns in each phase.
θ=Any angle measured from a reference point on the axis of any phase.
The velocity of the magnetic eld is given as:
NS = 120∗f
p (r.p.m)
p=Number of magnetic poles of the machine.
f =The supply frequency in Hertz.
If the rotor circuit is closed, the induced voltage in the rotor produces rotor
currents; those interact with the air gap eld to produce a torque. The rotor
will start rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic eld, such that the
relative speed between the rotating eld and the rotor winding decreases. The
rotor will reach a steady-state speed (Nr ) that is less than the synchronous
speed (Ns ). If Nr =Ns , there will be no induced voltage and current in the rotor
circuit and hence no torque.
The dierence between Ns and Nr is called slip speed, and the percentage of
this speed to the synchronous speed is called slip (s) as:
NS −Nr Slip speed
s% = NS = Synchronous speed ∗ 100
The rotor voltage frequency is given as:
fr = Sf
The rotor voltage induced at slip (s) is:
Ers = s ∗ Er
Where Er = induced voltage in the rotor per phase at standstill.
9.15.2 Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor

The equivalent circuit model can be used to study and predict the performance
of the induction motor. Figure 9.13,9.14 below shows 3-phase, wound-rotor
induction motor with its corresponding eq uivalent circuit.
221
(a) Wound Rotor Construction.
(b) Connection of External Resistance
Figure 9.13: Slip Ring Three Phase Induction Motor.
Figure 9.14: Three Phase Wound-rotor Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit.
Where:
RS =Stator resistance per phase.
Rr =Rotor resistance per phase.
XS =Stator leakage reactance / phase.
Xr =Rotor leakage reactance / phase.
Xm =Magnetizing reactance.
Rm =Core loss resistance.
222
Stator copper loss = Pscu = 3Is2 Rs
0 0
Rotor copper loss = Prcu = 3Ir2 Rs
2
V2 Vs/ph
Iron core loss = Pc = 3 m ≈ 3
Rm Rm
The power developed on air gap (from stator to rotor through air gap):
0
0
2 Rr
Pg = 3(Ir ) (W atts)
S
0 Ir 0
W here Ir = , Rr = a2 Rr
a
a = stator to rotor turns ratio per phase.
Mechanical power developed by the motor is:

0
0
2 Rr
Pd = Pg − Pr cu = 3(Ir ) (1 − S) W att
S
= Pg (1 − S)
Pd Pd ∗ 60
M otor torque = Td = =
Wm 2πNr
Pg (1 − S) Pg
= =
Wm Ws
M otor input power = Pi = 3Vs/ph Is cosφs
= Pc + Ps cu + Pg
Output power on the motor shaf t is :
P◦ = Pd − Pno load
P◦ Pd − Pno load
Ef f iciency = η = =
Pin Pc + Ps cu + Pg
If the losses are neglected then :
Pd P( 1 − S)
η= = = (1 − S)
Pg Pg
Generaally : Xm Rm
2
Xm (Rs2 + Xs2 )
So the magnetizing voltage Vm ≈ Vs and the equivalent circuit is reduced as in

Figure 9.15 below.
Figure 9.15: Modied Equivalent Circuit.
223
The total impedance (Zt ) of this circuit is:
Rr0
−Xm (Xs + Xr0 ) + jXm (Rs + s )
Zt = Rr0
Rs + s + j(Xm + X + s + Xr0 )
The torque current per phase is:

Vs/ph
Ir0 = Rr0 2 1
[(Rs + s ) + (Xs + Xr0 )2 ] 2
Substitute this equation into the torque equation to obtain:
3Rr0 Vs/ph
2
Td = R0
SWs [(Rs + sr )2 + (Xs + Xr0 )2 ]
The torque-speed characteristic is shown below in Figure 9.16.
Figure 9.16: The Torque-speed Characteristic
9.15.3 Speed Control Methods of Induction Motor

An induction motor is essentially a constant-speed motor when connected to
a constant voltage and frequency supply. The operating speed is very close to
the synchronous speed. If load torque increases the speed drops. Many in-
dustrial applications require several speeds or continuously adjustable range of
speeds. The squirrel cage induction motors are cheap, rugged and suitable for
high speed. The availability of power-electronics systems as speed controllers,
although more complex than those used for D.C. motors, has made it possible
to use induction motors in variable-speed drive systems. It has section; various
methods for speed controlling of an induction motors are discussed.
9.15.3.1 Pole Changing

The speed of induction motor can be changed by changing the number of mag-
netic poles of the machine. This can be done by changing the coil connections
of the stator winding. Squirrel-cage motor are invariably used become the rotor
can operate with any number of stator poles. The speed can be changed in
steps and the number of stator windings makes the motor expensive. Due to
the motor speed is close to the synchronous, the motor speed can be changed
according to the formula:
120∗f
Ns = p (r.p.m)
224
9.15.3.2 Stator Voltage Control
The terminal supply phase voltage (Vs/ph ) of the motor can be varied by A.C.
voltage controlled (A.C. regulator) as shown in Figure 9.17 below. Speed control
with thyristor controller is commonly used with small squirrel cage motors. In
large motors an input lter is required due to a large harmonic current will ow
in the supply line.
Figure 9.17: Stator Voltage Controller.
The torque developed in an induction motor is proportional to the square of the

terminal voltage. A set of torque-speed characteristics with various terminal
voltages is shown in Figure 9.18. If the rotor drives a fan load, the speed can
be varied over the range Nr and Ns . The maximum and starting torques are
reduced with the reduction of the motor terminal voltage.
225
Figure 9.18: T-N Characteristics with Various Terminal Voltages
9.15.3.3 Line Frequency Control (frequency Voltage Con-

trol)
The synchronous speed (Ns ) and the hence the motor speed (Nr ) can be varied
by changing the supply frequency. Figure 9.19 shows a block diagram of an
open-loop speed control system, in which the motor supply frequency can be
varied.
Figure 9.19: Open-loop Speed Control System Block Diagram.
To maintain the same air gap ux density the ratio Vs/ph /f must be remain
constant to prevent the machine from saturation. For lower frequencies the
ratio Vs /f will increase and the supply voltage must be reduced to maintain
constant air gap ux density. This can be done by variation of ring angle of
the controlled rectier. The torque-speed characteristics for variable frequency
operation are shown in the Figure 9.20 below.
226
Figure 9.20: Variable-voltage, Variable-frequency Torque Speed Characteristics.
At the base frequency (fbase ), the motor terminal voltage is the maximum. Be-
low this frequency, the air-gap ux maintained constant and hence the same
maximum torques are available. Beyond, fbase cannot increased with frequency
and the air-gap ux decreases and so does the maximum torque decreases. Note
that for low frequency the motor speeds (Nr ) close to the corresponding syn-
chronous speeds, and hence the slip is low and the eciency is high. If the
synchronous speed corresponding to the rated frequency is called base speed
(wb ), then the βwb at any other frequency becomes:
ws = βwb
Nany synchronous speed
W here β =
Nbase speed
βwb − wr
∴ Slip(s) at any synchronous speed =
βwb
The motor developed torque at any synchronous speed becomes:
3Rr0 Vs/ph
2
Td = Rr0 2
SβWs [(Rs + 0 2
s ) + (βXs + βXr ) ]
If (Rs ) is neglected, then divide the torque at any synchronous speed by the
torque at base speed to obtain:
Tds 1 fbase 2
= =( )
Tdb β fany
Example 9-5: A 3-phase , 11.2 , 1750 r.p.m , 460V , 60Hz , 4-phase , Y-
connected induction motor , has the following parameters:
Rs = 0.1Ω, Rr0 = 0.3Ω, Xs = 1.14Ω, Xr0 = 1.17Ω, Xm = 33Ω
If the break down torque requirement is (35) N.m, calculate:
a-) Supply voltage frequency.
b-) Motor speed at the break down (maximum) torque.
Solution:
460
Vs/ph = √ = 265 V
3
wb = base speed = 2πf = 2π ∗ 60 = 377 rad./sec.
Pd 11200
Tdb = base troque = = = 61.1 N.m
Wr 2π ∗ 1750/60
Tds 35 1
= = 2 ∴ β = 1.32
Tdb 61.1 β
Nany Nnew
β = 1.32 = =
Nbase Nbase
227
wb ∗ 60
Nbase =
2π
ws = β ∗ wb = 1.32 ∗ 377 = 498 rad./sec.
1.32 ∗ 377 ∗ 60
Ns = β ∗ Nb = = 4755 r.p.m
2π
P Ns 4 ∗ 4755
fs = = = 158 Hz
120 120
Rr0
At maximum torque S = = 0.1
β(Xs + Xr0 )
Nr = Ns (1 − S) = 4755(1 − 0.1) = 4275 r.p.m
The following diagrams represent methods of speed control by variation of sup-

ply frequency in 3-phase induction motors.
Figure 9.21: Controlled Rectier-voltage Source Inverter Motor Drive.
Figure 9.22: Chopper-voltage Source Inverter Drive.
Figure 9.23: Current Source Inverter Motor Drive.
228
9.15.3.4 Rotor Resistance Control
The speed of wound-rotor induction motor can be controlled by connecting an
external resistance (Rex ) in the rotor circuit through slip rings as shown in
Figure 9.24 below. The torque-speed characteristics for four values of external
resistances are shown in Figure 9.25. The load torque is also shown by the
dashed line. By varying the external resistance, the speed can be controlled in
the range.
Figure 9.24: Induction Motor Speed Control by Variation Of External Rotor

Resistance.
Figure 9.25: Torque-speed Characteristic by Varying External Rotor Resistance.
The scheme shown in Figure 9.25 requires 3-phase resistance bank, and for bal-
ance operation all 3-resistances should be equal for any setting. Manual adjust-
ment of resistances may not be satisfactory for some applications, particularly,
for closed-loop feedback control system. The 3-phase resistor may be replaced
by 3-phase diode rectier and D.C. chopper system, as shown inn Figure 9.26
below. The inductor Ld acts as a current-source (Id ) and the D.C. chopper
varies the eective resistance. The eective resistance can be changed by varing
the ON-time (duty ratio) of the chopper. The eective resistance is given as:
Ref = (1 − γ) ∗ Rex Where γ duty ratio of chopper.
229
Figure 9.26: Replacing Of External Rotor Resistance by Uncontrolled Bridge
Rectier and D.C. Chopper System.
Therefore, varying (γ ) in the range 0 < γ < 1, the eective resistance is

varied in range 0 < Ref < Rex and torque-speed characteristics similar to those
shown in Figure 9.25. The rectied voltage ( ) is given as:
√ √
Vd = S ∗ 3 ∗ 3∗ 2 ∗ Er/ph /pi volts
Where S = motor slip, and
Er/ph = r.m.s rotor voltage per phase.
A block diagram for closed-loop operation is shown in the same gure. The ac-
tual speed (Nr ) is compared with reference speed and the error signal represents
the reference current. The reference current is compared with actual current
and the error signal changes the duty ratio (γ ) of the chopper. Also the slip
power in the rotor circuit may be returned to the supply by replacing the D.C.
chopper and the external resistance by three-phase bridge inverter as shown in
Figure 9.27 below.
Figure 9.27: Slip-power Recovery Drive System.
230
9.16 Post-test
1. An inverter supplies a 4-poles, induction motor, rated at (220) V, 50Hz.
Determine the approximate output voltage of the inverter required for
motor speed of (900) r.p.m.
2. A wound rotor induction motor controlling by diode rectier-chopper-
external resistance from the rotor side. Determine the eective resistance
when the following parameters are given:
chopper frequency = 200Hz, ON-period =4 msec.
external resistance = 20Ω connected in parallel with the chopper.
3. A single-phase induction motor controlled by A.C. voltage regulator. The
system parameters are: supply voltage =330 sin(314t) volts. Triggering
◦ ◦
angle (α)=45 , conduction angle for each thyristor =150 , assume the
motor torque varies as a square of applied voltage; calculate the percentage
of the torque developed?
4. A 3-phase 5H.P,208V, 60Hz induction motor runs at 1746 r.p.m when it
delivers rated output power. Find the number of machine poles, slip and
rotor current frequency.
5. A 3-phase, delta-connected. A.C. regulator is used to control the speed of
3-phase, 5H.P, 208V, 60Hz induction motor. At full load the power factor
is (0.85) lagging and the eciency is (90%). determine the input power
in (VA), the range of ring angle (α) and the voltage and current ratings
of each thyristor.

A- Pre-test
1-d, 2-a, 3-b, 4-c, 5-b
6-c, 7-d, 8-b, 9-b, 10-a
B- Post-test
1- Solution Approximately the slip may be neglected then:
ws = βwb
Or Ns = βNb
Nb = 120 ∗ 50/4 = 1500 r.p.m
900 = β ∗ 1500
β = 900/1500 = 9/15
Vinveter = βVbase
= 9/15 ∗ 220 = 132 V
2- Solution
γ = tON /T = 4 ∗ 10−3 /(1/200) = 0.8

Ref f = (1 − γ)Rex
= (1 − 0.8) ∗ 20 = 4Ω
3- Solution
Vm(ph) θ − { sin(2β)−sin(2α)
2 } 1
Vph = √ [ ]2
2 π
13π
β = α + θ = 45◦ + 150◦ = 195 = rad.
12
231
sin(2β) = 0.5 , sin(2α) = 1
330 2.618 − 0.25 1
Vm(ph) = √ [ ] 2 = 222.8V
2 π
T Vph(r.m.s)calculation 2
=[ ]
Tbase Vph(r.m.s)base
222.8 2
=[ √ ] = 0.91 = 91%
330/ 2
4- Solution
Pin = Pout /(η ∗ Pf ) = 5 ∗ 746/(0.9 ∗ 0.85) = 4876 V A

p √
IL = Pin / 3 ∗ VL = 4876/ 3 ∗ 208 = 13.5 A
√
IL(max) = 2 ∗ 13.5 = 19 A
√
VL(max) = 2 ∗ 208 = 294 V
φ = cos−1 (0.85) = 32◦ ∴ φ < α < 180◦ range of (α)
Or 32◦ < α < 180◦
9.18 Pre-test
1. In the steady-state operation the synchronous motor has:
a) stepping speed b) constant speed
c) variable speed d) innity speed
2. Over-excited synchronous motor operation as:
a) inductive load b) capacitive load
c) resistance load d) resistive-inductive load
3. The rotor of synchronous motor has a winding which carries:
a) A.C. current b) drive current
c) pulsating current d) stepping current
4. Cylinderical rotor synchronous machine is used in:
a) high speeds b) medium speeds
c) low speeds
5. The slip in a synchronous motor during operation is equal to:
a) 1 b) zero
c) -1 d) 2
6. The starting torque of the synchronous motor is equal to:
a) zero b) maximum torque
c) half-load torque
7. An additional winding is added in the rotor of the synchronous motor to

help in motor starting and this winding is called:
a) Induction winding. b) Pole winding.
c) Damper winding. d) Commutation winding.
8. The approximate power formula of synchronous motor is given as:
232
3|Vt ||Ef | 3|Vt2 |
a)
Zs sin δ b)
Xs sin δ
3|Vt ||Ef | 3|Vt ||Ef |

c)
Xs sin δ d)
Zs
Where: Vt =constant bus voltage per phase.

Ef =excitation voltage and its angle (δ ).
Xs =synchronous reactants per phase.
9. The motor torque can be calculated in terms of motor power (Pt ) as:
Pt
a) T = Pt b) T = Xs
Pt
c) T = Ws
10. The power electronic system used in speed control of synchronous motor
is called:
a) Rectier b) Chopper
c) regulator d) Inverter
9.19 Speed Control Of Synchronous Machines

Unlike the induction machines, the synchronous machines rotate at a constant
speed in the steady state operation. A synchronous machine can also operate as
both generator or motor. Synchronous motors are used for pumps, electric
clocks, timers and record turntables. An important feature of synchronous
motor is that, it can draw either lagging or leading reactive current from the
A.C. supply system. A synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine. Its rotor
poles are excited by D.C. current and its stator winding is connected to the A.C.
supply. If the rotor eld current is increased , leading reactive current will drawn
from the A.C. source to oppose the magnetization by the rotor eld current and
the machine operates at leading power factor . In industry, synchronous motors
are sometimes used as synchronous machines condensers.
9.19.1 Construction Of 3-phase Synchronous Machines

The stator of 3-phase synchronous machines has a three-phase distributed wind-
ing similar to that of three-phase induction machine. The stator winding, which
is connected to the A.C. supply system, is sometimes called armature winding.
The rotor has a winding called excitation or eld winding, which carry a direct
current. The eld winding on the rotor structure is normally fed from an exter-
nal D.C. source through slip rings and brushes. The rotor can divide into two
groups, as shown in Figure 9.28 :
i- Cylindrical rotor with high speed machine.

ii- Salient pole rotor with low-speed machine.
233
Figure 9.28: Basic Structure Of Three Phase Synchronous Machine.
9.19.2 Synchronous Motor Starting

The synchronous motor is not self-starting. If the rotor eld winding is excited
and the stator terminals are connected to the A.C. supply, the motor not start,
but it vibrates due to the net torque on the rotor will be zero and the motor
will not develop any starting torque. Two methods are normally used to start
synchronous motor:
9.19.2.1 Start with variable-frequency supply

By using a frequency converter, the synchronous motor can be brought from
standstill to its desired speed, as shown in Figure 9.29 The motor starts with
low frequency supply and the stator will rotate slowly and then the frequency
is gradually increased and brought the motor to the required speed.
Figure 9.29: Variabl-frequency, Motor Starting.
9.19.2.2 Start as an induction motor

It can be started as an induction motor. For this purpose an additional winding,
which resembles the cage of an induction motor, is mounted on the rotor. This
winding is called damper winding. To start the motor, the eld winding is
left unexcited. If the motor terminals are connected to the A.C. supply, the
motor will start as an induction motor, because currents will be induced in
the damper winding to produce torque. When the motor speed approaches
234
synchronous speed, the rotor poles are excited by D.C. eld current and the
rotor poles closely following the stator poles will be locked to them. The rotor
will then run at synchronous speed. At synchronous speed, no current will be
induced in the damper winding.
9.20 Equivalent Circuit Model

An equivalent circuit model can be used to study the performance character-
istics with sucient accuracy. The circuit is derived on the per-phase basis.
Figure 9.30 shows the equivalent circuit of synchronous generator, synchronous
motor and synchronous motor for current source equivalent circuit .The exci-
tation voltage (Ef ) can be found from the open circuit characteristics. It is
proportional to the machine speed and excitation ux and it is given as:
Ef = 4.44 f φf N(ph) Kw
Where:
φf =ux per pole due to the excitation current.
N(ph) =number of turns in each phase.
Kw =winding factor.
Rα = stator winding resistance per phase.
XS = synchronous reactance per phase.
1
ZS = [Rα + Xs2 ] 2 synchronous impedance per phase
Vt =Machine terminal voltage per phase
Ef = Inducd voltage in the stator winding per phase due to the excitation D.C.
current and the machine rotated
δ= phase angle between the terminal voltage and excitation induced voltage.
Figure 9.30: Synchronous Machine Equivalent Circuit.
9.21 Power and Torque Characteristics

A synchronous machine is normally connected to a xed voltage and operates
at constant speed. Analytical expression for steady-state power delivered to the
235
machine and the torque developed are derived in terms of supply voltage and
machine parameters from the per-phase equivalent circuit of the machine, as
shown in Figure 9.31.
Let Vt constant voltage per phase and considered as the reference phaser=Vt ∠ 0◦
Ef = Ef ∠δ
ZS = Rα + jXS = |ZS |∠ϕS
S = Vt ∗ Iα complex and apparent power per phase The conjugate of phase
current (Iα ) is used to conform with lagging and leading reactive power.
Figure 9.31: Equivalent Circuit Of Synchronous Machine as a Generator.
Ef − Vt∗

Iα∗=
Zs
Ef
∠φs − δ − Vt ∠φs

Zs Zs
2
|Vt | |Ef | Vt
S= ∠φs − δ − ∠φs V A/phase
|Zs | Zs
2
|Vt | |Ef | |Vt |
P = active power(watt/phase) = cos(φs − δ) − cos(φs )
|Zs | Zs
2
|Vt | |Ef | |Vt |
P = reactive power(V AR/phase) = sin(φs − δ) − sin(φs )
|Zs | Zs
◦
If (Rα ) is neglected, then Zs = Xs and φs = 90 and for 3-phase machine:
3 |Vt | |Ef |
Pt = sin(δ) (watts)
|Xs |
2
3 |Vt | |Ef | |Vt |
Qt = cos(δ) − (V AR)
|Xs | Xs
The torque developed by the machine is given as:
Pt 3 |Vt | |Ef |
T = = cos(δ) N.m
Ws Ws |Xs |
◦
Maximum torque occurs at δ = 90 as:
Pt 3 |Vt | |Ef |
Tmax = = N.m
Ws Ws |Xs |
As the speed remains constant in a synchronous machine, the torque- speed
characteristic is a straight line, parallel to the torque axis as shown in Figure
9.32 below.
236
Figure 9.32: Torque-speed Characteristic.
Example 9-6: A 3-phase, 5KVA, 208V four phase, 60Hz, star connected syn-
chronous motor has negligible stator winding resistance and (8) ohms per phase
synchronous reactance at rated terminal voltage. The eld excitation is ad-
justed so that the power factor is unity when the machine draws (3) KW from
the supply. Find the excitation voltage, power angle, and the maximum torque
that the motor can deliver.
Solution:
Pt = 3000 = 3Vt Iα cos φ
208
Iα = 3000/3 ∗ √ ∗ 1 = 8.3A/phase
3
Ef = Vt − jXs ∗ Ia = 120∠0◦ − j8 ∗ 0◦ 8.3∠0◦
= 120 − 8∠90◦ ∗ 8.3 = 137.4∠ − 29◦ V
∴ δ = power angle = −29◦
Pt 3 |Vt | |Ef |
Tmax = =
Ws Ws |Xs |
3 ∗ 120 ∗ 137.35
= = 32.8 N.m
(2π ∗ 1800/60) ∗ 60
9.22 Speed Control Methods

The speed can be controlled by changing the frequency of power supply. At any
xed frequency, the speed remains constant, even for changing load conditions.
Two methods of speed control are normally in use and in one of them the speed
directly controlled by changing the output voltage and frequency of an inverter
or cycloconverter. In the other method the frequency is automatically adjusted
by the motor speed and is called self-controlled synchronous motor.
9.22.1 Frequency Control

Figure 9.33 shows the schematic diagrams for open-loop speed control of a syn-
chronous motor by changing the output frequency and voltage of an inverter or
cycloconverter. It is necessary to change the voltage with frequency to obtain
same maximum torque over the whole range of speed variation and also to avoid
magnetic saturation in the machine.
237
Figure 9.33: Open-loop Frequency Control.
From the equivalent circuit:

Ef = If0 Xs = 2πf Ls If0
Then if the eld current is kept constant:
Ef = K1 f , then substitute this relation into the torque equation to obtain:
3 |Vt | |K1 f | Vt
T = sin(δ) T =K sinδ where k is constant
Ws (2πf Ls ) f
A base speed can be dened for which (Vt ) and (f ) are the rated values of
the motor. If the ratio ((Vt /f ) corresponding to this base speed maintained at
value of lower speed by changing voltage with frequency, the maximum torque
((KVt /f ) is maintained equal to that a base speed. The torque speed character-
istic for variable-voltage, variable frequency operation of synchronous motor is
shown below in Figure 9.34. For regenerative breaking the power ow reverses.
Figure 9.34: Variable-frequency, Variable-voltage, Torque-speed Characteristics
238
9.22.2 Self Controlled Synchronous Motor
In a sudden load synchronous motor tends to lose synchronism. In open-loop
◦
system the torque angle (δ ) increases beyond (90 ) in the application of sudden
loads and leading to loss of synchronism. If the rotor position is sensed as the
rotor slows down, the information is used to decrease the stator frequency, the
motor will stay in synchronism and the drive system is known as self-controlled
synchronous motor as shown in Figure 9.35 below.
Figure 9.35: Self-controlled Synchronous Motor.
9.23 Post-test
1. A 3-phase , 5NVA , 11KV , 60Hz , synchronous machine, has the following
parameters:
i- Xs = 10Ω
ii- Rα can be neglected.
iii- rotation loss =80KW
If the machine operates as synchronous condenser:
a- Neglect the rotational losses nd the stator current at normal exci-
tation, over excitation by 150% and under excitation 50%.
b- Taking the rotational losses into account, nd the stator current,
excitation voltage and power factor at normal excitation.
239
2. A star-connected, 4-phase, 415V, 50Hz synchronous motor has synchronous
reactance (0.5)Ω/phase and rated stator current (100)A. Find the eld
excitation voltage required for the motor to take current at (0.85) power
factor leading at condition of:
i- 50Hz, 100A.
ii- 30Hz, 60A.
3. A 3-phase, 480V, 125H.P, 0.85p.f leading, 60Hz, 4-poles, star-connected,
synchronous motor has Ls = 3.85mH and Rα = 0. The speed is controlled
over the range 300 → 800 r.p.m using a cycloconverter. Determine the
range of supply frequency, the excitation voltage at rated condition, the
maximum power deliver by the motor at rated speed assuming the ratio
V /f to remain constant over the speed range.

A- Pre-test
1-b, 2-b, 3-b, 4-a, 5-b, 6-a, 7-c, 8-c, 9-c, 10-d
B- Post-test
1- a- P ower = 3Vt Iα cosπ For normal excitation, power factor =1.
Hence Vt and Iα are in phase. But Iα =0 (no rotational losses),
hence the power is zero and (δ ) is zero. Both Vt and Ef are the
same in magnitude.
√
∴ Ef = Vt = 11 ∗ 103 / 3 = 6350V /phase
When the excitation increased by 150% the Ef becomes (1.5*6350)
Volt then:
V ∠0◦ −E ∠0◦
Iα = t jXs f = 6350−1.5∗6350
10∠90◦ = −317.5∠−90◦ A = 317.5∠90◦ A
p.f = cos(90◦ ) = 0 Leading
When the excitation reduced by 50% the Ef becomes:
V −E
Iα = tjXs f = 6350−0.5∗6350
10∠90◦ = 317.5∠ − 90◦
◦
p.f = cos(−90 ) = 0 Leading
b- for normal excitation, power factor =cosφ=1

power = rotational losses =3Vt Ic osφ = 80000 W
80000
∴ Iα = 3∗6350∗1 = 4.2A
Ef = Vt − Iα ∗ jXs = 6530 − 4.2∠0◦ ∗ 10∠90◦
= 6351∠0.4◦ V /phase
2- Solution
i-)
Ef = Vt − jIα Xs = 239.6 − j50
= 244.8∠ − 11.8◦
P ower angle = δ = 11.8◦
3 |Vt | |Ef |
T = sin(δ)
Ws |Xs |
Ws = 2πNs /60, Ns = 120 ∗ f /p = 1500 r.p.m
3 ∗ 239.6 ∗ 244.8 ∗ 0.2
T = = 448 N.m
157 ∗ 0.5
ii-)
Ef = 239.6 − j60 ∗ 0.5 = 241.5∠ − 70◦
Xs at 30Hz = [Xs ∗ 30/50]Ω
240
∴ δ = 7◦ , WS = 2πNs /60, N s = 120 ∗ f /p = 900
Ws = 2π900/60 = 30πrad./sec.
3 ∗ 239.6 ∗ 241.5 ∗ 0.12
T =T = = 748 N.m
30π ∗ [0.5 ∗ 30/50]
3- Solution
fmin = Ns ∗ p/120 = 300 ∗ 4/120 = 10Hz
fmax = Ns ∗ p/120 = 1800 ∗ 4/120 = 60Hz
10 ≤ f ≤ 60Hz range of f requency
√
Ef = Vt − jIα Xs = 480/ 3 − j132 ∗ 1. = 86∠ − 34.6◦
√
W here Iα = p/ 3VL cosφ, Xs = 2πf Ls , f = 60Hz
3 |Vt | |Ef |
Pmax = Tmax ∗ Ws = = 49.05 KW
|Xs |
241
References
[1] Acha, Enrique, et al. Power electronic control in electrical systems. Else-
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[2] Bose, Bimal K. Power electronics and motor drives: advances and trends.
Elsevier, 2010.
[3] Bose, Bimal K. Power electronics and AC drives. Englewood Clis, NJ,
Prentice-Hall, 1986, 416 p. (1986).
[4] Cyril, W. Lander. Power Electronics. (1987).
[5] Grin, Antony WJ, and Raymond Southern Ramshaw. The thyristor
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[6] Irwin, J. David, and Bogdan M. Wilamowski. The Industrial Electronics

Handbook, -Five Volume Set. CRC Press, 2011.
[7] Ka¹mierkowski, Marian P., Ramu Krishnan, and Frede Blaabjerg, eds.
Control in power electronics: selected problems. Academic press, 2002.
[8] Mapham, Neville W. The classication of SCR inverter circuits. IEEE

International Convention Record. Vol. 4. 1964.
[9] Mohan, Undeland, TORE M. UNDELAND, and P. WILLIAM. Rob-

bins Power Electronics-Converters. Applications, and Design 3rd Edi-
tion John Wiley & Sons Ltd (2003).
[10] Nasir, BA. Power electronics and their applications in power systems.
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[11] Ramshaw, Raymond. Power electronics and rotating electric drives. In

Power Electronics, pp. 1-9. Springer Netherlands, 1973.
[12] Ramshaw, E. Power electronics semiconductor switches. Springer Science

& Business Media, 2013.
[13] Rashid Muhammad H. Power Electronics-Circuits, Devices, and Appli-

cations. Upper Saddle River, NJ, Pearson Prentice Hall (2004).
[14] Rashid, Muhammad H. Power electronics: circuits, devices, and applica-

tions. Pearson Education India, 2009.
[15] Rashid, Muhammad H., ed. Power electronics handbook. Butterworth-

Heinemann, 2017.
242
[16] Sen, Paresh Chandra. Thyristor DC drives. John Wiley & Sons, 1981.
[17] Sen, Paresh Chandra. Principles of electric machines and power electron-
ics. John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
[18] Shepherd, William. Thyristor control of AC circuits. Bradford University

Press, 1976.
[19] Singh, M. D. Power electronics. Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2008.
[20] Van Wyk, J. D., Skudelny, H. C., & Müller-Hellmann, A. (1986, Novem-
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243
‫رقم اإليداع في دار الكتب و الوثائق بـبغداد ‪ 057‬لـسنة ‪0707‬‬
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Book · January 2021

Bilal Abdullah Nasir

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3 Application of Transistor and Opera-

3.2.2.2 Depletion MOSFET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.3 The Power Transistor as a Switch . . . . . . . . . 27

3.4 Over Driven Operation of the Power Transistor as a Switch . . 29

3.6 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.8 The Unijunction Transistor . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.8.1 Construction, Electrical Symbol and Characteristics . . . . 32

3.8.2 UJT as a Relaxation Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.10 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.12 Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.13 Open-loop Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.14 Inverting Ampliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.15 Non-inverting Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.16 Inverting Summing Operational Amplier . . . . . . . 40

3.17 Non-inverting Summing Amplier . . . . . . . . . 41

3.18 Subtractor Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.19 Integrator Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.20 Dierentiator Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . 43

3.21 Operational Amplier as Zero-crossing Detector . . . . . . 45

3.22 Operational Amplier as Comparator . . . . . . . . 45

3.23 Thyristor Triggering Circuit Using Operational Amplier as a Comparator

3.27 Photo-conductive Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.30 Light Emitting Diode (LED) . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.31 Some Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

3.33 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

4 Thyristor Concepts in Power Electron-

4.2 The Denition and Characteristics of Thyristor . . . . . . 60

4.3 Thyristor Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

4.5 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.7 Thyristor Representation by Two Transistors . . . . . . 66

4.9 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

4.11 Modes of Thyristor Triggering (ring) . . . . . . . . 70

4.12 Behavior of Anode Current During Thyristor Turn-ON . . . . 71

4.14 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

4.16 The Thyristor Turn-OFF (Commutation) . . . . . . . 73

4.17 Turn-OFF Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4.19 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

4.21 Series and Parallel Operation of Thyristors . . . . . . . 77

4.21.1 Series Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

4.21.2 Parallel Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

4.23 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

4.25 Thyristor Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.25.1 Over-voltage Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.25.2 Over-current Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

4.25.3 Gate Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

4.27 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

4.29 Thyristor Triggering Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.30 Thyristor Triggering Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . 94

4.32 Standard Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

5.2 Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load . . . . . 97

5.3 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive

5.4 Post-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5.5 Pre-test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

5.7 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive-load and

3.12 Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.13 Open-loop Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.14 Inverting Ampliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.15 Non-inverting Amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.16 Inverting Summing Operational Amplier . . . . . . . 40

3.17 Non-inverting Summing Amplier . . . . . . . . . 41

3.18 Subtractor Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.19 Integrator Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.20 Dierentiator Operational Amplier . . . . . . . . . 43

3.21 Operational Amplier as Zero-crossing Detector . . . . . . 45

3.22 Operational Amplier as Comparator . . . . . . . . 45

3.23 Thyristor Triggering Circuit Using Operational Amplier as a Comparator

4.2 The Denition and Characteristics of Thyristor . . . . . . 60

4.11 Modes of Thyristor Triggering (ring) . . . . . . . . 70

5.2 Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load . . . . . 97

5.3 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive

5.7 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Inductive-load and

5.10 Single Phase Controlled Full-wave Rectier with Resistive-load . . 110

5.11 Single Phase Full-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive

5.12 Single Phase Full-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive-inductive

5.13 Uncontrolled Bridge Rectier with a Thyristor . . . . . . 114

5.16 Three phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier . . . . . . . 119

5.19 Fully-controlled Full-wave Three phase Bridge Rectier . . . . 127

5.23 Overlap in Controlled Three Phase Rectier . . . . . . . 134

7.7.1 Circuit Conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

5.1 Single Phase Half-wave Controlled Rectier with Resistive Load. 98

9.1 Dierent Connections of D.C. Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204