Mohamed Taslim M

Assignment
Date:14-02-2022
PE II Mechanics of composite and smart materials

1. What is composite?
A composite is a material made from two or more different materials that, when combined,
are stronger than those individual materials by themselves. Simply put, composites are a
combination of components.

2. Why is clay mixed with straw?

The straw acts as a binder when the plaster dries. Straw essentially meshes the material
together like a web. It is important to have many variations of straw lengths to ensure
strength throughout the mix.

3. Give Historical review of Composite Materials.

The history of composite materials in manufacturing predates manufacturing as we know it
today. From B.C. to the present, different types of composites were developed and used for a
wide variety of applications.
Ancient Times
 The times B.C. marked the beginning of types of composites materials used in daily
applications.
 The first known use of composites is credited to the Mesopotamians. These ancient
people glued wood strips at different angles to create plywood in 3400 B.C.
 Between 2181 and 2055 B.C., Egyptians used Cartonnage and layers of linen or
papyrus soaked in plaster to make death masks.
 Around 1500 B.C., Egyptians and Mesopotamians builders and artisans used straw to
reinforce mud bricks, pottery and boats.
 Around 25 B.C., The Ten Books on Architecture described concrete and distinguished
various types of lime and mortars. Interestingly, research demonstrates that the
cement described is similar, and in some ways, superior to the Portland cement used
today.
 From the ancient times, builders, artisans, engineers and manufacturers continued to
develop composites of a wider array of materials for more sophisticated applications.
1200’s
In about 1200 AD, Mongols invented the first composite bows made from a combination of
wood, bamboo, bone, cattle tendons, horns, bamboo and silk bonded with natural pine resin.
These small, powerful, extremely accurate bows were the most feared weapons on earth until
the 14th century invention of effective firearms.
1800’s
From the 1870’s through the 1890’s, a chemical revolution changed composite development.
New synthetic resins were transformed from a liquid to solid state in a cross-linked molecular
structure using a process known as polymerization. Early synthetic resins included celluloid,
melamine and Bakelite.
1900’s
In the early 1900’s, chemical advances drove the development of plastics. Materials such as
vinyl, polystyrene, phenolic and polyester were created and reinforcement was needed to
provide strength and rigidity.
Polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride, or Bakelite as it’s commonly known, was
developed by Belgian-born New York chemist Leo Baekeland in 1907. A thermosetting
phenol formaldehyde resin, formed from an elimination reaction of phenol with
formaldehyde, Bakelite stands as one of the first plastics made from synthetic components.
Its nonconductivity and heat-resistant properties made the composite widely used in
industrial and consumer goods applications including electrical insulators, radio and
telephone casings, kitchenware, jewelry, pipe stems, and children’s toys. Today’s collectors
love the “retro” appeal of Bakelite.
In 1993, in recognition of Bakelite’s significance as the first synthetic plastic, the American
Chemical Society designated Bakelite a National Historic Chemical Landmark.
1930’s
Recognized as the most important decade in the composites industry, the 1930s saw the
development of resins still used today. In 1935, Owens Corning introduced the first glass
fiber and launched the fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) industry. In 1936, unsaturated
polyester resins were patented. Because of their curing properties, unsaturated polyester
resins are the dominant choice for resins in manufacturing today. In 1938, other higher
performance resin systems like epoxies also became available.
1940’s
The necessities of World War II took the FRP industry from research to production. In
addition to high-strength-to-weight properties, chemists learned that fiberglass composites are
transparent to radio frequencies. This led to the composite’s adaptation for radar domes and
other electronic equipment.
Although not deployed or commercialized until after WWII, the first commercial grade boat
hulls were developed in this decade.
By 1947, a fully composite body automobile was prototyped and tested, leading to the
development of the 1953 Corvette. Fiberglass preforms impregnated with resin and molded in
matched metal dies were used to build this classic car. The advent of the automobile age gave
rise to several new methods for molding. Two methods, compression molding of sheet
molding compound (SMC) and bulk molding compound (BMC), emerged as the dominant
forms of molding for the automotive and other industries.
1950’s
In early 1950’s, manufacturing innovation continued with the developments of pultrusion,
vacuum bag molding, and large-scale filament winding. These composites continue to find
applications today. Pultrusion is used in the manufacture of linear components such as
ladders and moldings. Filament winding is one example of aerospace composite materials. It
became the basis for large-scale rocket motors that propelled exploration of space in the
1960’s and beyond.
1960’s
In 1961, the first carbon fiber was patented and several years later, became commercially
available. Carbon fibers improved thermoset part stiffness to weight ratios, for use in even
more applications such as aerospace, automotive, sporting goods, and consumer goods. In the
1960’s, the marine market was the largest consumer of composite materials.
1970’s and 1980’s
Over the next twenty years, the composite materials market advanced. New ultra-high
molecular weight polyethylene joined other advanced fibers used in breakthroughs in
aerospace components, structural and personal armor, sporting equipment, medical devices
and other applications.
In the 1970’s, the automotive market surpassed marine as the number one market – a position
it retains today.
In 1970, Mar-Bal began to make custom-molded breakers for several applications including:
Electrical breakers
Motor assemblies
Small appliances
From this humble beginning, Mar-Bal grew into the most integrated thermoset composites
solution provider today.
1990’s and 2000’s
By the mid 1990’s, composite materials became more common in mainstream manufacturing
and construction. As a cost-effective replacement to traditional materials like metal and
engineered thermoplastics, thermoset composites were common components within the
appliance, construction, electrical and transportation industries.
Consumer and industrial markets saw the rise in everyday composite use. Common uses with
roots in this time live today as examples of composite materials in applications including:
  Handles and knobs
 Weather-resistant stains
 Electrical infrastructures
 Pole line hardware
 Electrical cross-arms
 Insulators
In the mid-2000s, the development of the 787 Dreamliner validated composites for high-
strength and rigid applications and the continued development of finish technology, like PVD
and THERMTIAL™, expanded the number of applications in the automotive, appliance and
consumer products industries.
The Future
Today, composites research attracts grants from governments, manufacturers and universities.
These investments allow innovation to accelerate. Specialized companies, such as aerospace
composite companies, will find a place in the industry. Two applications that continue to
experience innovative growth are airplane composite materials and composite sheets for
marine use.
Other materials such as environmentally-friendly resins incorporating recycled plastics and
bio-based polymers meet the demand for stronger, lighter and environmentally friendly
products. Looking ahead, still to be developed fibers and resins will create even more
applications for everyday and specialized use.

4. Give four Examples of Natural composites.

Human bone and teeth, wood, pearls, mother of pearl

5. Coefficient of thermal expansion.

The amount by which a substance expands in reaction to a change in temperature is
mathematically represented by a coefficient of thermal expansion.
The higher a coefficient of thermal expansion a material has, the more it will expand in
reaction to being heated.
Unit of coefficient of thermal expansion is per kelvin.

6. Coefficient of Moisture Expansion.

Coefficient of Moisture Expansion (CME) is defined as the fractional change in strain per
unit mass variation due to the moisture desorption or absorption. The CME is determined by
measuring the moisture content change and the strain change between two moisture
equilibrium states.
 7. What is thermal conductivity?
Thermal conductivity can be defined as the rate at which heat is transferred by conduction
through a unit cross-section area of a material, when a temperature gradient exits
perpendicular to the area.
SI Unit: watts per meter-kelvin.

8. What is Young's modulus?

The Young's modulus (E) is a property of the material that tells us how easily it can stretch
and deform.
It is defined as the ratio of tensile stress (σ) to tensile strain (ε).
Where stress is the amount of force applied per unit area (σ = F/A) and strain is extension per
unit length
(ε = dl/l).
The SI unit for Young's modulus is Pascal (Pa).