Mi

nist
ryofEducat
ion

Psychol
ogi
cal
Foundati
onsofLearni
ng&
Devel
opment:
Chil
dandAdolescent

December2013
Addi
sAbaba
Mi
nist
ryofEducat
ion
1
Modul
eTi
tl
e: Psychologi
calFoundat i
onsofLear
ning
&Dev el
opment :ChildandAdol
escent
Pr
epar
edby:Mekell
eUni ver
sit
y
Modul
eWri
ter
s: NigusseW/ Mar iam,TsegayGir
may,&
GetachewTef eri(PhD)
Techni
calAdv
isor
: PRINInter
nat
ionalConsul
tancy&
ResearchSer
vicesPLC

Course Tit
le: Psy
chol
ogi
cal f
oundat
ions of l
ear
ning and
devel
opment

2
 Cour
secode:

Cr
edi
thour
s:3cr
.hr
s

Cont
acthour
s:4hour
saweekf
or3mont
hs

Cont
ent
s
UNI
TONE:
DEVELOPMENTALNEEDSOFLEARNERSANDI
MPLI
CATI
ONSFORPRACTI
CE 5
Phy
sical
Dev
elopment 6
COGNI
TIVEDEVELOPMENT 11
Mor
alDev
elopment 16
GenderDev
elopment 20
Uni
tTwo:
Lear
ningandBehav
iorDev
elopment 21
I
ntr
oduct
ion: 21
Uni
tLear
ningOut
come 21
I
nst
ruct
ional
Resour
ces 22
Appr
oachesandModal
i
tiesofUni
tDel
i
ver
y 22
Uni
tAssessmentTechni
ques 23
Sect
ion2.
1:Behav
ior
istl
ear
ningt
heories(
desi
gni
nst
ruct
ion,
teachi
ng,
classr
oom
managementandbehavi
ormodif
icat
ion) 23
Lesson2.
1.1:
CLASSI
CALCONDI
TIONI
NG 24

3
 Lesson2.
1.2:
Oper
antCondi
ti
oni
ng 26
Sect
ion2.
2:Cogni
ti
vel
ear
ningt
heor
ies 26
Sect
ion2.
3:Lear
ningi
nschool
set
ti
ngs:
aids,
gai
nsandl
osses 38
Lesson2.
3.1:
Behav
ior
ism i
nthecl
assr
oom 38
Pr
ocedur
almemor
y 45
Decl
arat
ivememor
y 45
•Demonst
rat
ionsofst
udent
’sdecl
arat
ivememor
ysuchasdescr
ibi
ngabasi
cpr
inci
pleof
math. 45
Epi
sodi
c 45
•I
nfor
mat
ionencodedi
nourepi
sodi
cmemor
yisi
nthef
orm ofi
mages. 45
Semant
icmemor
ies 45
Semanti
cmemoriesareourmemori
esforgener
alfact
sandconcept
s.Mostofwhatwe
l
earnedi
nschool
( i
nst
ruct
ional
cont
ent
)isstor
edinoursemant
icmemories. 45
Uni
tSummar
y Er
ror
!Bookmar
knotdef
ined.
Ref
erence 47
Uni
tThr
ee 49
St
udentSuppor
t:Gui
danceandCounsel
i
ng 49
Gui
danceandCounsel
i
ngi
nSchool
s 53
Ty
pesofGui
danceandCounsel
i
ngi
nschool
s 56
Techni
ques 66

4
UNI
TONE:DEVELOPMENTALNEEDSOFLEARNERSANDI
MPLI
CATI
ONS
FORPRACTI
CE

I
ntr
oduct
ion:

Thi
suni
tdeal
swi
th conceptofgr
owt
h and dev
elopment
,st
agesofdev
elopment
,
det
ermi
nant
sof
,di
mensi
onsofdev
elopmenti
ngener
alandr
elat
est
hesewi
tht
he
dev
elopment
alpr
ofi
l
esoft
hest
udent
sandt
hei
rimpl
i
cat
ionsf
orl
ear
ning.Themaj
or
domai
nsofdev
elopmentweneedt
ost
udyassecondar
yschoolt
eacher
sar
echanges
oft
hebodyandi
tsdi
ff
erentpar
ts(
i.
e.phy
sicaldev
elopment
),t
hegr
owt
hoft
hemi
nd
(
i.
e.cogni
ti
ve dev
elopment
),i
mpr
ovement of r
elat
ions wi
th ot
her
s(i
.e.soci
al
dev
elopment
), changes i
n emot
ional cont
rol (
i.
e. emot
ional dev
elopment
),
under
standi
ngandaccept
anceofmor
alv
alues(
i.
e.mor
aldev
elopment
),andchangesi
n
i
dent
it
y(i
.e.per
sonal
i
tydev
elopment
).Ashi
ghschoolt
eacher
s,weneedt
odev
elop

5
gr
aspoft
hesal
i
entf
eat
uresoft
hesechanges,howt
heyaf
fectst
udent
s’l
ear
ning,and
howwecanf
aci
l
itat
elear
ningt
ooccuri
nabet
terway
.

Obj
ect
ives:Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hisuni
t,t
hest
udent
sshal
l

 Under
stand concept
s ofgr
owt
h and dev
elopment
,di
mensi
ons,st
ages,and
det
ermi
nant
sofdev
elopment
 Under
standmaj
ordev
elopment
alchanges,
fact
orsaf
fect
ingt
hesechanges
 Expl
aint
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
hesechangesf
orcl
assr
oom t
eachi
ngandl
ear
ning
 Appr
eci
atet
hei
mpor
tanceofdev
elopment
alchangesi
nst
ruct
uri
ngt
het
eachi
ngact
 Uset
hesechangesasaf
oundat
iont
odesi
gn,pl
an,andconductt
het
eachi
ngand
l
ear
ningact

Uni
tCont
ent
sandsub-
cont
ent
s:

.
1.1. Physicaldevelopment
.
1.2. Cognitiv
edev el
opment
.
1.3. Socialdevelopment
.
1.4. Genderdev elopment
.
1.5. Moral devel
opment

TheAdol
escentPer
iod(
shor
tpr
evi
ew)

Adol
escenti
saper
iodoft
ransi
ti
onsf
rom chi
l
dhoodt
oear
lyadul
thood,st
art
ingatt
he
appr
oxi
mat
ely
,10t
o 12y
ear
sofageandendi
ngatabout18t
o 22y
ear
sofage.
Adol
escencebegi
nswi
thr
api
dphy
sicalchanges–dr
amat
icgai
nsi
nhei
ghtandwei
ght
,
changes i
n bodycount
erand t
he dev
elopmentofsexualchar
act
eri
sti
cs such as
enl
argementofbr
east
,dev
elopmentofpubi
candf
aci
alhai
r,anddeepeni
ngoft
hev
oice.
Att
hispoi
nti
ndev
elopment
,thepur
sui
tofi
ndependenceandi
dent
if
yar
epr
omi
nent
.
Thoughti
smor
elogi
cal
,abst
ractandi
deal
i
sti
c.Mor
eti
mei
sspentonout
sideoft
he
f
ami
l
y.

Phy
sicalDev
elopment
Act
ivi
ty1.
2
6
Br
ainst
ormi
ng

 Whati
sphysi
caldevel
opment
?

Oneoft
hedi
sti
ngui
shi
ngdev
elopment
sexper
iencedatt
headol
escentper
iodi
srel
ated
t
ophy
sical
dev
elopment
.Phy
sical
dev
elopment
,asy
oumi
ghthav
eseeni
nyourpr
evi
ous
cour
ses,
i
sadev
elopmentr
elat
edt
hechangesi
nhei
ght
,wei
ght
,bodymuscl
esandot
her
bodychanges.Thechangescoul
dbeexpl
ainedei
therquant
it
ati
vel
yli
kei
nter
msof
changesi
nwei
ght(
kil
ogr
ams)orqual
i
tat
ivel
ysuchast
hechangesi
nthest
rengt
hsof
bodymuscl
es. Howev
ercompar
ed t
o ot
herdev
elopment
alaspect
s,t
he phy
sical
dev
elopmenti
seasi
l
ymeasur
edwi
thsi
mpl
etool
ssuchasascal
eorat
apemeasur
e,
ot
herdev
elopment
aldi
mensi
ons ar
e mor
e di
ff
icul
tto quant
if
y.Dur
ing adol
escent
gr
owt
hspur
ts,t
hear
msandl
egsal
sol
engt
henandev
ent
ual
l
ybecomepr
opor
ti
onalt
o
t
her
estoft
hei
rbody
.Howev
er,t
eensmaysuddenl
yfeelawkwar
danduncoor
dinat
ed
dur
ingt
hist
imebecausegr
owt
hdoesnotal
way
soccurataper
fect
lypr
opor
ti
onalr
ate.
And,t
her
eseemst
obedi
ff
erencesi
nthephy
sicaldev
elopmentamongt
hemal
eand
f
emal
echi
l
dren.

1.
1. Di
ff
erences i
nthe Phy
sicaldev
elopment
s mal
e and f
emal
e
adol
escent
s

Resear
chev
idencedt
hat
,thebodymassofboy
sgr
eat
lyi
ncr
easeddur
ingadol
escence
duet
other
isi
ngl
evel
sofmal
ehor
mones,
suchast
est
ost
erone,
thatcauseani
ncr
ease
i
nmuscl
emass.I
ngener
al,boy
s'st
rai
ght
-l
ined,squar
ebodi
esbecomebr
oaderatt
he
shoul
der
sandmor
etaper
edatt
hewai
st,f
ormi
ngt
hef
ami
l
iart
ri
angul
arshapeofadul
t
mal
es. Par
ti
cul
arl
y,t
hear
msandt
hel
egsoft
hebodybecomest
rongandbul
ki
er.
Howev
er,t
hisi
snotal
way
str
ue.Her
edi
ty,nut
ri
ti
on,andmuscl
e-bui
l
dingexer
cisecan
i
nfl
uencemuscul
ardev
elopmentoft
hechi
l
drenwhi
chul
ti
mat
elyl
eadt
hedi
ff
erencesi
n

7
bodydev
elopmentamongmal
echi
l
dren.Forexampl
e,adol
escent
sthatpl
ayspor
ts,
li
ft
wei
ght
s,orr
out
inel
ywor
kouti
not
herway
sar
eli
kel
ytogai
nmuscl
emass.

Whatdoy
out
hinki
stheconsequencesoft
hedi
ff
erencesi
nphy
sicaldev
elopment
amongt
heboy
s?

Li
kewhatt
hemal
ecount
erpar
ts,
teengi
rl
scont
inuet
odev
elopmuscl
emasswhi
l
eal
so
addi
ngbodyf
at.Dur
ingadol
escence,i
tisconsi
stent
lyconf
ir
medt
hatgi
rl
s'per
cent
age
ofbodyf
atwi
l
lincr
ease,r
elat
ivet
omuscl
emass.Thi
saddi
ti
onalf
ati
sdeposi
tedi
n
t
hei
rbody
'smi
dsect
ion(
hips,but
tocks,andchest
).Gi
rl
s'st
rai
ght
-l
ined,squar
ebodi
es
becomewi
derandbr
oaderatt
hehi
ps,but
tocks,andchest
,for
mingt
hef
ami
l
iarhour
-
gl
assshapeofadul
tfemal
es.Theemer
genceofsuchmani
fest
ati
onsi
nthef
emal
e
bodyhasmanyi
mpl
i
cat
ions.Of
ten,i
tisconsi
stent
lyconf
ir
medt
hatt
eengi
rl
sfeel
uncomf
ort
abl
eorupsetdur
ingt
hisgr
owt
hphasebecauseoft
hei
ncr
easei
nbodyf
at.
Gi
rl
sshoul
dbeencour
agedt
ovi
ewt
hischanget
othei
rbodycomposi
ti
oni
naposi
ti
ve
l
i
ght
:asy
etanot
heri
ndi
cat
iont
heyar
ebecomi
ngy
oungwomen.Whi
l
egi
rl
smayf
eel
"
fat
"dur
ingt
hismat
urat
ionpr
ocess,
itmaybehel
pfulf
ort
hem t
ounder
standt
hatsome
addi
ti
onalbodyf
ati
snecessar
yforwoment
ohav
eheal
thypr
egnanci
esandi
nor
dert
o
nur
sebabi
es.

1.
2. Somemani
fest
ati
onsofphy
sicaldev
elopment
sint
heAdol
escent
per
iod

1.
2.1.I
mpr
ovedmot
orski
ll
s

Asadol
escent
scont
inuet
omat
uret
heybecomebet
terabl
etomov
ethei
rbodi
eswi
th
gr
eat
erski
l
landpr
eci
sion.And,t
hedev
elopmentoft
hemot
orski
l
lscoul
dbeei
ther
gr
ossmot
orski
l
lsorf
inemot
orski
l
ls.Thedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hegr
ossandf
inemot
or
ski
l
lsi
sthati
nthegr
ossmot
orski
l
lst
her
eisl
argemuscl
emov
ement
soft
hebody(
e.g.
muscl
esusedwhi
l
erunni
ng)
,wher
easi
nthef
inemot
orski
l
lst
her
eisadev
elopmenti
n
t
het
inyand pr
eci
semuscl
emov
ement
s(e.
g.muscl
esused whi
l
ekey
boar
ding or
t
ext
ing)
.Rel
ati
vet
oboy
s,adol
escentgi
rl
smakeonl
ymodestgai
nsi
nthei
rgr
ossand

8
f
inemot
orski
l
lsunt
ilappr
oxi
mat
ely14y
ear
sofage.Af
tert
hispoi
nt,t
heygener
all
ydo
notexper
ience any addi
ti
onali
mpr
ovementi
nthei
rmot
orski
l
ls unl
ess t
hey ar
e
speci
fi
cal
l
ytr
aini
ngf
oraspor
torhobbywhi
chr
equi
rest
heseski
l
ls.I
ncont
rastt
ogi
rl
s,
t
hemot
orski
l
lsofadol
escentboy
scont
inuet
oimpr
ove,
par
ti
cul
arl
ygr
ossmot
orski
l
ls.
Adol
escentboy
srapi
dlygai
nphy
sicalspeed,j
umpi
ngst
rengt
h,t
hrowi
ngst
rengt
h,and
endur
ancet
hroughoutt
heent
ir
eper
iodofadol
escence,
eveni
ntot
hei
rear
ly20'
s.

1.
2.2.Pr
imar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Thedev
elopmenti
nthesexualchar
act
eri
sti
csi
soneoft
hephy
sicaldev
elopment
s
obser
vedi
ntheadol
escent
s.Par
ti
cul
arl
y,t
hechangei
nhei
ght
,bodycomposi
ti
on,and
mot
orski
l
ls,t
he sexualr
epr
oduct
ive sy
stem t
ri
gger
s many changes dur
ing t
he
t
ransi
ti
on f
rom chi
l
dhood t
o adul
thood.Young t
eens dev
elop bot
h pr
imar
y and
secondar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
cst
hatar
ebr
oughtaboutbyhor
monalchanges.Pr
imar
y
sexualchar
act
eri
sti
csr
efert
other
epr
oduct
iveor
ganst
hemsel
ves;
e.g.
,theov
ari
esand
t
est
es.Secondar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
csr
efert
oot
herchar
act
eri
sti
cindi
cat
orsofadul
t
mal
e and f
emal
e bodi
es (
e.g.
,body hai
r)
.The dev
elopmentofpr
imar
y sexual
char
act
eri
sti
csi
ndi
cat
esy
out
hhav
ebecomecapabl
eofadul
trepr
oduct
ivef
unct
ioni
ng
(
i.
e.,
theabi
l
ityt
omakebabi
es)
.

Thedev
elopmentofbot
hpr
imar
yandsecondar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
csbegi
nsdur
ing
l
atechi
l
dhoodandcont
inuest
hroughoutear
lyadol
escence.Howev
er,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
o
r
emembert
haty
out
hex
per
iencet
hesechangesatdi
ff
erentr
atesandt
imes.Formor
e
i
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hebi
ologi
calandhor
monalchangest
hatt
ri
ggert
hesechanges,
and
f
orsuggest
ionsaboutgui
dingy
oungt
eenst
hrought
hispr
ocess,pl
easer
efert
othe
ar
ti
cleonPuber
tyi
ntheMi
ddl
eChi
l
dhoodser
ies.

Forf
emal
es,
themostsi
gni
fi
cantpr
imar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
cist
hef
ir
stmenar
che,
or
f
ir
stmenst
rualper
iod.Thef
ir
stmenar
chei
ndi
cat
esgi
rl
shav
ebegunt
oov
ulat
e;i
.e.
,to
r
elease mat
ure eggs t
hatcan become f
ert
il
ized by mal
e sper
m t
hrough sexual
i
nter
cour
se.Theav
erageagef
ort
hef
ir
stmenst
rualper
iodi
s12y
ear
s,butgi
rl
scan
r
eachmenar
cheatanyagef
rom 10t
o15y
ear
sol
dandst
il
lbeconsi
der
ed"
nor
mal
."

9
Formal
es,t
hepr
imar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
csi
ncl
udeanenl
argementoft
hepeni
sand
t
est
es,andt
hef
ir
stsper
mar
che;i
.e.
,thef
ir
stej
acul
ati
onofmat
uresper
m capabl
eof
f
ert
il
izi
ngf
emal
eeggst
hroughsexuali
nter
cour
se.Theav
erageageoff
ir
stsper
mar
che
i
s13y
ear
s,buti
tcanoccurany
timebet
weent
heagesof12and16y
ear
s.Onav
erage,
t
het
est
eswi
l
lbegi
ntoenl
argeatabout11y
ear
sofage,butt
hisgr
owt
hcanoccur
any
timebet
ween9and13y
ear
s.Onav
erage,
thepeni
sbegi
nst
oenl
argear
oundage12,
butt
hisgr
owt
hcanbegi
natanyagebet
ween10and14y
ear
s.Thepeni
sreachesi
ts
adul
tsi
zeataboutage14,
butt
hiscanoccurany
timebet
weent
heages12and16.

1.
2.3.Secondar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
cs

Li
kepr
imar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
cs,
secondar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
csar
ebr
oughtabout
byt
hehor
monal
changesassoci
atedwi
tht
hemat
uri
ngr
epr
oduct
ivesy
stem andi
ncl
ude
changesi
nbodyhai
randchangesi
nvoi
cequal
i
ty.Youngadol
escent
swi
l
lnot
icehai
r
gr
owi
ngi
nnewpl
acesont
hei
rbodi
es,suchast
hei
runder
armsandgr
oins.Whi
l
ethi
s
pr
ocessbegandur
ingl
atechi
l
dhood,t
hishai
rcont
inuest
othi
ckenanddar
kendur
ing
t
het
eeny
ear
s.Teenguy
swi
l
lnot
icet
hei
rfaci
alhai
rcont
inuest
ogr
owmor
equi
ckl
yand
mor
ethi
ckl
y,andt
heymaynot
icehai
rgr
owi
ngont
hei
rchestandst
omach.Thi
shai
r
maycont
inuet
ogr
owt
hickerunt
ilmi
ddl
eorl
ateadol
escence.

Teenguy
swi
l
lal
sonot
icet
hei
rvoi
cesbegi
ntodeepenbet
weenages12t
o15y
ear
s.
Thi
shappensast
hei
rvocalcor
dsgr
owl
onger
,andt
hei
rlar
ynxes,orv
oiceboxes,gr
ow
l
arger
.Theenl
argedv
oiceor
ganscausedeeperv
oicet
ones.Adol
escentguy
swi
l
lnot
ice
t
hei
r"Adam'
sappl
es,
"gr
owsl
argerdur
ingt
hisper
iod.Thi
sisbecauset
heenl
arged
l
ary
nxespushoutt
hepi
eceofcar
ti
lagei
nfr
ontoft
hel
ary
nx.Ev
ery
onehast
hispi
eceof
car
ti
lage,buti
t'
snotnot
iceabl
einf
emal
esbecauseoft
hei
rsmal
l
erv
oiceboxes.Thi
s
changecanbeunner
vingf
ormanyguy
sbecauseatt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hischange,t
hei
r
v
oicesmaycr
ack,orunexpect
edl
ysqueakdur
ingspeech.Thi
scancauseunwant
ed
at
tent
ionandcanbeembar
rassi
ng.Mal
eadol
escentv
oicescancont
inuet
ogr
adual
l
y
deepenwel
li
ntol
ateadol
escence.

1.
2.4.Per
spi
rat
ion

10
Asment
ioned,
thedev
elopmentofpr
imar
yandsecondar
ysexualchar
act
eri
sti
csbegi
ns
dur
ingPuber
tyandi
sbr
oughtaboutbyt
hei
ncr
easeofcer
tai
nhor
mones.Thi
shor
monal
i
ncr
easet
ri
gger
smanyot
herchangesaswel
l
.Fori
nst
ance,mostt
eenswi
l
lnot
icet
hat
t
hei
rper
spi
rat
ionbecomesmor
eodor
if
erouswhi
chcanbequi
teunpl
easant
.Whi
l
e
mostpeopl
ebel
i
evet
hatt
heper
spi
rat
ioni
tsel
fist
hecauseoft
hisunpl
easantodor
,it
's
act
ual
l
ybact
eri
afeedi
ngont
heper
spi
rat
iont
hatcr
eat
etheunpl
easantodor
.

I
nter
est
ingl
y,per
spi
rat
ionar
isesf
rom t
wodi
ff
erentt
ypesofgl
ands:t
heeccr
inegl
ands
andt
heapocr
inegl
ands.Whenmostpeopl
ethi
nkofper
spi
rat
ion,
theyt
ypi
cal
l
ythi
nkof
ahotsummerday
,orast
renuouswor
kout
.Thi
sty
peofper
spi
rat
ioni
scausedbyt
he
bodybecomi
ngt
oowar
m.Tocor
rectf
ort
his,
thebodybegi
nst
oper
spi
ret
ocooldown.
Per
spi
rat
ioncoat
stheski
nwi
thmoi
stur
eandcr
eat
esacool
i
ngef
fect
.Thi
senabl
est
he
bodyt
omai
ntai
nasaf
e,cor
ebodyt
emper
atur
e(appr
oxi
mat
ely98.
6degr
eeFahr
enhei
t)
.
Thi
sty
peofper
spi
rat
ioni
spr
oducedbyt
heeccr
inegl
ands.Thesesweatgl
andsar
e
f
oundal
lov
ert
hebodyandopendi
rect
lyont
otheski
n'
ssur
face.Thesweatt
hati
s
pr
oducedf
rom t
hesegl
andsi
scomposedofmost
lywat
erandsal
ts.Bact
eri
adon'
t
gr
ow v
erywel
lint
hist
ypeofsweatbecausesal
tinhi
bit
sthegr
owt
hofbact
eri
a.
Ther
efor
ethesweatt
hatcomesf
rom t
hesegl
andsi
sodor
less.Si
ncet
hispr
otect
ive
cool
i
ngf
unct
ioni
sessent
ialr
egar
dlessofsi
zeorage,
bot
hchi
l
drenandadul
tspr
oduce
t
hist
ypeofodor
-f
reeper
spi
rat
ion.

Howev
er,dur
ingpuber
tyt
eensal
sobegi
ntoper
spi
ref
rom t
heapocr
inegl
ands.Unl
i
ke
t
heeccr
inegl
andswhi
char
efoundal
lov
ert
hebody
,thesegl
andsar
efoundwi
thi
nhai
r
f
oll
i
cles,sot
her
ear
emor
eoft
hesesweatgl
andsi
npl
acesl
i
ket
hescal
p,under
arms,
andgr
oin,
wher
ehai
rfol
l
icl
esar
egr
oupedmor
ecl
osel
ytoget
her
.Thesegl
andsbecome
act
ivat
eddur
ingemot
ionalr
esponsessuchasexci
tement
,happi
ness,f
ear
,wor
ry,and
anger
.Thesweatpr
oducedbyt
heapocr
inegl
andsi
smi
l
kyi
nappear
ance,
andi
sloaded
wi
thmanydi
ff
erentsubst
ancest
hatpr
ovi
def
oodf
orbact
eri
atogr
ow.I
naddi
ti
ont
o
f
ood,bact
eri
aneedadar
k,moi
stcl
i
mat
einor
dert
osur
viv
e.Ther
efor
e,t
heunder
arms,
gr
oin,andscal
pwher
ehai
risconcent
rat
ed,pr
ovi
det
hei
dealcl
i
mat
efort
hegr
owt
hof
bact
eri
a.I
tist
hesebact
eri
athatputof
ftheof
fensi
veodort
hatpeopl
eassoci
atewi
th
per
spi
rat
ion.Dai
l
ybat
hingr
emov
esbot
hthebact
eri
aandi
tsf
oodsour
ce.

11
I
mpl
icat
ionsf
orTeachi
ng

Whatdoyout
hinkar
ethei
mpl
i
cat
ionsofphysi
caldevel
opmentoft
headol
escent
stot
he
t
eachi
ngandl
ear
ning?

 Becauset
her
ateofphy
sicaldev
elopmenti
ssov
ari
eddur
ingadol
escence,i
t
of
tenbecomesasour
ceofdi
ff
icul
tyanddi
scomf
ortf
ory
out
h

 Andt
her
ecoul
dbechi
l
drenwhosephy
sicaldev
elopmenti
sdel
ayedduet
osome
r
easons.Andt
hisi
susual
l
ythesour
ceoff
rust
rat
ionsf
ort
hechi
l
dren.

COGNI
TIVEDEVELOPMENT

Whatdoy
out
hinki
scogni
ti
vedev
elopment
?

Cogni
ti
ve dev
elopment
,unl
i
ke t
he phy
sicaldev
elopment
,mai
nly emphasi
sthe
dev
elopmenti
nthi
nki
ng,r
easoni
ng,l
anguageandot
hercogni
ti
vepr
ocessesoft
he
humanbei
ng.Par
ti
cul
arl
y,t
hecogni
ti
vedev
elopment
alappr
oachespl
aceaspeci
al
emphasi
sonhow i
ndi
vi
dual
sact
ivel
yconst
ructt
hei
rthi
nki
ng.Theyal
sof
ocusheav
il
y
onhow t
hinki
ngchangesf
rom onepoi
nti
ndev
elopmentt
oanot
her
.Ther
ear
emany
t
heor
eti
cianst
hatexpl
aint
hecogni
ti
vedev
elopmentofhumanbei
ngs.JeanPi
ageti
s
amongstot
her
s.Ther
efor
e,t
he sect
ion bel
ow di
scusses t
he st
ages ofcogni
ti
ve
dev
elopmentoft
headol
escentper
iod.

1.
3. JeanPi
agetst
agesofcogni
ti
vedev
elopment

Pi
aget
'si
dent
if
iedf
ivechar
act
eri
sti
cindi
cat
orsofadol
escentcogni
ti
vedev
elopment
.
Thesear
e:1)f
ormaloper
ati
ons,2)hy
pot
het
ico-
deduct
iver
easoni
ng,3)pr
oposi
ti
onal
t
hought
,4)t
hei
magi
nar
yaudi
ence,and5)t
heper
sonalf
abl
e.Ther
efor
e,t
hesect
ion
bel
owgoest
hought
hesest
agesandul
ti
mat
elyat
tempti
sdonet
oseet
hei
mpl
i
cat
ions
12
oft
hesest
agesi
ntot
eachi
ngl
ear
ningpr
ocesses.

1.
3.1.For
maloper
ati
ons

Thi
sst
agei
sshor
tl
yter
medast
he‘whati
f….
’.Accor
dingt
oPi
ageti
tisusedt
o
descr
ibet
hement
alabi
l
ityt
oimagi
nea hy
pot
het
icalsi
tuat
ion and t
o beabl
eto
det
ermi
neal
i
kel
yout
come,
wit
houtneedi
ngt
oact
ual
l
yobser
veorenactt
hescenar
io.

Fori
nst
ance,
supposea7-
10y
earol
dchi
l
disasked,
"Whati
fther
ewasahungr
ydogi
n
t
heki
tchenandMot
herdr
oppedahot
dogont
hef
loor
.Whatdoy
out
hinkwoul
d
happen?
"Mostchi
l
drenatt
hisagewi
l
lcor
rect
lyguesst
hatt
hedogat
ethehot
dog,
par
ti
cul
arl
yift
heyhav
eanyexper
iencewi
thdogs.Pi
agetcal
l
edt
hist
ypeofment
al
oper
ati
ona"
concr
eteoper
ati
on"becauset
hement
aloper
ati
onr
epr
esent
sat
angi
ble,
concr
eteci
rcumst
ancet
hatt
hechi
l
dcaneasi
l
yimagi
nesi
ncei
tisanchor
edt
othi
ngs
t
hatcanbeseenandt
ouchedi
nther
eal
wor
ld:
Iti
sconcr
ete.

Accor
dingt
oPi
aget
,theadol
escenty
ear
sar
eremar
kabl
ebecausey
out
hmov
ebey
ond
t
hel
i
mit
ati
onsofconcr
etement
aloper
ati
onsanddev
elopt
heabi
l
ityt
othi
nki
namor
e
abst
ractmanner
.Pi
agetusedt
het
erm"
for
maloper
ati
ons"t
odescr
ibet
hisnewabi
l
ity
.
For
maloper
ati
onsr
efert
otheabi
l
ityt
o per
for
m ment
aloper
ati
onswi
th abst
ract
,
i
ntangi
bleconcept
ssuchas"
just
ice"or"
pov
ert
y"andt
obeabl
etoest
imat
eordescr
ibe
t
heef
fectoft
hesei
ntangi
bleconcept
s.

1.
3.2.Hy
pot
het
ico-
deduct
iver
easoni
ngandpr
oposi
ti
onalt
hought

I
naddi
ti
ont
otheabi
l
ityt
oper
for
m abst
ractment
aloper
ati
ons,t
eensbecomemor
e
sci
ent
if
icandl
ogi
cali
nthewayt
heyappr
oachpr
obl
ems.Pi
agetcal
l
edt
hismet
hodi
cal
,
sci
ent
if
icappr
oacht
opr
obl
em-
sol
vi
ng,"
hypot
het
ico-
deduct
iver
easoni
ng.
"Yout
hcan
now consi
derapr
obl
em,orsi
tuat
ion,andcani
dent
if
ythemanyv
ari
abl
est
hatmay
i
nfl
uenceoraf
fectt
heout
come.Theycanal
soest
imat
ethemostl
i
kel
yout
comei
fone
ormor
evar
iabl
es ar
e changed ormani
pul
ated.Thi
s abi
l
ity has v
ery pr
act
ical
appl
i
cat
ionsbecausei
tenabl
esy
out
htosel
ectt
hemostl
ogi
cal
orsensi
blesol
uti
ont
oa
pr
obl
em.

13
To i
l
lust
rat
ethe v
alue ofhy
pot
het
ico-
deduct
iver
easoni
ng,consi
dert
he f
oll
owi
ng
exampl
e:At
eenageboy
,Aar
on,deci
dedhe'
dli
ket
osur
pri
sehi
sMom andbakeher
somecooki
es.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,thef
ir
stbat
chdi
dn'
ttur
noutsowel
l
-thecooki
eswer
e
bur
nt.I
nor
dert
osol
vet
hispr
obl
em Aar
onwi
l
lment
all
yrev
iewt
hei
ngr
edi
ent
sheused,
andt
hest
epshet
ookt
obaket
hecooki
es.Aar
onwi
l
lconsi
dert
hev
ari
abl
est
hat
t
ypi
cal
l
ycausebur
ntcooki
essuchasomi
tt
ingakeyi
ngr
edi
ent
,ani
mpr
operov
en
t
emper
atur
e,orl
eav
ingt
hecooki
esi
ntheov
ent
ool
ong.Next
,Aar
onwi
l
limagi
ne
changi
ngeachi
ndi
vi
dualv
ari
abl
einor
dert
odet
ermi
net
hemostl
i
kel
ycauseoft
he
bur
ntcooki
es,andhewi
l
lsubsequent
lydeci
dewhatheneedst
ododi
ff
erent
ly.For
i
nst
ance,
Aar
onmaydeci
det
hatt
hemostl
i
kel
ycauseoft
hebur
ntcooki
eswast
hathe
l
eftt
hem i
ntheov
ent
ool
ong.So,
fort
henextbat
chofcooki
esAar
onwi
l
lsett
het
imer
f
orashor
terper
iodoft
ime.Af
tert
hesecondbat
chi
sfi
nished,hewi
l
lthenev
aluat
eif
t
hissol
vedt
hepr
obl
em orwhet
herheneedst
ochangeadi
ff
erentv
ari
abl
e.Howev
er,i
f
Aar
on'
syoungerbr
otherJameswer
etot
ryandsol
vet
hebur
ntcooki
epr
obl
em,James
woul
dtr
ytochangesev
eralv
ari
abl
esal
latonce,byaddi
ngmor
emi
l
k,changi
ngt
he
baki
ngt
ime,andchangi
ngt
heov
ent
emper
atur
e.Thi
sisbecausey
oungerchi
l
dren
cannott
hinkaboutpossi
blesol
uti
onst
othepr
obl
em wi
thoutt
ryi
ngoutt
hesol
uti
ons,
andy
oungerchi
l
drendonotknow how t
osol
vepr
obl
emsi
nal
ogi
calandmet
hodi
cal
mannerbychangi
ngonev
ari
abl
eatat
ime.

1.
3.3.Thei
magi
nar
yaudi
enceandt
heper
sonalf
abl
e

Notonl
ydoadol
escent
sbecomemor
esci
ent
if
icandl
ogi
cal
,butt
heyal
sobecome
bet
terst
udent
sofobser
vat
ionandi
nter
pret
ati
on.Byobser
vingot
herpeopl
e'
sbehav
ior
,
expr
essi
ons,comment
s,andappear
ancet
heycani
nter
prett
hisi
nfor
mat
ionandmake
r
easonabl
eguessesaboutwhatanot
herper
sonmaybet
hinki
ng,want
ing,needi
ng,or
f
eel
i
ng.

Unf
ort
unat
ely
,thesenew cogni
ti
veabi
l
iti
esappearatt
hesamet
imet
haty
ounger
adol
escent
sar
est
ruggl
i
ngwi
thi
nsecur
it
iesaboutt
hei
rchangi
ngappear
ance,
changi
ng
i
dent
it
y,andchangi
ngl
i
feexper
iences.Al
loft
hesef
act
orscombi
net
ocr
eat
ewhat
Pi
agetcal
l
edt
he"
imagi
nar
yaudi
ence.
"Teensmaymi
stakenl
ybel
i
evet
hatev
ery
one

14
ar
oundt
hem i
swat
chi
ngandj
udgi
ngt
hem,scr
uti
nizi
ngt
hei
rev
erymov
e,andcan
becomepai
nful
l
ysel
f-
consci
ousasar
esul
t.Theconceptofani
magi
nar
yaudi
ence
hel
pspar
ent
stounder
standwhyt
hei
rteenager
sspendeonsi
nfr
ontoft
hebat
hroom
mi
rr
orj
ustt
orunt
othest
oref
orashor
ttask,
orbecomei
ncr
edi
blyembar
rassedov
era
seemi
ngl
ymi
normi
stake.Ther
efor
e,t
hei
magi
nar
yaudi
encepr
ovi
desanexampl
eoft
he
i
nter
-r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weencogni
ti
ve,
emot
ional
,andsoci
aldev
elopment
.

Whi
l
etheabi
l
ityt
ouseabst
ractt
houghtandkeenobser
vat
ionalski
l
lsenabl
esy
out
hto
becomemor
eat
tunedt
oot
her
sandmor
esensi
ti
vet
opeopl
e'
sneeds,
itcanal
sol
eadt
o
somenewsoci
alandemot
ionaldi
ff
icul
ti
eswheny
out
huset
hei
rnewcogni
ti
veabi
l
iti
es
t
ocompar
ethemsel
vest
oot
her
s.Yout
hmayf
eelexcept
ional
l
yuni
queanddi
ff
erent
f
rom ot
herpeopl
e,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hei
rownpeer
s.Pi
agetcal
l
edt
hist
he"
per
sonalf
abl
e."
Manyt
eensbel
i
evet
heyhav
euni
queabi
l
iti
es,orconv
ersel
y,uni
quepr
obl
ems,di
ff
erent
f
rom any
oneel
sei
nthewor
ld.Somey
out
hfeelast
hought
heyar
ebet
ter
,smar
ter
,or
st
rongert
hanot
her
s.Thi
sper
sonalf
abl
ecanl
eadt
osomedev
ast
ati
ngconsequences
becauset
hesey
out
hmayt
akedanger
ousr
iskswhent
heyov
er-
est
imat
ethei
rabi
l
iti
es
andbel
i
evet
heycan"
handl
eit
,"ormi
stakenl
ybel
i
evet
heyar
esupr
emeandt
hatbad
t
hingscannothappent
othem.Thi
siswhyi
tisi
mpor
tantf
oradul
tcar
egi
ver
sto
cont
inuet
omoni
tory
out
hs'
behav
ior
,choi
ces,
anddeci
sions.

Conv
ersel
y,ot
hery
out
hmayf
eelast
hought
heyar
edumber
,weaker
,andi
nfer
iort
o
ot
her
s.Thi
ski
ndofper
sonalf
abl
ecanl
eadt
ofeel
i
ngsofsadness,f
rust
rat
ion,and
l
onel
i
ness.I
fthesenegat
ivet
hought
sandf
eel
i
ngscont
inuet
ost
rengt
hen,y
out
hcan
becomedepr
essedorhopel
ess,whi
chcanl
eadt
oot
herdanger
ousbehav
ior
ssuchas
dr
uguse,unsaf
esexualact
ivi
ty,orev
ensui
cide.Onceagai
n,t
hesey
out
hneedt
hei
r
car
egi
ver
slov
e,gui
dance,and suppor
tto hel
p t
hem t
hrough t
hese di
ff
icul
t
ci
rcumst
ances.Mor
especi
fi
cinf
ormat
ionaboutemot
ionaldev
elopmentcanbef
ound
l
ateri
nthi
sar
ti
cl
e.

Fr
om bi
rt
honwar
d,t
hehumanbr
aincont
inuest
odev
elopandmat
ure.Foradol
escent
s,
t
heamountofi
nfor
mat
iont
heycanpr
ocesscont
inuest
oincr
ease,butt
her
ateof
i
ncr
easei
snotasgr
eatasi
toncewasdur
ingt
hemi
ddl
echi
l
dhoody
ear
s.Li
kewi
se,
thei
r

15
ov
eral
lfundofi
nfor
mat
ioncont
inuest
obui
l
d.

Memor
izat
ioncapabi
l
iti
esf
urt
herexpand.Yout
hcannow r
ecal
lal
argeamountof
det
ail
edi
nfor
mat
ionsuchasl
engt
hy,
compl
i
cat
ed,
dri
vi
ngdi
rect
ions.Li
kewi
se,
theycan
r
ememberandappl
ypat
ter
nsorf
ormul
assuchaswhensol
vi
ngacompl
excal
cul
us
pr
obl
em.Yout
hal
sousesophi
sti
cat
edmemor
izat
ionst
rat
egi
essuchasmnemoni
cst
o
r
ememberdat
es(
e.g.
,"Col
umbussai
l
edt
heoceanbl
uei
nfour
teenhundr
edandni
net
y
t
wo"
),oramusi
calt
uneorr
hymet
ohel
pthem t
orememberl
engt
hyl
i
sts(
e.g.
,si
ngi
ng
t
henamesof50st
ates)
.Fur
ther
mor
e,asy
out
hs'
capaci
tyf
ormemor
izat
ioni
ncr
eases,
t
hebr
aindev
elopsmor
eef
fi
cientmet
hodsofor
gani
zi
ngi
nfor
mat
ional
l
owi
ngf
ormor
e
r
api
dandaccur
atei
nfor
mat
ionst
orage,
andsubsequentr
etr
iev
al.Thi
senabl
esy
out
hto
r
ecal
li
nfor
mat
ionmor
eeasi
l
y,andt
oappl
ythei
nfor
mat
ioni
nusef
ulway
s.

Pi
agetandEducat
ion

Whatar
esomeappl
i
cat
ionsofPi
agetcogni
ti
vedev
elopmentt
oeducat
ion

I
ndeed,Pi
agetwasnotaneducat
or,buthascont
ri
but
edmanywor
kst
hatenhancet
he
dev
elopmentofeducat
ion.Ther
efor
e,t
hissect
ionwi
l
ltr
ytoel
uci
dat
esomeoft
he
appl
i
cat
ionsoft
hecogni
ti
vedev
elopmentt
oteachi
ngandl
ear
ning.

Takeaconst
ruct
ivi
stappr
oach:Pi
agetbel
i
evedt
hatchi
l
drenl
ear
nmor
ewhent
hey
act
iveandseeksol
uti
onsf
ort
hemsel
ves.
Heopposedt
eachi
ngmet
hodst
hatt
reat
chi
l
dren as passi
ver
ecept
ors.I
nst
ead st
udent
slear
n bet
terby di
scov
eri
ng,
r
efl
ect
ingont
hem,di
scussi
ngont
hem,r
athert
hanbl
i
ndl
yimi
tat
ingt
het
eacheror
doi
ngt
hingsbyr
ote.

Faci
li
tat
erat
hert
handi
rectl
ear
ning:ef
fect
ivet
eacher
sdesi
gnsi
tuat
ionst
hatal
l
ow
st
udent
stol
ear
n by doi
ng.These si
tuat
ions pr
omot
e st
udent
s’t
hinki
ng and
di
scov
ery
.

Tur
nthecl
assr
oom i
ntoaset
ti
ngofexpl
orat
ionsanddi
scover
y:

16
Mor
alDev
elopment
Mor
aldev
elopmenti
sanot
herper
spect
ivesused t
o descr
ibehumandev
elopment
.
Accor
dingl
y,i
thasbeent
hei
nter
estofpsy
chol
ogi
stsandeducat
ioni
sts.
And,al
though
t
her
ear
emanyschol
arsi
nter
est
edont
hear
ea,i
tseemst
hatLawr
enceKohl
ber
gand
JeanPi
agetar
ethepr
omi
nentones.Lawr
enceKohl
ber
ghasmodi
fi
edandexpanded
JeanPi
aget
'swor
ktof
orm at
heor
ythatexpl
ainedt
hedev
elopmentofmor
alr
easoni
ng.

JeanPi
aget
,af
termaki
nganext
ensi
vest
udyonchi
l
drenagedf
rom 4t
o12,concl
uded
t
hatchi
l
drengot
hrought
wodi
sti
nctst
agesofmor
aldev
elopment
.Thesei
ncl
ude

 Fr
om 4t
o7year
sofage,chi
l
drendi
spl
ayhet
eronymousmor
ali
ty,t
hef
ir
stst
age
ofmor
aldevel
opmenti
nPi
aget
’st
heor
y.Chi
l
drent
hinkofj
ust
icesandr
ulesas
unchangeabl
epr
oper
ti
esoft
hewor
ld,
removedf
rom t
hecont
roloft
hepeopl
e.

 Fr
om 7t
o10year
sage,
chi
l
drenar
eint
ransi
ti
on,showi
ngsomef
eat
uresoft
he
f
ir
stst
ageofmor
alr
easoni
ngandsomef
eat
uresoft
hef
ir
stst
ageofmor
al
r
easoni
ngandsomest
agesoft
hesecondst
age.

 Fr
om about10year
sageandol
der
,chi
l
drenshow aut
onomousmor
ali
ty,t
he
secondst
ageofmor
aldevel
opment
.Theybecomeawar
ethatr
ulesandl
awsar
e
cr
eat
edbypeopl
e,andi
njudgi
nganact
ion,t
heyconsi
dert
heact
or’
sint
ent
ions
aswel
last
heconsequences.

Lawr
enceKol
hober
,agai
nstoft
hest
agesment
ionedbyt
heJeanPi
aget
,comet
oout
li
ne
si
xst
agesofmor
aldev
elopment
.Kohl
ber
gext
endedPi
aget
'st
heor
y,pr
oposi
ngt
hat
mor
aldev
elopmenti
sacont
inualpr
ocesst
hatoccur
sthr
oughoutt
hel
i
fespan.I
nhi
s
St
agesofMor
alDev
elopment
,Kohl
ber
gst
atest
hathumanbei
ngspr
ogr
essf
rom a
Pr
econv
ent
ionalLev
elofmor
aldev
elopment(
inwhi
cht
heyr
efert
orul
esi
mposedby
ot
her
s)t
oaPost
conv
ent
ionalLev
elofmor
aldev
elopment(
inwhi
cht
heyr
efert
orul
es
i
mposedf
rom wi
thi
nthem)
.

Focus

"
TheHei
nzDi
lemma"

17
Kohl
ber
gbasedhi
stheor
yuponr
esear
chandi
nter
viewswi
thgr
oupsofy
oungchi
l
dren.Aser
iesofmor
aldi
l
emmas
wer
epr
esent
edt
othesepar
ti
ci
pant
sandt
heywer
eal
soi
nter
viewedt
odet
ermi
net
her
easoni
ngbehi
ndt
hei
r
j
udgment
sofeachscenar
io.Thef
oll
owi
ngi
soneexampl
eoft
hedi
l
emmasKohl
ber
gpr
esent
ed"

Hei
nzSt
eal
stheDr
ug

"
InEur
ope,awomanwasneardeat
hfr
om aspeci
alki
ndofcancer
.Ther
ewasonedr
ugt
hatt
hedoct
orst
hought
mi
ghtsav
eher
.Itwasaf
orm ofr
adi
um t
hatadr
uggi
sti
nthesamet
ownhadr
ecent
lydi
scov
ered.Thedr
ugwas
expensi
vet
omake,butt
hedr
uggi
stwaschar
gingt
ent
imeswhatt
hedr
ugcosthi
mtomake.Hepai
d$200f
ort
he
r
adi
um andchar
ged$2,
000f
orasmal
ldoseoft
hedr
ug.
Thesi
ckwoman'
shusband,Hei
nz,wentt
oev
ery
onehe
knewt
obor
rowt
hemoney
,buthecoul
donl
ygett
oget
herabout$1,
000whi
chi
shal
fofwhati
tcost
.Het
oldt
he
dr
uggi
stt
hathi
swi
fewasdy
ingandaskedhi
mtosel
litcheaperorl
ethi
m payl
ater
.Butt
hedr
uggi
stsai
d:"
No,I
di
scov
eredt
hedr
ugandI
'
m goi
ngt
omakemoneyf
rom i
t.
"SoHei
nzgotdesper
ateandbr
okei
ntot
heman'
sst
ore
t
ost
eal
thedr
ug-
forhi
swi
fe.Shoul
dthehusbandhav
edonet
hat
?"(
Kohl
ber
g,1963)
.

Kohl
ber
gwasnoti
nter
est
edsomuchi
ntheanswert
othequest
ionofwhet
herHei
nzwaswr
ongorr
ight
,buti
nthe
r
easoni
ngf
oreachpar
ti
cipant
'
sdeci
si
on.Ther
esponseswer
ethencl
assi
fi
edi
ntov
ari
ousst
agesofr
easoni
ngi
nhi
s
t
heor
yofmor
aldev
elopment

1.Pr
econv
ent
ionalMor
ali
ty

St
age1-Obedi
enceandPuni
shment

Theear
li
estst
ageofmor
aldev
elopmenti
sespeci
all
ycommoni
nyoungchi
l
dren,but
adul
tsar
eal
socapabl
eofexpr
essi
ngt
hist
ypeofr
easoni
ng.Att
hisst
age,chi
l
drensee
r
ulesasf
ixedandabsol
ute.Obey
ingt
her
ulesi
simpor
tantbecausei
tisameanst
o
av
oidpuni
shment
.

St
age2-I
ndi
vi
dual
ism andExchange

Att
hisst
ageofmor
aldev
elopment
,chi
l
drenaccountf
ori
ndi
vi
dualpoi
ntsofv
iewand
j
udgeact
ionsbasedonhowt
heyser
vei
ndi
vi
dualneeds.I
ntheHei
nzdi
l
emma,
chi
l
dren
ar
guedt
hatt
hebestcour
seofact
ionwast
hechoi
cet
hatbest
-ser
vedHei
nz’
sneeds.
Reci
proci
tyi
spossi
bleatt
hispoi
nti
nmor
aldev
elopment
,butonl
yifi
tser
vesone'
sown
i
nter
est
s.

18
Lev
el2.Conv
ent
ionalMor
ali
ty

St
age3-I
nter
per
sonalRel
ati
onshi
ps

Of
ten r
efer
red t
o as t
he "
good boy
-good gi
rl
"or
ient
ati
on,t
his st
age ofmor
al
dev
elopmenti
sfocusedonl
i
vingupt
osoci
alexpect
ati
onsandr
oles.Ther
eisan
emphasi
sonconf
ormi
ty,bei
ng"
nice,
"andconsi
der
ati
onofhow choi
cesi
nfl
uence
r
elat
ionshi
ps.

St
age4-Mai
ntai
ningSoci
alOr
der

Att
hisst
ageofmor
aldev
elopment
,peopl
ebegi
ntoconsi
dersoci
etyasawhol
ewhen
maki
ngj
udgment
s.Thef
ocusi
sonmai
ntai
ningl
aw andor
derbyf
oll
owi
ngt
her
ules,
doi
ngone’
sdut
yandr
espect
ingaut
hor
it
y.

Lev
el3.
Post
conv
ent
ional
Mor
ali
ty

St
age5-Soci
alCont
ractandI
ndi
vi
dual
Right
s

Att
hisst
age,peopl
ebegi
ntoaccountf
ort
hedi
ff
eri
ngv
alues,opi
nionsandbel
i
efsof
ot
herpeopl
e.Rul
esofl
awar
eimpor
tantf
ormai
ntai
ningasoci
ety
,butmember
soft
he
soci
etyshoul
dagr
eeupont
hesest
andar
ds.

St
age6-Uni
ver
salPr
inci
ples

Kohl
ber
g’sf
inall
evelofmor
alr
easoni
ngi
sbaseduponuni
ver
salet
hicalpr
inci
plesand
abst
ractr
easoni
ng.Att
hisst
age,peopl
efol
l
owt
hesei
nter
nal
i
zedpr
inci
plesofj
ust
ice,
ev
eni
ftheyconf
li
ctwi
thl
awsandr
ules.

I
dent
if
icat
ionwi
thRol
eModel
sthataf
fect
smor
aldev
elopmentofadol
escent
s:

1.Thef
ir
stposi
ti
ver
olemodelt
hatanychi
l
dshoul
dhav
eisapar
ent
.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
manypar
ent
sfai
ltor
eal
i
zet
hev
alueofmodel
i
ngposi
ti
vebehav
iort
othei
rchi
l
dren.
Theymayt
ryt
oinst
il
lcer
tai
nst
andar
dsofbehav
iori
nthei
rchi
l
dren,butchi
l
drenar
e
mor
eli
kel
ytoi
mit
atet
hebehav
iort
heyobser
vei
napar
entt
hant
oli
stent
oany
r
egul
ati
onst
hatapar
enthopest
oimpose(
seeRef
erence2)
.Asachi
l
dgr
owsi
nto

19
adol
escence,hi
srol
e model
s may be as di
ver
se as musi
cians,f
ri
ends orev
en
pol
i
tici
ans.Whi
l
ehi
schoi
ceofr
olemodel
smayappeart
ober
eckl
essormi
sgui
ded,
he
i
sli
kel
ytoseekr
olemodel
swhodemonst
rat
ebehav
iort
hati
sconsi
stentwi
tht
het
ypes
ofbehav
iormodel
edbyhi
spar
ent
sorcar
egi
ver
s.

PeerPr
essur
e

2.Peerpr
essur
eisof
tenconsi
der
edt
obeanegat
ivef
orcei
nthel
i
feofat
een.I
ndeed,
mostt
eenswi
l
lnotchooset
o engagei
nnegat
ivebehav
ior
ssuchassmoki
ng or
pr
emar
it
alsexunl
esscoaxedt
odosobyherpeer
s.St
il
l,peerpr
essur
eof
tenexer
tsa
posi
ti
vei
nfl
uenceont
hel
i
feofat
een.Of
ten,t
eenswi
l
lpr
ovi
desuppor
ttooneanot
her
i
nti
mesofst
ress.Forexampl
e,i
fat
eeni
sconsi
der
ingcommi
tt
ingsui
cide,herf
ri
ends
wi
l
lusual
l
ybet
hef
ir
stt
otel
lhert
hatl
i
fei
swor
thl
i
ving.

Cr
it
ici
smsofKohl
ber
g'sTheor
yofMor
alDev
elopment
:

 Doesmor
alr
easoni
ngnecessar
il
yleadt
omor
albehav
ior
?Kohl
ber
g'st
heor
yis
concer
nedwi
thmor
alt
hinki
ng,butt
her
eisabi
gdi
ff
erencebet
weenknowi
ng
whatweoughtt
odov
ersusouract
ual
act
ions.

sj
 I ust
icet
heonl
yaspectofmor
alr
easoni
ngweshoul
dconsi
der
?Cr
it
icshav
e
poi
ntedoutt
hatKohl
ber
g'st
heor
yofmor
aldev
elopmentov
eremphasi
zest
he
conceptasj
ust
icewhenmaki
ngmor
alchoi
ces.Fact
orssuchascompassi
on,
car
ingandot
heri
nter
per
sonalf
eel
i
ngsmaypl
ayani
mpor
tantpar
tinmor
al
r
easoni
ng.

 Does Kohl
ber
g'st
heor
y over
emphasi
ze West
ern phi
l
osophy
?Indi
vi
dual
i
sti
c
cul
tur
es emphasi
ze per
sonalr
ight
s whi
l
e col
l
ect
ivi
st cul
tur
es st
ress t
he
i
mpor
tanceofsoci
etyandcommuni
ty.East
erncul
tur
esmayhav
edi
ff
erentmor
al
out
lookst
hatKohl
ber
g'st
heor
ydoesnotaccountf
or.

20
GenderDev
elopment
SomeBasi
cConcept
s

1.GenderSt
ereot
ypi
ng:ar
egener
ali
mpr
essi
onsandbel
i
efsaboutf
emal
esandmal
es.For
exampl
e,menar
epower
ful
;womenar
eweak.Menar
egoodatmechani
cs;
womenar
egood
nur
ses.

2.Mascul
ini
ty and Femi
nini
ty:Mascul
i
nit
yis a setofqual
i
ties,char
act
eri
sti
cs orr
oles
gener
all
yconsi
der
edt
ypi
caloforappr
opr
iat
eto aman.
Wher
easFemi
nini
tyi
sasetof
qual
i
ties,char
act
eri
sti
cs orr
oles gener
all
y consi
der
ed t
ypi
caloforappr
opr
iat
etoa
f
emal
e/women.

Ear
lyadol
escencei
sanot
hert
ransi
ti
onalpoi
ntt
hatseemst
obeespeci
all
yimpor
tanti
n
genderdev
elopment
.Youngadol
escent
shav
etocopewi
tht
heenor
mouschangesof
puber
ty.Thesechangesar
eint
ensi
fi
edbyt
hei
rexpandi
ngcogni
ti
veabi
l
iti
es,whi
ch
maket
hem acut
elyawar
eofhowt
heyappeart
oot
her
s.Rel
ati
onswi
thot
her
schange
ext
ensi
vel
yasdat
ingr
elat
ionshi
psbegi
nandsex
ual
i
tyexper
ienced.Asf
emal
eandmal
e
exper
iencest
hephy
sicalandsoci
alchangesofear
lyadol
escence,t
heymustcomet
o
t
erms wi
th new def
ini
ti
ons oft
hei
rgenderr
oles.Dur
ing t
he ear
ly adol
escence,
i
ndi
vi
dual
sdev
elopt
headul
tphy
sical
aspect
sofsex.

21
Uni
tTwo:Lear
ningandBehav
iorDev
elopment
Out
li
neoftheUnit
Uni
tint
roduct
ion
Uni
tlear
ningOut
come
I
nst
ruct
ional
Resour
ces
Appr
oachesandModal
i
tiesofDel
i
ver
y
Uni
tAssessmentTechni
quesandSt
rat
egi
es
Sect
ion2.
1:Behav
ior
istl
ear
ningt
heor
ies
Sect
ion2.
2:cogni
ti
veLear
ningTheor
ies
Sect
ion2.
3:Lear
ningi
naSchool
:set
ti
ngs,
aids,
gai
ns,
andl
oss
Uni
tSummar
y
Ref
erence

I
ntr
oduct
ion:

Learningi sani mpor tantdimensi onofdev elopment.Thissub- t

opicdeal swi ththe
meani ng,principles,out come,and i mplicat
ionsofl ear
ning employ i
ng a v ar
ietyof
theori
esi ncl
udi ngbehav ior
alandcogni tivetheori
es.Itisexpectedt hatt hewaywe
teachersunder standwhatl earni
ngi mpli
es,affectourt
eachingapproaches.Andaswe
know,choi ceoft eachingappr oacheshasef fectsonthequalit
yofl earning.Thus,you
havetounder st
andcl ear l
yfrom thedif
ferenttheori
eswhatteachingimplies,desi
gnand
tryoutdiff
erentt eachingappr oachesandev al
uat ehowtheyfaci
li
tateeffectivel
earni
ng.

Uni
tLear
ningOut
come

Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hisuni
t,st
udent
sshal
lbeabl
eto:

 Expl
ainthegener
alf
eatur
es(meaning,
types,
andfactors)oflear
ning
 Appr
eciatet
heimport
anceoflear
ningi
nshapingstudents’devel
opment

22
 Usethebehav
iori
standcogni
tiv
etheori
estoexpl
ainhowlear
ningoccurs
 Desi
gntechni
questomotivat
eandreinf
orcebehavi
or,
improv
ememor y
,andt
ransf
er
oftr
aini
ng

I
nst
ruct
ionalResour
ces
 Li
qui
dCr
yst
alDi
spl
ay(
LCD)andsl
i
desf
orpr
oject
ion
 Communi
cat
ionf
li
pchar
ttoshowconceptmappi
ng,
 Handout
s,pr
ofessi
onal
art
icl
es,
andMi
nist
ryofEducat
ion(
MoE)di
rect
ives
 Vi
deoorCompactDi
sc(
CD)pr
esent
ati
ondev
ices,
 Whi
teboar
d,Ov
erHeadPr
oject
or(
OHP)orChal
kboar
dsummar
ies.
 Pr
int
edmat
eri
alsoranyav
ail
abl
ebutr
elev
antt
otheuni
t

Appr
oachesandModal
it
iesofUni
tDel
iv
ery
 Thegener
alappr
oacht
hatwi
l
lbeusedt
hroughoutt
hecour
set
imewi
l
lbe
'
Exper
ient
ial
Lear
ningCy
cle'
wher
ethet
rai
neewi
l
lbeact
ivepar
ti
cipanti
n
gat
her
ing,
processi
ng,
react
ingorr
efl
ect
ingandt
ransf
ormi
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
nto
usabl
eknowl
edge.Thusi
nter
act
ivemet
hodsl
i
kebr
ainst
ormi
ng,
quest
ionand
answer
,smal
lgr
oupdi
scussi
on,
demonst
rat
ion,
rol
epl
ay,
independentr
eadi
ng
andpr
esent
ati
onbyst
udent
s,mi
cro-
teachi
ngwi
themphasi
sonmedi
aut
il
iz
ati
on
wi
l
lbeused.Ther
ewi
l
lbegappedl
ect
urewi
thi
nter
mit
tentquest
ionandanswer
t
ime.

Lear
ners’
acti
vit
ies
 Acti
vel
yparti
ci
pat
eincl
assr
oom br
ainst
ormi
nganddi
scussi
onsessi
onson
v
ari
ousl
ear
ningt
heor
iesandi
tsf
avor
abl
eimpl
i
cat
iont
ocl
assr
oom set
ti
ngs.
 St
udentwi
l
ldodocumentsear
chandl
i
brar
yreadi
ngont
opi
cs‘
howal
ear
nercan
uset
hesel
ear
ningper
spect
ivesi
ntohi
sleani
ngpr
efer
encesi
ndi
vi
dual
l
yandi
n
gr
oupst
obepr
esent
edi
ncl
assanddi
scussed.
 Smal
lgr
oupdi
scussi
onsandpr
esent
ati
ons
 I
ndi
vi
dual
l
yref
lectont
het
ypesofl
ear
ningt
heor
ies(
Behav
ior
ist
sandcogni
vi
sit
s
concept
ionsandper
spect
ives)bygi
vi
ngexampl
esf
rom t
hei
rownexper
ience.
 Ar
gueont
hepsy
chol
ogi
cal
foundat
ionsf
orl
ear
ningt
heor
iesandi
tsi
mpl
i
cat
ion

23
 f
orschool
set
ti
ngsandcont
ext
s
 Ar
ri
veatgener
alagr
eementatt
heconcept
s,pr
inci
plesandcl
assr
oom
i
mpl
i
cat
ionsofhumanl
ear
ninganddev
elopmentt
heor
ies.

Faci
li
tat
ors’act
ivi
ti
es
 Preparecl
earinst
ruct
ionf
orst
udent
sont
opi
csf
orr
eadi
ngandpr
esent
ati
on
 Faci
l
itat
ebr
ainst
ormi
ng,
present
ati
ons,
rol
epl
aysanddi
scussi
onsessi
ons
 Pr
esentsummar
yofbasi
cunder
standi
ngsofbr
ainst
ormi
ng,
present
ati
onsand
di
scussi
onsessi
onsusi
ngav
ail
abl
emedi
amat
eri
alsl
i
kepowerpoi
nt,
over
head
pr
oject
ion,
whi
teboar
d,char
torchal
kboar
dpr
esent
ati
ons
 Or
gani
zedi
ff
erentgr
oupi
ngswi
thgenderi
mpar
ti
ali
ti
esbot
hinmember
shi
pand
chai
rmanshi
poft
het
eam wor
ks.
 Showchar
tordi
agr
am ont
opi
cst
hatneedt
odi
spl
ayt
hemi
ndmapandr
ati
onal
st
ruct
uri
ng
 Keepi
ngf
oll
owi
ngofst
udent
slear
ningpr
ogr
essi
neachsect
ions/
lesson

Uni
tAssessmentTechni
ques
 Obser
vat
ionofcl
assr
oom par
ti
cipat
ionwi
thcheckl
i
stofst
udentact
ivi
ti
esl
i
ke:
aski
ngquest
ions,
giv
ingcomment
s,suggest
ions,
err
orsmade;
 Cor
rect
ionofpaper
spr
esent
ed;
 Cor
rect
ionr
esul
tofshor
tqui
zatt
heendoft
heuni
t.
 Sel
f,peerandgr
oupev
aluat
ionofpr
esent
ati
onsandassi
gnment
s

Sect
ion2.1:Behav
ior
istl
ear
ningt
heori
es(
desi
gninst
ruct
ion,
teachi
ng,
cl
assroom managementandbehavi
ormodi
fi
cat
ion)
Ov er
view:Youaretodev el
opanunder st
andi
ngofthebehav i
ori
stt
heories,part
icularl
y
classi
calandoperantcondit
ioni
ng,andusethisunder
standi
ngt oanaly
zet eaching.In
youranalysi
s,youarealsotoconsiderthequal
it
yoflearni
ngthatisfacil
it
atedbyt hi
s
teachi
ngapproach.

Lear
ningOutcome
Aft
erstudy
ingthi
ssect
ion,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:

24
 Discerningelement sofbehav i
orall
earning,
 Analyzingteachingusingt heseel ements,
 I
dent i
fying teaching t echniques origi
nating from the behav i
oristapproach
(parti
cularl
yfrom classicalandoper antconditi
oningtheor
ies),and
 Evaluatinghowt heset echniquescont ri
buteinfacil
i
tati
ngeffecti
velearni
ng.

25
Lesson2.
1.1:CLASSI
CALCONDI
TIONI
NG
Theconceptofcl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ngwasdev
elopedbyaRussi
anphy
siol
ogi
st,I
van
Pav
lov(
1849-
1936)
.Accor
dingt
oPapal
i
a,Fel
dman,&Ol
ds,t
heydef
inet
hecl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ngas:

Cl
assi
cal
condi
ti
oni
ngi
sat
ypeofl
ear
ningwhi
chbasedont
heassoci
ati
onofast
imul
us
t
hatdoesnotor
dinar
il
yel
i
citapar
ti
cul
arr
esponsewi
thanot
herst
imul
ust
hatdoesnot
el
i
cit
sther
esponse.

Fr
om t
hedef
ini
ti
onabov
e,weunder
standt
hatt
hekeyel
ementi
ncl
assi
calcondi
ti
oni
ng
i
sassoci
ati
on.I
tmeanst
hati
ftwost
imul
irepeat
edl
yexper
iencedt
oget
her
,theywi
l
l
becomeassoci
ated.Forexampl
e,i
fast
udentf
requent
lyencount
ersunpl
easantst
imul
i
i
nMat
hemat
icscl
asssuchasunf
ri
endl
yteacher
s,di
ff
icul
tquest
ions,andal
otof
homewor
k,hemayl
ear
ntodi
sli
keMat
hemat
ics.

Pavl
ov’
sExper i
ments
Pavl
ovdiscoveredcl
assicalcondi
tioni
ngalmostbyaccident.Ori
ginal
ly
,hewantedto
st
udytheroleofsali
vati
oni ndi
gesti
on.Hemeasur edhowmuchsal i
vadogsproduce
whengivenmeat .Af
teraf ewdaysi nt
heexperi
ment ,
Pavlovnoti
cedthatthedogsinhi
s
l
aborat
orystart
edsaliv
atingwhent helabatt
endantenter
edt heroom wit
hthemeat
di
sh,bef
oremeatwaspl acedintheirmouth

ThisarousedPav l
ov’
scur i
osit
yandhepur suedthei
ssuewi t
hmor eexperi
ments.For
example,hesoundedabel ljustbefor
epresenti
nghi
sdogswi thfood.Aft
erheari
ngthe
bellmanyt imesr
ightbeforegetti
ngfed,
thedogsbegantosal i
vateassoonasthebell
rang.I
not herword,t
hedogshadbeencondi ti
onedt
osaliv
ateinresponsetoanew
sti
mulus( thebel
l
)thatnormal l
ywouldnotproducesal
iv
ation.Thedogshadlearnedto
associ
atet hebel
lwithfood.

Ty
pesofSt
imul
usandResponse
St
imulusi
sanobser v
ableenvi
ronmentaleventthathasapotenti
alt
oexer
tcont
rolov
er
abehavi
oralresponse.Aresponseisanov erbehaviourbyalear
ner
.Puti
tinasimpl
er
way,astimulusi sanythi
ngt hatcandi r
ectl
yi nf
luencebehavi
ourandthesti
mulus
pr
oducesar esponse.
I
nclassi
cal
conditi
oni
ng,
thereare2t ypesofst
imulusand2typesofresponse.They
ar
euncondi
tionedsti
mul
us,condit
ionedsti
mulus,uncondi
ti
onedresponse,and

26
condi
ti
onedr
esponseasexpl
ainedi
nfi
gur
e4.
1.

Cl
assi
calCondi
ti
oni
ng

St
imul
us Response

Uncondit
ionedsti
mulus Uncondit
ionedsti
mulus
(UCS)•Thisisasti
mulusthat (UCS)•thisi
sast i
mulusthat
canproducetheresponse canproducetheresponse
wit
houtanylearni
ng.• wit
houtanylearni
ng.•
Example:Meat. Example:Meat.

Conditi
onedstimulus(CS)• Conditi
onedr esponse( CR)
Conditi
onedsti
mulusacquir
ed •Whenar esponseispr oduced
theabil
it
ytoproducethe bythecondi t
ionedstimulus, i
t
responsebecauseitwaspair
ed i
sr ef
erredtoast hecondi ti
oned
(associ
ated)wit
hthe response.•Exampl e:Sali
vation.
uncondit
ionedsti
mulus.•
Example:Bell
.

CommonPhenomenai nClassicalCondi
tioning
Ther
eare3commonphenomenai ncl
assi
cal condit
ioning;
theyar
egener
ali
zat
ion,
di
scri
mina¬t
ion,
andext
inct
ion.Thedescr
ipti
onsf orthesephenomenaar
eexpl
ainedbel
ow.

Gener
ali
zat
ion Gener al
i
zat
ionoccur swhensi mil
arsti
mulitoaCSpr oduce
theCR.Ast udentmaygener ali
zehisfeartophysicsand
chemi st
ryt
estsalthoughhehadper formedpoor l
yonlyon
mat hemati
cstest.Inthi
scase, t
hephy si
csandchemi st
ry
test
swer esimil
arstimulit
othemat hemat i
cstestandthey
producedtheCRbyt hemselves.

Di
scr
imi
nat
ion Discri
minati
oni stheoppositeofgeneralizati
on.Itrefer
stothe
abil
¬ityt
odifferenti
atebetweensimil
arst imuli.Forexample,a
studentmayf eelfearduri
ngmat hematicst estbutnotduring
physicsorchemi str
ytests.Thi
sshowst hatthest udenti
sable

27
 todiscri
minatebetweenappr
opr
iat
eandi
nappr
opr
iat
e
sit
uationsforaresponse.

Ext
inct
ion Extincti
onist heprocessofunl earningal earnedresponse
becauseoft heremov aloftheor i
ginalsourceofl earning.In
classicalcondit
ioni
ng, ext
incti
oni sdonebyr epeatedly
present i
ngtheCSwi t
houtt heUS.Thi sact i
onwi l
ldecr easethe
frequencyofpr evi
ouslyCR.Ev entual l
y,theCRdi sappear s.I
n
theexampl ement ionedabov e,ifthest udentrepeatedly
passest hemat hemat icstest
s,hisf earofmat hemat icstests
wi l
ldisappear.

Lesson2.
1.2:
Oper
antCondi
ti
oni
ng

Operantorinst
rumentalconditi
oni
ngi saf orm ofl earni
ngi nwhicht heconsequencesof
behavi
ourleadtochangesi ntheprobabil
it
yt hatthebehav iourwilloccur.Thondike(
1874-
1949)wast hepioneeri
nst udyi
ngthiskindofl earning.Hisfamousf or
mul at
ionofLawof
Eff
ectli
esattheheartoftheoperantcondit
ioning.TheLawofEf fectstatesthat:

“
Behavi
orthatbri
ngsaboutasat i
sfyi
ngeffect(r
einfor
cement
)isapttobeperf
ormedagai
n,
wher
easbehavi
orthatbr
ingsaboutnegat
iveeff
ect(puni
shment
)isaptt
obesuppr
essed.

TypesofReinforcementandPunishment
Reinf
orcementisaconsequencethati
ncr
easest heprobabil
it
ythatbehavi
ourwilloccur.On
theotherhand,puni
shmentisaconsequencethatdecr easestheprobabi
li
tybehaviourwil
l
occur.Puti
tanotherway,rei
nfor
cementwil
lstrengthenabehav iourwhil
epunishmentwi l
l
weakenabehav i
our.Ther
ear e2f or
msofr einfor
cementandpuni shmentasshowni n
fi
gure4.3.

Rei
nfor
cemen
Rei
nfor
cemen
t
t

Posi
ti
ve
Posi
ti
ve Negat
ive Negat
ive
Rei
nfor
ce
Rei
nfor
cemen Rei
nfor
cemen ment Rei
nfor
c
t ement

Sect
ion2.
2:Cogni
ti
vel
ear
ningt
heor
ies

28
Overvi
ew:I ti
st ruethatsomebehav ior
sareacquiredthr
oughclassi
caland/oroper
ant
condi
tioni
ng.But ,t
herear easpectsofourpsy chologi
calmakeupt hatcanalsobe
acqui
redt hroughcogni ti
velearni
ng.Cogniti
velearni
ngtheor
iesexpoundt heholi
sti
c
natur
eofl earningratherthant hereduct
ioni
stapproach.Thefourmajortheori
esare
Bandura,Piaget,andVy got
sky,andBruner
.

Inthissub- t
opic,y ouar etor evi
sitandshar peny ourunder standingaboutcogni ti
ve
l
earningtheories,especial
lyideasbyAl ber
tBandur a,Piaget,
Vy gotsky,andBrunner;and
usethisunder standingtodesi gnteachingacti
v i
tiesthatenhanceact ivelear
ninginyour
cl
ass.Int hinkingaboutt hequal i
tyoft heact i
viti
esy oudesi gn,youshoul dconsider
conceptsuchasact i
vel ear
ni ng,cooperati
vel earning,peert ut
oring,apprenti
ceship,
context
ual andsi t
uatedlearning

Lear
ningOutcome
Aft
erstudy
ingthi
ssect
ion,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:

 Desi
gningl
earni
ngact
ivit
iesbasi
ngonthecognit
ivelear
ningt
heor
ies
 Assessi
ngthei
reff
ect
ivenessinf
aci
li
tat
ingact
ivelearni
ng

Cognit
ivePsychol
ogyfocusesonthest udyofhow peoplethink,underst
and,andknow.
Theyemphasizesonlearninghow peoplecomprehendandr epresenttheoutsideworl
d
wit
hinthemselv
esandhowourway softhinki
ngaboutthewor
ldi nf
luenceourbehavi
our
.

From acogniti
vel
earningperspecti
ve,l
earni
nginv
olv
esthetr
ansfor
mationofi
nfor
ma¬t
ion
i
nt heenvir
onmentintoknowl edgethatisstor
edinthemind.Lear
ningoccur
swhennew
knowledgeisacqui
redorex isti
ngknowledgeismodifi
edbyexperi
ence.Amongthemain
i
ssuesstudiedanddiscussedbycogniti
vepsychol
ogi
stsar
e:
•Thecogni ti
vetheoriespr esentapositiveview ofdevelopment,emphasizi
ngconsci ous
thi
nking.
•Thecogni t
ivetheori
es( especiall
yPi
aget ’
sandVy gotsky’
s)emphasizeont hei ndiv
idual’
s
acti
veconstr
uctionofunder st
andi
ng.
•Piaget’
sandVy gotsky’stheor i
esunderscoretheimportanceofexaminingdev elopment al
changesinchil
dren’sthinking.
•Theinformati
onpr ocessingtheoryoff
ersdet ai
ldescr
ipti
onsofcognit
iveprocesses.

I
n-t
extquest
ions:

Whatarethedi
ff
erencesbet
weenBehav
ior
alandCogni
ti
veper
spect
iveper
tai
ningt
ohuman
l
ear
ning.

29
2.
2. TheTheor
1: yofBandur
aandObser
vat
ional
Lear
ningTheor
y

Sociallear
ningtheoryextendsbehavi
orism.Bot hbehavior
ism andsoci all
earni
ngtheory
agreethatexperienceisanimportantcauseofl earni
ng.Theyalsoincludetheconceptsof
rei
nforcementandpuni shmentintheirexplanat
ionofbehav i
our.Furt
her more,t
heyagree
thatfeedbackisimportantinpromotinglearni
ng( EggenandKaucak, 2007).

Obser
vat
ionalLear
ning
Mostoftheprinci
plesofthesociallear
ningtheoryweredevel
opedbyBandur
a( Papali
a,
Ol
ds&Fel dman,2007).Sociall
ear
ningtheor
ybelievest
hatst
udentsl
earnbyobservi
ngor
wat
chingandi mit
atingotherpeople.Thisprocessiscal
ledmodell
ingorobservat
ional
l
ear
ning.
Accor
dingt
oHi
nri
chs,
Obser
vat
ional
lear
ningi
ssocommonandsopower
ful
”Hi
nri
chs,
2004.

Oneofthemosti
mpor t
antexamplesist
heeffectofwat
chi
ngv
iol
entmedi
aandi
tsef
fect
ondevel
opi
ngaggressi
vebehavi
ourinchi
ldr
en.

Thenewerver
sionofsociall
earni
ngtheor
yiscall
edthesocialcogniti
vetheory.Thechange
i
sduet oagr eat
eremphasi soncogniti
veprocessesinlearning.AccordingtoBandur a;
“Bot
hsoci
alandcognit
ivefact
orsplayi
mportantr
olesi
nlearning.”Bandura(1989).
Ther
ear
e4pr
ocessesi
nvol
vedi
nobser
vat
ional
lear
ning.Thesei udeat
ncl tent
ion,
r
etent
ion,
product
ion,
andmot
ivat
ion.
Process1-Attent
ion:Befor
estudentscanimit
ateamodel’
sbehavior,t
heymustpayatt
ent
ion
towhatthemodel isdoingorsayi
ng.Forexample,
seei
ngateacherwr i
ti
ngfr
om thesame
perspect
iveasthestudentseethei
rownmakesobser v
ati
onall
earningeasi
er.

Process2-Retent
ion:Toproduceamodel’sacti
on,studentsmustbeabl
etost
orethemodel’
s
acti
onintheirmemoryforfut
ureret
ri
eval
.Student
s’retenti
onwil
lbeimpr
ovedwhenateacher
gi
vesv i
vi
d,logi
cal
,andcleardemonstr
ati
ons.

Process3-Producti
onToatt
endingandrememberi
ng,st
udentsmustbephysical
lycapabl
eof
repr
oducingthemodel’
sact
ion.Here,t
hest
udent
sneedal otofpr
act
ice,
feedback,and
coachingbef
oretheycanr
eproducethemodel
’sact
ion.

Pr ocess4-Mot i
vati
onThestudentsmustbemot i
vatedtodemonst ratethemodel’sact
ion.
Rei nf
orcementcanbeuset oencourageobservati
onallearning.Forexampl e,at
eachercanuse
directrei
nforcementsuchassay i
ng“ Goodwor k!
”Alt
ernatively,ateachermaywantt ouse
vicari
ousr ei
nforcement.I
nthiscase,astudentmaysi mplyseeot herst udent
sbeingrei
nfor
ced
forapar ti
cularbehavi
orandthenhei ncr
easeshisownpr oductionofthatbehavior.

30
Reci
procalDet
ermi
nat
ionModel
Bandur
adevel
opedareci
procaldeter
minat
ionmodel
thatcompri
ses3f
act
ors.Thef
act
ors
ar
ebehavi
our,
person,
andenv i
ronmentasshownonFigur
e4.7.

Fi
gur
e2.
2.1:I
nter
act
ionsof3f
act
orsi
nreci
procaldet
ermi
nat
ionmodel

Behaviour,envi
ronmentandper sonfactorsinteractt
oinfl
uencelearni
ng.Theyinf
luence
andar einf
luencedbyeachot her.Forexampl e,ateacher
’sfeedback(envi
ronment)canlead
studentstosethighergoal
s(person/cogniti
ve)andt hesegoalswill
mot i
vatest
udentsto
putmor eef f
ort
s(behavi
our)intheirstudi
es.

Act
ivi
ty

1.Howwoul
dobser
vat
ional
lear
ningbeusef
ult
oyouasat
eacher
?

2.Whatar
esomecont
ri
but
ionsandcr
it
ici
sm oft
hesoci
all
ear
ningt
heor
y?

2.2.2:TheTheoryofPiaget
JeanPi aget(1896-
1980)wasabi ol
ogi
stwhoor i
ginal
lyst
udiedmolluscs( publ
ishi
ng
twentyscienti
fi
cpapersont hem bytheti
mehewas21)butmov edint
ot hestudyofthe
developmentofchi l
dr en'sunderst
andi
ng,through observ
ing them and talki
ng and
l
isteningtothem whi
let heyworkedonexerci
sesheset .

Hi
svi
ew ofhow chi
l
dren'
smi
ndswor
kanddev
elophasbeenenor
mousl
yinf
luent
ial
,

31
part
icul
arl
yi neducati
onaltheory.Hi spar ti
cul
ari nsightwast her ol
eofmat ur
ation
(si
mplygrowingup)i nchil
dren'
si ncreasingcapaci tytounderstandthei
rworld:they
cannotundertakecer
tai
ntasksunt i
lt heyarepsy chological
l
ymat ureenought
odoso.
Hisresear
chhasspawnedagr eatdealmor e,muchofwhi chhasunderminedt
hedet ai
l
ofhisown,butl i
kemanyot heroriginalinvesti
gators,hisimportancecomesfrom his
overal
lvi
sion.

Hepr oposedt hatchi

ldren'
st hi
nkingdoesnotdev elopentir
elysmoothly:inst
ead,there
arecertainpoi nt
satwhi chi t"takesoff"andmov esintocompl et
elynew ar easand
capabil
it
ies.Hesawt heset ransiti
onsast aki
ngpl aceatabout18mont hs,7yearsand
11or12y ears.Thishasbeent akent omeant hatbef or
et heseageschi l
drenarenot
capable(nomat t
erhowbr ight)ofunderstandingt hingsincertai
nway s,andhasbeen
usedast hebasi sforschedul i
ngt heschoolcurriculum.Whet herornotshouldbet he
caseisadi f
ferentmatter.

Pi
aget
'sKeyI
deas

Adapt
ati
on  Whati
tsay
s:adapt
ingt
othewor
ldt
hroughassi
mil
ati
onandaccommodat
ion 

Assi
mil
ati
on  Theprocessbywhichaper
sont
akesmat
eri
ali
ntot
hei
rmindfr
om the
envi
ronment,
whichmaymeanchangi
ngt
heevi
denceoft
hei
rsensestomake
i
tfi
t.
 

Accommodat
ion Thediff
erencemadetoone'
smindorconcept
sbyt heprocessof
  assi
milat
ion. 
Notethatassimi
l
ati
onandaccommodati
ongot ogether
:youcan'
thav
eone
wit
houttheother
. 

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion  Theabi
l
ityt
ogr
oupobj
ect
stoget
heront
hebasi
sofcommonf
eat
ures.
 

Cl
assI
ncl
usi
on  Theunder
standing,moreadvancedthansimpl
eclassi
fi
cati
on,thatsome
cl
assesorsetsofobject
sarealsosub-set
sofalargercl
ass.(E.
g.ther
eisa
cl
assofobject
scalleddogs.Therei
salsoaclasscall
edanimals.Butal
ldogs
areal
soanimals,sothecl
assofanimalsincl
udesthatofdogs) 

Conser
vat
ion  Thereali
sat
ionthatobj
ect
sorsetsofobj
ect
sstayt
hesameev
enwhent
hey
arechangedaboutormadetolookdif
fer
ent
. 

Decent
rat
ion Theabi
li
tyt
omoveawayf
rom onesy
stem ofcl
assi
fi
cat
iont
oanot
her
oneasappr
opr
iat
e.

Egocent
ri
sm  Thebeli
efthaty
ouarethecent
reoftheuni
ver
seandever
ythi
ngr
evol
ves
aroundyou:t
hecor
respondi
nginabi
l
ityt
oseethewor
ldassomeoneel
se

32
 doesandadapttoit
.Notmoral
"sel
fi
shness"
,justanear
lyst
ageof
psychol
ogi
caldevel
opment
. 

Oper
ati
on  Theprocessofworkingsomethingouti
nyourhead.Youngchi l
dren(i
nthe
sensori
motorandpre-oper
ati
onalst
ages)havetoact,
andt rythi
ngsoutint
he
realworl
d,t
owor kt
hingsout(l
ikecountonfi
ngers)
:olderchil
drenandadul
ts
candomor einthei
rheads. 

Schema(or Therepr
esentati
onint
hemi
ndofasetofper
cept
ions,
ideas,
and/
oract
ions,
scheme)
  whichgotogether
. 

St
agesofCogni
ti
veDev
elopment
St
age  Char
act
eri
sedby
 

Sensor
i-
motor  Di
ff
erent
iat
essel
ffr
om obj
ect
s 
(Bi
rt
h-2yr
s) 
Recogni
sessel
fasagentofact
ionandbegi
nstoacti
ntent
ional
ly:
e.g.pul
l
s
astri
ngtosetmobi
l
einmot i
onorshakesarat
tl
etomakeanoi se 

Achi
evesobjectper
manence:r
eali
sesthatt
hingscont
inuetoexi
stev
en
whennolongerpresentt
othesense(paceBi
shopBerkeley
) 

Pre-
oper
ati
onal
  Lear
nst
ousel
anguageandt
orepr
esentobj
ect
sbyi
magesandwor
ds 
(2-
7year
s) 
Thi
nki
ngi
sst
il
legocent
ri
c:hasdi
ff
icul
tyt
aki
ngt
hev
iewpoi
ntofot
her
s 

Classif
iesobj
ect
sbyasinglefeat
ure:e.g.gr
oupstogetheral
ltheredbl
ocks
regardl
essofshapeoral
lthesquareblocksregar
dlessofcolour 

Concr
eteoper
ati
onal
  Cant
hinkl
ogi
cal
l
yaboutobj
ect
sandev
ent
s 
(7-
11year
s) 
Achi
evesconser
vat
ionofnumber(
age6)
,mass(
age7)
,andwei
ght(
age9)
 

Classi
fi
esobj
ect
saccordi
ngtosev
eral
featur
esandcanor
dert
hem i
n
seri
esalongasi
ngl
edimensi
onsuchassize.
 

Formaloper
ati
onal
  Canthi
nklogi
cal
l
yaboutabst
ractpr
oposi
ti
onsandt
esthy
pot
heses
(11year
sandup)  syst
emti
call
y 

Becomesconcer
nedwi
tht
hehy
pot
het
ical
,thef
utur
e,andi
deol
ogi
cal
probl
ems 

Theaccumulati
ngev idenceisthatthi
sschemei st
oori
gid:manychi
l
drenmanage
concret
eoperat
ionsear li
erthanhet hought
,andsomepeoplenev
erattai
nfor
mal
operati
ons(
oratleastarenotcal
ledupontouset
hem).

33
Piaget
'sappr oachiscent r
altotheschoolofcognit
ivet heor
yknownas" cogni
ti
ve
constr
uctiv
ism" :ot
herschol
ars,
knownas"soci
alconst
ructi
vist
s",
suchasVygotskyand
Bruner,havelaidmor eemphasisonthepartplay
edbyl anguageandotherpeoplein
enabli
ngchildrentolear
n.

Andt hecombinat
ionofneurosci
enceandevolut
ionar
ypsy
chologyisbegi
nni
ngto
suggestt
hattheover
alldev
elopment
almodeli
sbasedondubiouspremi
ses.(
It
'st
oo
earl
ytogi
ve)

2.2.3:GESTALTPSYCHOLOGY
Gest al
tisaperspectiv
ef ocusesont hebeliefthathumanconsciousnesscannotbebr oken
downi nt oi
tselements.Thisappr oacht opsy chol
ogywasf oundedont heconceptoft he
gestalt
, orwhol
e.Gest al
tpsychologist
sor i
ginatedfrom t
heworkofMaxWer thei
mer(1880
-1943) ,andhisstudentsWol fgangKohl er(1887–1967)andKur tKof f
ka( 1886–1941)
whohav emadesubst anti
alcontri
butionstoourunder standi
ngofper cept
ion.Gestalt
ists
pointedoutthatpercepti
onhasmeani ngonlywheni tisseenasawhol e.

(Plural„Gest alt
en”)isGermanf or“
patter
n” ,
“figure”
,“shape”,or“form”.Itisusedt or
efer
towhol es,systemsandcompl etestr
ucturesratherthant hereductionistapproachof
seeki ngev ersmal l
ercomponent sofaphenomenon.I nlear
ning,opposedt othe
reduct i
onism ofbehav i
ori
sm, i
tconcentr
atesont hewayi nwhicht hemi ndinsistson
fi
ndi ngpat ternsinthings,andhowthiscont r
ibutestolearning,especiall
ythe
dev elopmentof“ i
nsight”.

Fi
gure2.
2.1i
ll
ust
rat
edt
hegest
altper
cept
ionwhi
chsawt
hatt
hewhol
eisdi
ff
erentf
rom t
he
sum oft
hepar
ts.

Fi
gur
e2.
2.1:Gest
altsawt
hatt
hewhol
eisdi
ff
erentf
rom t
hesum oft
hepar
ts

Gestal
tpsy
chologyi
sat heoryofmi ndandbrai
nthatpr
oposesthattheoperationalpri
nci
ple
ofthebrai
ni sholi
sti
c,parall
el,andanalog,wit
hself-
organi
zingtendencies,ort hatt
he
wholeisdi
ffer
entfr
om thesum ofi t
spart
s.TheGestaltef
fectref
erstothef or
m- f
ormi
ng

34
capabi
l
ityofoursenses,part
icul
arl
ywithrespecttothevisualr
ecogni
ti
onoffigur
esand
wholeformsinst
eadofj ustacoll
ecti
onofsi mplel
inesandcurves.Fi
gure5.
4showsan
exampleofpi
ctur
ethatcontai
nsthegestal
ttheory
.
Thewor dGest alti
nGer manliteral
lymeans“ shape”or“fi
gure”.Gestal
tist
sper f
ormedmany
resear
chesonper cept i
onandhumanl earning.Theybel i
evedlearn¬ingist heresultfrom
goodper cepti
on,whi chenableani ndi
vi
dualt oform corr
ectconceptint hei
rmi nd.Lateron
theyproposedt heprincipl
esorl awforpercept ualor
ganizati
on.Hencef ort
h,wewi lldi
scuss
theseprinci
ples,whichconsist edofsixpr incipl
es,whicharegoodf orm,figureorgr ound,
simil
ari
ty,proxi
mi t
y,closur
e,andcont i
nuity
.

i
)TheLawofGoodf
orm orPr
agnanz
Thewor d‘Gest
alt
’means‘ f
orm’or‘ shape’
.Gest al
tpsychologi
stswereoft heview t
hat
psychol
ogi
calorganizat
ionwillalwaysbeas‘ good’aspr evai
l
ingcondi
ti
onsal l
ow.For
Gestal
tpsychol
ogist
s,formist hepri
miti
veunitofpercepti
on.Whenweper cei
ve,wewi l
l
al
way spi
ckoutform.Ourpercepti
onsareinf
luencedbyourpastexperi
ences.Thispri
nci
ple
i
salsocall
edPragnanzLaw.(TanOonSengetal .,2003)
.
i
i
)TheLawofFi
gur
e–Gr
oundDi
scr
imi
nat
ion
TheRubi
nvaseshowninFigur
e2.2.
1isanexampleofthi
stendencyt
opickoutf
orm.We
donotsi
mpl
yseeblackandwhit
eshapes;
wealsoseet
wof acesandavase.

Fi
gur
e2.
2.1:Twof
acesoravase?(
From Spooncer
,1992p.
35)
WhataboutFi
gur
e2.
2.2Doy
ouseeay
oungl
adyoranol
dlady
?

35
 Fi e2.
gur 2.2:YoungLadyorOl
dLady?(
From Spooncer
,1992p.
35)

i
i
i)TheLawofPr
oxi
mit
y

Fi e2.
gur 2.3:
Twomenandt
het
abl
e

 Whenyoul
ookat“
A”y
ousee(
aman+aman)+at
abl
e.

 Whenyoul
ookat“
B”y
ousee(
aman+at
abl
e)+aman.

Things,whichareclosetogetheri
nspaceorti
me, t
endt obeperceiv
edasgr oupedtoget
her
.
Thus, i
fyouwanty ouraudiencetoassoci
atet
hepr oductwi
ththepr esent
er,putt
hem cl
ose
together;ifyouwantt hem t opercei
vetwoideasasassoci ated,presentthem i
nclose
proxi
mi t
y .

i
v)TheLawofSi
mil
ari
ty

36
Fi e2.
gur 2.3:
Treesi
ndi
ff
erentshapes

Thingst hataresimi l
ararelikel
ytof orm‘Gestal
ten’asgroups.So,i
nthegraphi
cl abel
ed
withA( ont helef
t),youprobablyseeanXoff irtr
eesagainstabackgr
oundoftheothers.In
thegr aphiclabel
edwi thB( ont heright
),y
oumayseeasquar eoftheothertr
ees,par tl
y
surroundedbyf i
rtrees.Thef actthat,i
npict
urelabeledwithA,weseeanXwhi l
ei nt he
pict
urel abeledwithB,andwecanseeasquar e,inci
dent
all
y,anexampleofgoodfor m or
Prägnanz .

V)TheLawofCl
osur
e

Fi e2.
gur 2.3:
Wor
dsandshape

Perceptual
ly
,wehav ethet endencytofi
lli
nt hegaps.I notherwords,wecanst i
l
lread
WASHO,see t he square and read ‘
per
cepti
on’despi t
et he mi
ssing i
nfor
mati
on.You
prob¬ablyknowt
hatredundancycanbedel i
ber at
elyaddedintomessagestoincr
easethe
l
ikelyfi
deli
tyofr
ecepti
on,butt heGestal
tpsycholo¬gi
sts’l
aw ofcl
osuresuggeststhati
t

37
cer
tai
nlyi
snotal
way
snecessar
y.

v
i)TheLawofCont
inui
ty

Wheny ouseefigure5.
10(1),y
ouaremuchmor eli
kel
ytoseeitasconsist
ingoftwoli
nes
l
ike 5.
10(1a)
,ratherthan ofthe t
wo shapes5.10(
1b)
.Thi
sisthe Gestaltpri
nci
ple of
cont
inui
tywhichsawasi ngl
eunbr
okenl
ineisli
kel
ytobeseenasanenti
ty.

Act
ivi
ty

 Accor
dingtoGestaltpsychol
ogypercept
ualor
ganizat
ioninf
luencegoodlear
ning.
Expl
ainthef
iveper
ceptuall
awregar
dinghumanpercept
ionbyGestalt
ist
s.

38
2.
2. Vy
4: got
skyandcogni
ti
vedev
elopment

Vygotskybeliev
edt hatweencodedandr epresentourwor l
dt hroughlanguage,andourt houghtsare
basedonl anguage-“i
nnerspeech.”Socialinteracti
onpl aysani mpor t
antroleinthetransformati
onand
i
nterpret
ationprocess.Vygotskyarguedthatdev elopmentf ir
stt akesplaceonasoci alplane.Thechi l
d
observestheparents’behavi
or,l
ist
enst othepar ent s’speech,andt ri
estoimitat
e.Thepar ent’
sguidethe
chi
ldi n his/
heref f
orts,making connections when needed and pr ov
idi
ng great
erchal lenges when
appropri
ate.Devel
opmenti stheconversi
onofsoci al r
elati
onshipsintoment alf
uncti
ons.

Basi
cconcept
sofVy
got
sky

 Zoneofpr oximaldev el
opment -
isadi st
ancebet weent heactualdev el
opment all
ev elas
deter
minedbyi ndependentpr oblem-solvi
ngandt hel evelofpot enti
aldev el
opmentas
deter
minedt hroughpr oblem-solvingunderadultgui danceori ncoll
aborati
onwi thamor e
capable peer.I n otherwor ds,i tist he dif
ference bet ween whatchi ldren can do
i
ndependentlyandwhatt heycandowi thhelp.
 Scaff
oldi
ng-t hepr ocessofguidi ngthelearnerfr
om whati spresentl
yknownt owhati sto
beknown.Thi soccur si
nt ot
heZPD.Themor ecompet entpersonsuppor t
st helearnerin
thei
rendeavort oreachthenewl evelofdevelopment.

Somedi
ff
erencesbet
weenPi
agetandVy
got
sky

 Pi
agetbel
i
evedt
hatdev
elopmentpr
oceedsf
rom t
hei
ndi
vi
dualt
othe

39
 socialworl
dwher easVygotskybeli
evedthatdevelopmentbegi
nsatthe
sociall
evelandmov est
owar dsindi
vi
dualint
ernal
i
zation.
 Piagetmai ntai
ns thatdev el
opmentpr ecedes learni
ng;i
n cont
rast
,
i
nstructi
onprecedesdevel
opmentaccor di
ngtoVy gotsky.

2.2.
5: BrunerandLear ningv i
aInsight
JeromeBr uner(1978)proposedl ear
ningv i
ainsight .Learni
ngviainsi
ghttheoryhi
ghli
ghts
theinfluenceofourmot ivat
ionsonoursel ectedper cept i
onsandlearni
ng.Brunerpresent
ed
teacher swithadev el
opment al
model suggesti
ngt hatourmot ivat
ionchanges
development all
y.Thereare3st agesofmot ivat
ion.Theyar eenact
ive,i
conic,andsymboli
c.
Thedescr i
pti
onsforthesestagesar eexplainedbel ow.

Enact
ive
Whenwear everyy oung,ourmoti
vati
ontopercei
veandl
earni
s“ enact
ive”
,meani
ngt
hat
whenwear emotivatedtopercei
vethi
ngsthatwecanmanipul
atephysi
call
yvi
aourover
t
hands-
onexper
iences.
I cWhenwer
coni eachschoolage,ourmot i
vati
ontoper
ceiv
eis“i
coni
c”,meaningt
hatwe
aremot i
vatedtopercei
vethingsthatar
et iedlesst
othephysi
calmanipul
ati
on.Wear e
mot i
vat
edt opercei
veandlearnfrom pi
cturesandvi
sualai
dsormemor i
esfrom f
amil
iar
experi
ences.
Symboli
c:Inadolescentasinadul
thood,ourmoti
vati
ont opercei
veis“sy
mboli
c”,meani
ng
thatwelearnwhatispresentednei
therenacti
vel
yoriconical
l
y.Wecanunderstandand
uti
li
zeabstractconceptswi
thouthavi
ngt ohandl
ethem orhav i
ngthem r
epr
esented
concret
ely.

Br
unerconcl
udedthat:“
Atanyagewel
ear
nbestwhenwear
emot
ivat
edt
oper
cei
veby
i
nsi
ghtf
ulexper
iences.
”

Insi
ghtfulexperi
encesev
okeourpowersofinducti
on.Weseekanswer stoquest
ions,we
solveproblemsandwemakeconnecti
onsbetweencluesbecausewewanttoanswer,sol
ve,
and maket hoseconnecti
ons.Hetr
ansl
ated hisideasofl ear
ning v
iai
nsi
ghtt hr
ough
discoverylear
ning.

Exampl
e:
Teacheraskedhercl
assapr
obl
em:
Quest
ion-
1:Mul
uist
woy
ear
sol
dert
hanRi
shanandoney
eary
oungert
hanAbr
aha.Whoar
ethe
youngestoft
hem al
l
?

Quest
ion-
1:Sol
omni
sshor
tert
hanFeyi
ssaandi
stal
l
ert
hanJul
a.Whoi
sthet
all
est
?

Shedi
rect
edhercl
ass’
sat
tent
iont
othepr
obl
em andl
ett
hem t
ryt
osol
vei
t,pi
ecebypi
ece;
she

40
wasencour
agi
ngt
hei
rlear
ningt
hroughi
nsi
ght
.

Sect
ion2.
3:Lear
ningi
nschoolset
ti
ngs:ai
ds,
gai
nsandl
osses
Over
view:Int histopi
c,youhav et or evi
sitandshar peny ourunder
standi
ngabout
moti
vati
on,memor yandt ransferoflearning.Theai mi stomakey oui mpr
oveyour
competenci
esi nmotiv
ati
ngy ourstudents,helpi
ngt hem t
oimprovethei
rmemoryand
maki
ngt hem ablet
olearnbett
erindiff
erentsit
uations.

Lear
ningOutcome
Aft
erstudy
ingthi
ssect
ion,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:

 Designingsimplestrategiesformotivat
ingandr einforci
ngst udents’behavi
orsand
achi
ev ementatschool
 Assessingtheeffectsofnegat i
verei
nforcementonl earning;
 Advisi
ngpar ent
sonhowbestt omotivat
eandr ei
nfor cetheirchi
ldren’
sbehav i
ors.
 Designing t
eaching act i
vit
ies t
hatenhance deep under st
anding and long-ter
m
memor yamongst udents
 Eval
uat i
ngtheeffectiv
enessofsuchact ivi
ti
esinlearning.
 Organizingl
earni
ngi nsuchawayt hatitenhancesposi ti
vetransferoflear
ning.

Lesson2.
3.1:Behav
ior
ism i
nthecl
assr
oom
Thi
ssectiondescribeshowteacherscanapplytheprincipl
esofbehavi
ori
sm inthe
cl
assroom.Itisdivi
dedintothr
eesubsecti
onsaccordingt otheper
specti
vesdiscussed
ear
li
erthatareclassical
condit
ioni
ng,oper
antcondi
tioningandsociall
earni
ngtheory.

Appl
yi
ngCl
assi
calCondi
ti
oni
ngi
ntheCl
assr
oom

Thekeyel ementi
ncl assi
calcondi
ti
oningisassociat
ion.Theref
ore,
teacher
sare
encouragedtoassociatevari
etyofposit
iveandpleasanteventswit
hlearni
ngand
cl
assroom acti
vit
ies.Forexample,ateachermay:

 Useattracti
v elearningai
ds.
 Decoratethecl assrooms.
 Encouragest udent stoworkinsmallgroupsfordif
fi
cul tlearni
ngtasks.
 Greetthestudent sandsmi leatthem whenhecomest ot heclassroom.
 Inf
orm t he student s cl
earl
yand speci fi
cal
lythe for matofqui zzes,test
s,and
examinations.
 Maket hest udentsunderstandtherulesofthecl
assrooms.
 Giveampl et i
mef orstudentstoprepareforandcompl etet hel
earningtasks.

Appl
yi
ngOper
antCondi
ti
oni
ngi
ntheCl
assr
oom

41
I
noper antconditi
oning,theconsequencesofbehav
iourpr
oducechangesintheprobabi
li
ty
thatthebehaviourwilloccur.Rei
nfor
cementandpunishmentar
ethe2mai nconceptsin
operantcondit
ioning.Thef oll
owi
ngaresomeexampl esonhowoperantcondit
ioni
ngcan
beappliedintheclassrooms.

 Recogni zeandr einforcepositi

vebehav ior
sandgenui netaskaccompl i
shment s.
 Usev ari
oust ypesofr einfor
cementsuchast eacherapproval( pr
aise,smiles,
att
ent i
on,andpat sont heshoulder),concreterei
nforcement(cookies,candies,
andst ationeri
es)andpr ivil
eges(l
ongerr ecessti
meandmor etimewi thfri
ends).
 Reinforcegoodbehav i
orsandpuni shbadonesconsi st
entl
y.
 Use schedul e ofr ei
nforcement,such as sur pri
se rewards,t o encourage
persi
st ence.
 Useposi ti
vepuni shmentast helastopt i
on.Usenegat iv
epuni shment,suchas
detentionclass,instead.
 Punishst udents’behav i
or,nottheirpersonalquali
ti
es.
 Tellt
hest udentswhi chbehav i
orisbeingpunished.

Appl
yi
ngt
heSoci
alLear
ningTheor
yint
heCl
assr
oom

Thesoci
all
earni
ngtheor
yfocusesonhowpeoplelear
nbyobser
vingandi
mit
ati
ngot
her
s.
Tomotiv
atelear
ningusi
ngthi
sapproach,
ateachermay:

 Usehigh-achievi
ngandsuccessfulpeersasmodel
s.
 Model posit
ivebehavior
shimself.
 Use vi
car i
ous rei
nforcement,thatis,make sur
e st
udent
s see t
hatposi
ti
ve
behav
iorswi l
l l
eadtoposit
iveconsequences.
 Demonst r
ateandt eachgoodbehav i
ors.

2.2.
2: cogni
ti
vetheoryintheclassroom
Teacherscanapplyconceptsfrom cognit
ivi
stsi
nt hecl
assr
oom t
oenhancet
hei
rst
udent
s
understandi
ng.Thestepstakenarediscussedbelow.

Meani
ngf
ull
ear
ning • Teacher s need t o pr omote mor e
ef f
ectiv
el earning,thet eacherneed to
link new i nfor
mation t o famili
ar
information.
•Exampl e:Ifteacherwantt oteachabout
ri
cepl ant
ation,iti
sadv i
sableforhimto
organizetri
pt oSabakBer nam whereri
ce

42
 arepl
ant
edorshowthem vi
deoshowi
ng
ri
cepl
antat
ioni
nSabakBer
nam.

Dualcodi
ngt
heor
y •Guidest udentstoprocessi
nf ormati
on
usi
ngdualcodi ngtheory.
•Dual codingtheorysuggest
st hatwe
rememberbet t
erwhent wopr ocessesare
engage: vi
suallear
ningandv erball
earni
ng.

Schemat
heor
y •Engagest udentinschemat heorywhi l
e
teaching.
•Thistheorysuggest edthatourpr ior
knowl edgecanf acili
tat
eorenhance
transferoflearning.
•Exampl e:I
nt eachingaccount,teacher
mayusepr i
orknowl edgeorf ormulathey
havelearnedear l
ierinmat hematics.

Phasesofl
ear
ning

•Gagne(1985)transl
atedtheinf
ormation-
processi
ngmodelintoaninst
ructi
onal
model
cal
led“phasesoflearni
ng.”
•Asdetai
ledinTable5.1Gagne( 1985)par
all
elsinf
ormat
ionprocessi
ngwi t
h
i
nstr
ucti
onalevents.

I
nternalPr
ocess Instr
uct i
onalEv ent ActionExampl e
Recepti
onExpect
ancy 1.Gainingat tent i
on Useabr uptstimul us
2.Informingl ear nersofthe change.Tel llearner s
objecti
ve. whatt heywi llbeabl et o
doaf terlearning.
Ret
ri
eval
toWor
kingmemor
y 3.Stimulatingr ecal l
of Askf orr ecallofpr eviousl
y
pri
orlearning. learnedknowl edgeor
skills.
Sel
ect
iveper
cept
ion 4.Present i
ngt hest i
mulus. Displayt hecont entwi t
h
distinct i
vefeat ures.
Semant
icencodi
ng 5.Prov i
ding“ l
ear ning Suggestmeani ngful
guidance” . learn¬i ng.
Respondi ng 6.Eli
cit
ingper formance. Requi readdi t
ional learner
Rei
nf orcementRet
ri
eval 7.Providingf eedback. per formance, with
&reinforcement 8.Assessi ngper formance. f eed¬back.
9.Enhanci ngr etent i
onand Pr ovidev ar
iedpr act i
ceand
Ret
rievaland tr
ansfer. spacer ev i
ews.
Generali
zati
on.

43
2.
2.3:
Inf
ormat
ionPr
ocessi
ngModel
(IPM)
:

TheI nf
ormati
onPr ocessingTheoryapproacht othest udyofcognit
ivedevel
opmentevolved
outoftheAmer i
canexper imental
tradi
ti
oni npsy chology.I
nformati
onprocessi
ngtheori
sts
proposedthatl
ikeacomput er
,ahumanmi ndisasy stem t
hatprocessesi
nformat
ion
throughtheappli
cationoflogi
calrul
esandst rategies.Themi ndhasalimit
edcapacit
yfor
theamountandnat ureofthei
nformati
oni tcanpr ocess.

Fi
gur
e2.
3.2.
1:I
nfor
mat
ionpr
ocessi
ngmodel

The terminol
ogy oft he Information Processi
ng Modelas i l
l
ustr at
ed in Figure 5.12
emphasizing the si
gnif
icance of“ encodi
ng”( i
nput
)ofi nformat ion,the “storage”of
i
nformation,andt he“r
etri
eval”(access)ofi nf
ormati
on.Thel anguageandt hemet aphor
oft
enusedi soneoft hemi ndsofascomput er
.IPM t
heori
st,U.Neisser,maint
ainst hatthe
corr
elat
ionbet weencogniti
onandcomput ersisapower f
ulone( Benjafel
d,1992i nTan,
2003).MostIPM theor
istsseethecomput erasonlyametaphorforhumanment alactiv
ity.
Fi
nally,j
ustasthecomputercanbemadei ntoabet teri
nfor
mati
onprocessorbychanging
i
tshar dwareanditssof
tware(programmi ng),sodochi l
drenwhobecomemor e
sophisti
catedthi
nkerst
hroughchangesi nt hei
rbrainsandsensor
ysystems( har
dware)and
i
nt herulesandstrat
egi
es(software)thattheylearn.

44
 Act
ivi
ty

 Descri
bethef
eaturesoft
hreest
agesofmemor
yst
oragei
n
I
nformati
onProcessi
ngmodel.

Mul
ti
-St
oreModelofMemor
y
Oneoft hemaj orissuesi ncogni t
ivepsychologyi sthestudyofmemor y.Thedomi nantv iew
i
sl abell
edthe“staget heory”andi sbasedont hewor kofAtkinsonandShiffr
in(
1968) .The
Atkinson-Shi
ff
rinmodel (al
soknownast heMul ti
-storemodel,Multi
-memorymodel andt he
Modal model)isapsy chol ogicalmodelpr oposedi n1968byRi chardAtki
nsonandRi chard
Shiffr
inasapr oposalf orthest r
uctur
eofmemor y.Itpr
oposedt hathumanmemor yinv olves
asequenceoft hr
eest ages, whicharesensor ymemor y,
short-t
erm memor yandlong- ter
m
memor yasshowni nFi gure2. 3.
2.2.

Fi
gur
e2.
3.2.
2:Mul
ti
-st
oremodelofmemor
y(al
soknownast
he,
Mul
ti
-memor
ymodelandt
heModal
model
)

Themul ti
-stor
emodel i
sav erycommonmodel ofmemor yassumingthatt
her
eare
di
fferenttypesofmemor yusedfordiff
erentt
asks.I
tisanexplanat
ionofhowmemory
processeswor k.Youhear,
seeandf eelmanythi
ngs,butyoucanonl yr
ememberafew.
Thesel i
nktogetheri
nanef f
ecti
vesequenceasex pl
ainedbel
ow.

45
a)Sensor
yMemor
y
Thef ir
stst ageissensorymemor y,whichcont ai
nsr eceptorsthatbr ieflyhol dont oonly
thatinformat i
onthatentersthr
oughoursenses.Sensor ymemor yisaf fil
i
at edwi t
ht he
transudationofener gy(
changef r
om onef orm ofener gytoanot her).Theenv i
ronment
makesav ari
etyofsourcesofinformation(l
ight,
sound, smell,
heat ,
col d,etc.)avail
able,
butt hebrainonlyunderstandselectr
icalenergy.Thebodyhasspeci alsensor yreceptor
cellsthattransducer(changefrom onef orm ofenergyt oanother )thisexter nalenergy
tosomet hingt hebraincanunderstand.Inthepr ocessoft r
ansudat ion, amemor yis
created.Thi smemor yisveryshort(l
esst han1/2secondf orvision; about3secondsf or
hear i
ng).

Fi
gur
e2.
3.2.
3:Senseor
gan

Thesenseorganshav
eal i
mit
edabil
i
tytostor
einf
ormat
ionaboutt
hewor
ldi
naf
air
ly
unpr
ocessedwayforlesst
hanasecond.Exampl
e:
•Thevisualsy
stem possessesiconi
cmemoryforvisualst
imul
isuchasshape,si
ze,
col
ourandlocati
on(butnotmeaning)
•Theheari
ngsystem hasechoi
cmemor yf
oraudi
tor
ystimuli
.

Coltheartetal(
1974)havearguedthatthemomentaryfr
eezingofvi
sualinputall
owsust o
selectwhichaspectoft
heinputshouldgoonforf
urthermemor ypr
ocessing.Theexi
stence
ofsensor ymemor yhasbeen exper iment
all
ydemonst r
ated bySperl
ing(1960)using a
tachist
oscope.
b)Shor
t-
ter
m memor
y
Thesecondst
ageisshor
t-
ter
m memor y
,at
emporar
ystoragefaci
li
ty.Shor
t-
ter
m memoryis
al
socall
edworki
ngmemor yandr
elat
estowhatwearethi
nkingaboutatanygivenmoment
i
ntime.
Accor
dingt
oFr
eudi
an:

“Shor
tt er
m memor yisconsciousmemor y.I
tiscr eatedbyourpayingat
tent
iont
oanext ernal
sti
mulus,aninter
nalthought,
orboth.I
twil
li
nit
ial
l
yl astsomewherear
ound15to20secondsunl
ess
i
tisrepeated(cal
ledmaintenancer
ehearsal
)atwhichpoi nti
tmaybeavai
l
abl
eforupt
o20mi nut
es”.
Freudi
an

46
Fi
gur
e2.
3.2.
4:Thef
ront
all
obe,
thest
ruct
ureassoci
atedwi
thwor
kingmemor
y.

Thehy pothal
amusi sabr ainstruct
urethoughttobeinv ol
vedi nthisshallowprocessi
ngof
i
nfor mat i
on.Whilethefrontallobeofthecerebral
cortexasl abeledi nFigure5.
15isthe
st
r uctureassociatedwithwor kingmemor y.
ForExampl e,y
ouar epr ocessingthewordsyouread
ont hescr eeninyourfrontall
obes.Howev er,i
fIask,“Whati sy ourtelephonenumber?”Your
brainimmedi atelycal
lsthatfrom long-
term memor yandr eplaceswhatwaspr evi
ouslyt
here.

Anot
herpr
ocessthati
ssometimesusedtoexpandthecapacit
yofshort-
ter
m memor
y
i
scall
edchunki
ng.Chunki
ngisaprocessbywhichwegroupindiv
idual
bitsof
i
nfor
mati
onintosometypesoflar
ge,moremeaningf
uluni
t.

c)Long-
ter
m memor
y
Thet hi
rdstageislong-t
erm memor y(LTM).LTM prov
idesthelasti
ngret
ent
ionof
i
nfor
mat i
on,fr
om minutestoalif
eti
me.Long-t
erm memoryappear
st ohav
eanalmost
l
imit
lesscapaci
tyt
or et
aininf
ormati
on,buti
tcoul
dneverbemeasured,asi
twoul
dtake
tool
ong.
Contemporar
ypsychol
ogist
sagreet
hatlong-
term memorycanbediv
idedi
ntosubt
ypesof
decl
arat
iveandpr
oceduralmemory(Sant
rock,2008)
.Decl
arat
ivememoryi
ssubdiv
idedi
nto
epi
sodicmemoryandsemant i
cmemor y.

47
 • Pr ocedur al memor y i s nondeclarati
v e
Pr
ocedur
almemor
y knowl edge i n the f orm of ski ll
s and
cogni tiveoper ations.
•Procedur almemor ycannotbeconsci ously
recol l
ect ed,atl eastnoti nt he f
orm of
speci ficev entsorf act s.
•Procedur almemor yi s somet i
mes cal l
ed
“knowi ng how, ”and r ecentlyitalso has
beendescr ibedas“ impl i
citmemor y.”
•Whenst udent sappl ythei rabil
iti
estoperform
a dance,t hei
rpr ocedur almemor yi s at
wor k.
• Decl ar
at i
v e memor y i s t he conscious
Decl
arat
ivememor
y recol l
ect i
on of i nformat i
on, such as
speci ficf acts or ev entst hat can be
v erballycommuni cated.
• Decl arative memor y has been cal l
ed
“knowi ngt hat”andmor erecentl
yhasbeen
label l
ed“ expl i
citmemor y.”

•Demonst rati
onsofstudent’
sdeclarat
ive
memor ysuchasdescr i
bingabasicpri
ncipl
e
ofmat h.
•Episodi c memor ies aret he memories we
Epi
sodi
c hav ef ort i
mesandpl aces( l
i
kef i
rstday
Aidilf
it
ri cel
ebr
ation).

•I
nformati
onencodedinourepi
sodi
cmemor
y
i
sintheform ofi
mages.

Semant
icmemor
ies Semanticmemoriesareourmemor i
esfor
general
fact
sandconcepts.Mostofwhatwe
l
earnedinschool
( i
nstr
uct
ional
content
)is
stor
edinoursemant i
cmemor i
es.

48
Long-
ter
m memor
yisal
socal
l
edpr
econsci
ousandunconsci
ousmemor
yinFr
eudi
an
ter
ms.
•Preconsciousmeanst hattheinf
ormati
onisrelat
ivel
yeasi
lyr
ecal
led(al
thoughi
tmay
takesev eral
mi nut
esorevenhours)whil
e
•Unconsciousreferstodat
at hati
snotavai
labl
eduringnor
malconsci
ousness.
Iti
sthepr
econsci
ousmemor ythati
sthefocusofcognit
ivepsychologyasi
trel
atestothelong-
ter
m memory.Thelev
elsofpr
ocessingtheor
y,however
,hasprovidedsomeresearchesthat
att
esttot
hefactt
hatwe“know”mor ethanwecaneasilyrecal
l
.

Accor
dingt
oBr
ynes,

Therearetwoprocessi nappearinfaci
li
tati
ngoureff
ort
s,theyar
er ehear
sal(pract
ice)and
elabor
ati
on(Byrnes,1996).Elaborat
ionofinformati
onprocessingstrat
egyemphasi zesl
inks
betweentheinformat i
onstor edinthelong-t
erm memoryandt henewi nformation.When
wet al
kaboutinformat i
onpr ocessi
ngmodel ,wecannotav oi
ddiscussingmemor yand
forget
ti
ng,howt oenhancest udent
’slong-t
erm memoryandwhatf act
orscont r
ibuteto
forget
ti
ng.Wewi lldiscussitlateri
nthenextchapter.

St
epsToEnhanceLong-
Ter
m Memor
y
Accor
dingtoSant
rock,“
Longter
m memor
ymeani
ngi
nfor
mat
ioni
sret
ainedi
nthel
ongt
erm
memoryovert
ime”
.(Santr
ock,
2007)

st
orage,andr et
ri
eval.Teachercanhelpstudentsstorethei
nformati
oninthelong-
ter
m
memor yusingmet hodssuchasposi ti
vetransf
er,dualcodi
ngtheory,
rehear
sal,
i
nstr
uctionalstr
ategi
es,mnemoni cs,andmemor ygadgetsordevi
ces.Descr
ipti
onsofthese
methodsar eexplai
nedinFigure2.3.
2.5.

Tabl
e2.
3.1:Li
stofmet
hodst
ohel
pst
udent
sst
oret
hei
nfor
mat
ion,
int
hel
ong-
ter
m memor
y

Posi
ti
vet
ransf
er

 Teachermaytransf
erlearni
ngusingappropr
iatestr
ategiesoract
ivi
ti
es.
 Schemat heor
ysuggestteachert
oactiv
atepriorknowledgeandmake
connecti
onwithnewknowl edget
oenhancest udent’
slearni
ng.

Dualcodi
ngt
heor
y

 I
ndualcodi ngt heory
,t heor
istssuggestt hatwer ememberbetterwhent wo
processesar eengagesuchasv i
sual l
earningandv erball
ear
ning.
 Fore xample,ateacherguidey oungchi l
drent owr i
tethedigi
t“8”mayprov
ide
verbalinst
ructi
onaswel lasv i
sual presentation.Shemaybegi nwit
hpenci
lon
thechil’
spapersay i
ng,“Let’
sst artbywr i
tingt hel
etterSandthencurvi
ngbackto
j
oint
heopenendjoi
ningsomet
hingl
i
ket
hatl
ooksl
i
ket
woci
rcl
est
ouchi
ngeach
ot
heront
heside.
”

49
 Rehear
sal

 St
udentmayuset wot ypesofrehearsalthatismaintenanceandelaborat
ive.
- Mai nt
enancer ehearsal
isroterepeti
tionoftheinformationi
nSTM, l
ike
repeati
ngphonenumberaf ewdozent i
mes.
- -El aborati
verehearsali
snotbasedonmer erepetit
ionbutoccurswhen
theinformati
oni sexpanded,embel l
ishedon,andr elat
edtoother
conceptsalreadyinLTM.

I
nst
ruct
ional
str
ategi
es

Teachermayuseinst
ructi
onal
strategi
esthatacti
velyi
nvol
vedstudent
sinlearni
ngsuch
asgroupdi
scussi
on,singi
ngandr eadi
ngaloud,cooper
ati
velear
ning,i
nqui
ry,di
scov
ery,
exper
iment
ingorl
eaningbydoing.

Mnemoni
cs

- Teachermay use mnemoni c devi

ces such as acr
ony
ms whi l
stt eachi
ng
i
mportantfact
s.
- Exampl eofacronymisSMSf orshortmessagesservi
ceorFELDAf orFederal
LandDev el
opmentAothori
ty.
• Anothertypeofmnemoni csuchaspegwor d..
• -Exampleofpegwor di
s“ EmakSukaPizza”fort
ypesofmemoryinlongterm
memor ythatisEpi
sodi
c,Semant i
c,andProcedural
.

Memor
ygadget
sordev
ices

• St
udent
smayusememor
ydev
icesuchasmi
ndmappi
ng,
graphi
cor
gani
zer
,fi
sh
–bonedi
agr
am,
treedi
agr
am,
etct
oenhancet
hei
runder
standi
ngandgood
memory.

Ref
erence

Readi
ngMat
eri
alsf
ort
heuni
t:

El
l
iot
t,S.N.,Krat
ochwil
l,T.R.
,Cook,J.L.
,and Traver
s,J.F.( 2000)
.Educat
ional
psychol
ogy:Eff
ecti
veteachi
ng,eff
ect
ivel
earni
ng.Boston:The McGraw-Hil
l
Companies,I
nc.

1984)Chi
DONALDSONM ( l
dren'
sMi
ndsLondonFont
ana(
readabl
eandcr
it
ical
) 

SATTERLYD( 1987)"Pi
agetandEducat
ion"i
nRLGr egor
y( )TheOxf
ed. ordCompani
on
tot
heMi ndOxford,
OxfordUniv
ersi
tyPr
ess [back]

50
WOODD( 1998)HowChi
l
drenThi
nkandLear
n(2ndedi
ti
on)Oxf
ord;
Blackwel
l
Publ
i
shi
ng.

Bandura,A.(1989).Soci
alcogni
ti
vet
heor
y.I
n Vast
a,R.( ) Annal
Ed. s ofchi
l
d
devel
opment
.Greenwi
ch:JAI
.
Educat
Eggen,P&Kauchak,D.2007. ionalpsychol
ogywi
ndowsoncl
assr
ooms.7thed.
NewJersey
:Prenti
ceHall
.
Fel R.S.2005.Under
dman, standi
ngpsychol
ogy.
7thed.Bost
on:
McGr
awHi
l
l.
Hi
nri B.H.2004.Psy
chs, chol
ogy:t
heessenceofasci
ence.Bost
on:
Pear
son.
Mor
ri
s,C.G.&Mai
st Under
o,A.2001. standi
ngpsychol
ogy.
5thed.NewJer
sey
:Pr
ent
ice
Hal
l.
Papal
ia,
D.E.
,Olds,
S.W.
,&Fel R.D.2007.Humandev
dman, elopment
.10thed.Bost
on:
McGrawHi
ll
.
Sant
rock,
J.W.2008.Educat
ional
psy
chol
ogy
.3r
ded.Bost
on:
McGr
aw-
Hil
l
.
i
tscontr
olprocesses.InK.W.SpenceandJ.T.Spence(Eds)Thepsy
chol
ogyof
kear
ningandmot i
vati
on(
Vol
2).London:
Academi
cPr
ess.
Bl
oom,B.(1984).
TheSearchformethodsofgr
oupi
nst
ruct
ionsasef
fect
iveasone-
to-
onetut
oring.
Educat
ional
Leader
ship.
James,
W.(
1890)
.Pr
inci
plesofPsy
chol
ogy
,NewYor
k:Hol
t.
Gagne,R (1970)
.The Condi
ti
ons ofLear
ning (
Second Edi
ti
on)
.New Yor
k:Hol
t,
Ri
nehar
t,&Winst
onHolt
.
Tan OonSeng,Richard D.Parson,Stephanielewi
s Hinson,Debor
ah Sar
do-
Brown
(2003)
.Educat
ionalPsychol
ogy
.Singapor
e: ThomsonLearning.
Gagne,E.D.,Yekovi
ch,C.W.
,&Yekov
ich,F.
R(1993)
.TheCogni
ti
vePsy
chol
ogyof
SchoolLear
ning.
Lahey
,B.B.2004.Psy
chol
ogy
:ani
ntr
oduct
ion.8t
hed.Bost
on:
McGr
awHi
l
l.

51
Uni
tThr
ee

St
udentSuppor
t:Gui
danceandCounsel
ing

Intr
oduct i
on:Inthistopic,youhavetorevi
seanddeepeny ourunderstandingabout
guidanceandcounsel i
nganduset hi
sunderst
andi
ngtoassistyourstudentst osol
ve
theiracademicandsoci alprobl
emsintheschool
.Theaimistopr ovi
degui danceand
counseling ser
vices to student
st o make t
heirschooland futur
el ives heal
thy,
comf ort
ableandpr oducti
ve.

Lear
ningObj
ect
ives:

Af
tery
ouhav
ecompl
etedt
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
e:

 t
odefinetheter
msgui dance,andcounseling
 t
oidenti
fytheai
msandobj ect
ivesofguidanceandcounsel
i
nginschool
s
 t
oidenti
fytheneedsforguidanceandcounsel i
ng
 t
oidenti
fythecharact
eri
sti
csofef f
ecti
veguidanceandcounsel
ors.

 t
odemonstr
ateknowledgeoft
hei
mpor
tanceofgui
danceandcounsel
i
ngt
o
t
eacher
sandstudent
s

 tocr
it
ical
l
yanal
yzetheconcept
s,scope,
andt
heor
iest
hatgov
ernt
hepr
ocessof
gui
danceandcounsel
i
ng
 t
ousethepri
ncipl
esandfunct
ionsofgui
danceandcounsel
i
ngt
oensur
easaf
e
l
ear
ningenv
ironmenti
nschool
 t
oident
if
yandappl
ydi
ff
erentt
ool
sofdat
acol
l
ect
ioni
ndi
ff
erentsi
tuat
ions
sel
ectandappl
yappr
opr
iat
ecounsel
i
ngt
echni
quest
osol
vest
udent
s’pr
obl
ems
 tocoor
dinat
eandcommunicat
ewi
thv
ari
ousst
akehol
der
sint
hepr
ocessof
gui
danceandcounsel
i
ng.

ConceptofGui
danceandCounsel
ing

Acti
vi
ty1:Dearst
udent
s,whatisgui
danceandcounsel
i
ng?Di
scusswi
thy
ourpeer
sto
answert
hequesti
onforabout15minutes.

The t
erms gui
dance and counsel
i
ng hav
e been l
oosel
y ori
nter
changeabl
y used.

52
Guidanceisat erm whichisbroaderthancounsel i
nganditincludescounselingasone
ofitsservices.But t
ermakesal ogicalseparati
onoft hecounsel i
ngpr ocessi .e.(i
)
adj
ustiveand( i
i)distr
ibut
ivephase.Intheadj ust
ivephase,theemphasi sisonsoci al
,
personalandemot ionalprobl
emsoft heindiv
idual,i
nthedist
ributi
vephaset hef ocusis
uponeducat i
onal,vocati
onalandoccupationalproblems.Thedi st
ri
buti
vephase‘ canbe
mostapt lydescr i
bed asgui dance‘
whiletheadj usti
ve‘
phasecan beconsi dered as
descri
pti
onofcounsel ing‘
.

Guidanceandcounselingaretwosi desoft hesamecoi n.Thegoali nbot

hcasesi sto
giv
eanoppor tuni
tyforanindi
v i
dualtoseeav ari
etyofav ail
ableopti
onsandt hereaf
ter
,
assisttheper
soninmaki ngawi sechoice.Guidanceist hepr ocessthati
sputi nplace
atat imeachoicei
st obemade.Counsel ingont heotherhandi )helpswit
hconsi der
ing
al
lsi desofapotenti
alchoiceev enbeforet hechoiceismade;i i
)takesplacewhena
choicehasbeenmadeandt hereisaneedt omodi f
y,r ei
nforceorabandonsucha
choice.

Thebasi cpurposeofagui danceandcounsel ingprogram ist oensur ethephy sical

,
emot i
onal,social
,and educationaldev el
opmentofl earners.Si nce pri
mar yschool
studentsspendmostoft heschooldaywi t
hj ustafewteacher s,t
heset eachersarei na
favorabl
epositiontoperformt heirr oleasacounsel orf ortheirstudents.Theycan
assumet hei
rcounseli
ngroleatt wol evel
s–school andclassroom.Atschool lev
el,thei
r
roleascounselorwil
lbeor i
entedt owar dst hemor egeneralandcommonpr oblemsof
primaryschoolchi
ldr
en.Incont rast,theirroleasclassroom counsel orwi l
lbesl anted
towardsthemor especi
fi
candi ndi v
idual pr
obl emsoftheirstudents.

Def
ini
ti
ons:

Gui dancei sabr oadt ermt hatisappli

edt oaschool ’
sprogram ofact i
v i
tiesandser vices
thatar eaimedatassi sti
ngst udentst omakeandcar ryoutadequat epl ansandt o
achi eve satisf
actory adj ustmenti nlife.Guidance can be def i
ned as a pr ocess,
dev elopment alinnat ure,bywhi chani ndiv
idualisassistedtounder stand,acceptand
util
izehi s/herabili
ties,apt i
tudesandi nterest
sandat ti
tudi
nalpat ternsi nrel
ationt o
his/heraspi rat
ions.Gui danceasaneducat i
onalconst r
uctinvolvest hoseexper iences,
whi ch assisteach l earnert o under
stand him/her sel
f,accepthi m/ her selfand l i
ve
effectivelyin his/hersoci ety.Thisi si n addi
tion tot he learnerhav i
ng learning
exper iencesaboutt hewor l
dofwor kandpeopl etherein.

Gui
dancecanal sobelookedatasapr ogr
am ofser
vicestopeoplebasedupontheneed
ofeachindi
vidual
,anunderstandi
ngofhis/heri
mmedi at
eenvir
onment,thei
nfl
uenceof
envi
ronmentalfactor
s on the indi
vi
dualand the unique f
eatur
es ofeach school
.

53
Guidancei sdesi
gnedt ohelpeachpersonadjusttohis/herenv
ironment ,devel
opt he
abil
it
yt o setreali
sti
cgoalsf orhim/her
sel
f,and improvehis/hert otaleducati
onal
program.Asapr ocess,gui
danceisnotasimpleeventbutiti
nvol
vesaser i
esofactions
orstepspr ogr
essiv
elymov i
ngtowardsagoal.Asaser vi
ce,wecani solatethr
eemaj or
servi
ces,thatofeducati
onal
,vocat
ional
,
personalandsocialgui
dance.

1.Educat
ionalGui
dance

Educationalgui danceissof arasi tcanbedi sti

nguishedfrom anyot herfrom of
guidance, i
sconcer nedwit
hthepr ovi
sionofassistancet opupi
lsintheirchoicesinand
adjustmentt ot heschool
s’curr
iculum andschooll i
feingeneral.Educati
onalguidance
i
st hereforeessent i
alincounseli
ngser vi
ce.Guidingy oungpeopletopur suet heri
ght
ty
peofeducat ioninwhich,f
orexampl etherightbalanceismetf oraccommodat i
ngthe
humanr esourceneedsofanat i
on.

2.Vocat
ionalGui
dance

Vocat i
onalguidancei sapr ocessofhel pi
ng indi
vi
dualsto choosean occupat i
on,
preparef or
,enterintoandprogressinit
.Vocati
onalhappinessrequi
resthataperson’s
i
nterests,apti
tudesandper sonal i
tybesuitabl
ef orhi
s/herwor k.I
tplaysitspartby
providi
ngi ndi
vi
dual swithacompr ehensi
onoft heworldofwor kandessentialhuman
needs,t husfami l
i
ar i
zi
ngindivi
dualswithsucht ermsas` digni
tyoflabor’and` work
value’.

3.Per
sonalandSoci
alGui
dance

Personalandsocialguidanceistheprocessofhelpi
ngani ndivi
dualonhowtobehave
withconsider
ati
ont oot herpeople.Pr
imari
ly
,personalandsoci algui
dancehel
psthe
i
ndividualt
ounderstandonesel f
,howt ogetalongwithothers,mannersandeti
quet
te,
l
eisuretimeactiv
iti
es,socialski
ll
s,famil
yandf amil
yr el
ati
onshipsandunderst
andi
ng
mascul i
neandfeminineroles.

Counselingisusuallyvi
ewedasonepar tofguidanceser
vices;itissubsumedbyt he
generalter
m,guidance,i
nthati
tisoneservicewithi
ngui
dancer athert
hanasy nonym.I
t
i
sdi f
f i
culttothinkofonedef i
nit
ionofcounsel i
ng.Thi
si sbecausedef i
niti
onsof
counseli
ng depend ont hetheoreti
calori
entat
ionoft heper sondef i
ning i
t.Letus
examinesomeoft hesedef
ini
ti
ons.

54
Counseli
ng isl earni
ng-or
ient
ed pr ocess which usuall
y occursi n an int
eracti
ve
rel
ati
onshipwit
ht heaim ofhelpingthepersonlearnmore:aboutt
heself;aboutothers,
andaboutsit
uati
onsandev ent
sr el
atedtogivenissuesandcondit
ionsandalsotolearn
toputsuchunderstandingtobeinganef f
ecti
vememberoft hesociety
.

Counsel i
ngisapr ocessinwhi chthehel perexpressescar eandconcer ntowardst he
personwi thapr oblem tof aci
li
tat
ethatper son’
sper sonalgr owthandposi ti
vechange
through sel f
-under st
anding. Counseling denot es a r el
ati
onship bet ween a
concernedpersonandaper sonwi t
haneed.Thi sr elat
ionshipisusual l
yper son-t
o-
person,al
thoughsomet imesi tmayi nvolvemor et hant wopeopl e.I ti
sdesi gnedt o
helppeople understand and clari
fytheirv iews oft heirlif
e-space,and t olearnt o
reachtheir self
-determined goal s through meani ngful
, wel l
-inf
ormed, choi ces
andthroughresolutionofproblemsofanemot i
onalorinterpersonalnatur
e.Itcan
beseenf rom thesedef i
nit
ionsthatcounselli
ngmayhav edi f
ferentmeanings.

Acti
vi
ty2:a)Li
stanyfouractivi
ti
esyouhavecarr
iedouti
nyourdepart
mentwi thint
he
l
ast
oneyeart
hatare(a)guidanceand(b)counsel
i
nginnatur
e.b)
From yourli
st,
indicat
ethe
el
ementswhichdist
inguisheachacti
vi
tyaseit
hergui
danceorcounsel
ing.

Infact, counseli
ngisprovidedunderav ari
etyofdiffer
entlabel
s.Forexample,thereare
i
nst anceswher ecounseli
ngisof f
eredinthecontextofar el
ati
onshipwhichisprimari
ly
focusedonot her
,non-counseli
ngconcerns.Forexampl e,astudentmayseeat eacher
asaper sonwi t
hwhom i tissafet oshar
ewor ri
esandanxi et
ies.I
nsuchasi t
uat i
onit
seemsappr opri
atetoseewhati shappeningasbei ngat eacherusingcounsel
i
ngski l
ls
ratherthanengagi nginanact ualcounsel
ingrel
ationshi
p.Thet eacheri
scounselingbut
notbei ngacounsel or.

Gui dancepr ogramsandt hecounsel i

ngser v i
cewi t
hinthem, usuallydeal wit
hsituational
andenv i
ronment alcondi ti
ons.Counsel i
ngi sof tenseenasassi st ancegivenindividuals
toat tainacl earsenseofi dent ity
.Counsel ing,aswel last het otalguidancepr ogr am,
stressed r ati
onalpl anning,pr oblem-solving,and suppor tint he f aceofsi tuational
pressur es.Thecounsel i
ngr elationshi
pi susual lycharacteri
zedbymuchl essintensi t
y
ofemot ionalexpressi onthant hat f oundi nt het her
apeut i
cr elati
onship.Counsel ing
serv i
cesar eusual lylocatedi nschool s,uni versiti
es,communi tyser vi
ceagenci es,and
past oralor ganizations,whilepsy chotherapeut icser vi
cesar eusual l
yfoundi ncl inics,
hospi tals,andpr i
v atepractice.Ther ecipientsofcounsel ingar e`normal ’i
ndividuals
rather t han t hose who exhi bi
t abnor mal or ext reme modes of adj ustment .
Psy chot herapyexi stsforindividualswi t
hpsy chologicaldisorders.Counsel i
nghel pst he
essent iallynor mali ndivi
dualr emov ef r
ust rati
onsand obst aclest hatinterf
er ewi t
h

55
 devel
opment
,whi
l
epsy
chot
her
apyat
tempt
stodealwi
thdi
sabl
i
ngordi
sint
egr
ati
ng
confl
i
cts.

Counseli
ngf ocusesuponhel pingt
hei ndivi
dual t
ocopewi thdevelopmenttaskssuchas
self
-defi
nit
ion,i
ndependence, andthelike.Attent
ionisgi ventoclari
fyi
ngtheindivi
dual’
s
assets,skill
s,st rengths,and per sonalr esources int er
ms ofr ol
e dev el
opment .
Counseli
ngappr oaches,arebasedmor euponemphasi zi
ngpr esentconsci
ousmat er
ial
(materi
al av ai
lable wi thi
n t he indivi
dual’
s awar eness) whi l
e psychotherapeuti
c
approachest endt oemphasi zehistori
candsy mbol icmat eri
als,rel
yi
ngheav il
yupon
reacti
vat
ionandconsi derat
ionofunconsci ouspr ocesses.

Acti
vit
y3:Got hrought hestat
ementofviewsonthemeaningsofguidanceandof
counseli
ng.Revi
ewt hesev i
ewswithyourpeeri
nthecl
ass.Agreeonameani ngf
oreachoft
he
twoterms( gui
dance;counseli
ng).Whatarethecommonali
ti
esinyourmeanings(or
defi
nit
ions)andthosel i
stedabov
e?

Gui
danceandCounsel
ingi
nSchool
s
Thebasi caim ofagui danceandcounsel ingpr ogram ist ohelpst udentteachers
i
dent i
fypr
oblemsori ssuesi nschools,andthent odev el
opar ati
onaleforagui dance
and counsel
ing pr
ogram i naschoolset ti
ng.Thi suni twillpr
ovidecompr ehensive
knowledgeaboutschool-wideguidanceandcounsel i
ngpr ograms,whichwi l
lencourage
StudentTeacherstouset hei
rcreati
vit
yandf reshi deast oconceptuali
zetheirown
guidanceandcounseli
ngpr ogramsi nschool
.Itwil
lalsodev el
optheirabil
i
tytoperceive,
respondto,andmanaget hewhol espectr
um ofgui danceandcounsel i
nginschool s
throughanacti
onplan.

Theschooli sexpect edtopr ovi

demor et hanj
ustt eachi
ngandi nstr
uction.Aschool
gui
danceandcounsel i
ngpr ogram incl
udesallthoseact i
vi
tiesotherthani nst r
ucti
onal
whichar ecarri
edoutt or enderassistancetopupi l
si ntheireducational,v ocati
onal,
personaldev el
opmentand adj ust
ment .The fundament alai m of gui dance and
counseli
ng program bei ng t he maximum dev elopmentoft he chil
d,al lgui dance
counseli
ngpr ogram mustbegear edt owardattai
nmentoft hegoal .Gui danceand
counseli
ngser v
icescanassi stthepupi l
sinknowingt hemselves-t
heirpotentiali
ti
esand
l
imitati
ons,maki ng appropriatechoicesi neducational
,v ocati
onaland ot herf i
elds.
Someoft heimpor t
antgui danceser vi
cesare:

56
  Theor
ient
ati
onser
vices
 St
udenti
nvent
oryser
vices
 Car
eerI
nfor
mat
ionser
vices
 Counsel
i
ngser
vices
 Gr
oupgui
danceser
vices
 Pl
acementser
vices
 Resear
chandev
aluat
ionser
vices

Lear
nersintheschoolsystemscomei nwithawi devari
etyofbackgrounds.Thereis
di
versi
tyi
nt hei
rentr
ysocio-economi
candacademi cprof
il
es.Thisdiv
ersit
ytranslat
es
i
ntoadiff
erenti
ali
nthei
rbehav i
orpat
ter
ns.Yetourdesi
rei
st oensur
ethatallarefound
wort
hyinlearni
ng

I
ni nst i
tutionsofl earni
ng( school
s),gui
danceandcounselingshouldaddresslear
ners’
diff
iculties.These di f
ficulti
es encompass the whole spectr
um ofst udentl i
fein
i
nstitutionsofhi gherlear ning.A numberoft hem mayhav enegat i
veimpactont he
teaching/ lear
ningpr ocess.Counsel ingshoul
dpr obewhatstudent
s’dif
fi
cult
iesareand
thenappr oacht hem sy stemat i
call
y.Forexample,indi
agnosi
nglearni
ngdiffi
cul
ti
esthe
l
ectur ershoul dfocusont hef ol
lowingaspect
s:

Di
ff
icul
ti
est
hatar
isedur
ingi
nst
ruct
ion:t
hesemayber
elat
edt
othecont
ent
,thel
ect
urer
ort
hewayofpr
esent
ati
on.

Di
ff
icul
ti
esaf
teri
nst
ruct
ion:t
hesemayber
elat
edt
osoci
alact
ivi
ti
esoft
hest
udentor
t
heymayber el
atedt ot
hef aci
li
ti
esthemsel
ves.Insuchcaseswhereshoul
dthe
i
nfor
mati
oncomef rom?Thesourcesofrel
evantinf
ormat
ionaboutl
ear
nerscanbe
f
oundorgl
eanedthrought
hefoll
owing:

Indivi
dualobservati
on.
Thisrequi
rest hati
ndivi
duall
ecturer
sar ekeeninnotingany
strangethi
ngsthathappentothestudentsorwit
hthestudents.Theobser
vat
ionshoul
d
ariseoutofagenuinedesi
retohel
pandgeti nvol
vedwi
tht hestudent
s.

St
udentst
atement
s

Studentsi nvar
iabl
y make stat
ement s and comment
s which areindicat
ive oft
he
str
ugglest hatt
heymayface.Thelecturersshoul
dbepr
epar
edtonot ethesecomments
andst atementswhi char
ei ndi
cati
veoforar esymptomsofot herthingsthatmay
appearlater.

57
TheGoalofGui
danceandCounsel
ing

Thegoalofgui
danceandcounsel
i
ngi
stomakeitpossi
bleforanindi
vidualtoseeand
expl
orehisorherunli
mit
edendowedopt
ionsOdeck,1999).Educat
ionall
y,guidance
shoul
dinvol
vethoseexperi
enceswhichassi
steachl
ear
nert
ounder
standandaccept
onesel
fsoastoli
veef
fecti
vel
yinsoci
ety.

Maj
orSer
viceAr
eas

Themaj orservicear easofgui danceandcounsel i

ngi nschoolsinclude:Educat ional
gui
danceandcounsel ing.Thisaspectofcounselingshouldconcernit
selfwi t
hassi sti
ng
thestudentsint heir
cur r
icul
um andschooll if
echoi ces.Studentsneedassi stancei n
subj
ectt heylearnandpl anningf orthesubject
st hatt heytakeatt hei nst
ituti
onsof
l
earni
ng.Allt
eacher scouldbei nvolv
edinthi
swi thoutanyneedf orspecial
izedt r
ainingi
n
counsel
ing.

Vocat
ionalgui
danceandcounsel
i
ng

Thisaspectofcounsel ingaddr essesthel earners’probl

emsasr egardstov ocational
choices.Agai n her
et he lecturer
s ar e bestpl aced to gi
ver el
evantadv ice to
l
earner ssincetheyknow t heiracademicst rengthsandweaknessesi nareast hatmay
pertai
nt ospecifi
cv ocations,occupationsorj obs.Thef actthatt helectur
er sknow
thei
nter estsandapt i
tudesofmostoft heirstudent smakest hem thebestper sons
toassisttheirst
udentsinar easthatarerelatedtot hei
rvocati
ons.

Per
sonalandsoci
algui
danceandcounsel
i
ng

Thisaspectofcounsel ingr eferst ot hev er

ypersonalpr obl
emst hatst udentsmeet .
Thesepr oblemsmayr angefr om financialneedstointerpersonalr
elat
ionships.Alt
hough
thelecturersmayhel ptor educet hesepr essur
es,t hereisneedf ormor especial
i
zed
assi
stancef r
om professionallytrainedhands.Thef actt hatthel
ecturersmayhav ean
upperhandi nint
eracti
onwi tht hest udentsonlygoest oshowhowcr ucialiti
st hatthey
shouldgeti nvol
ved.Asr ol
emodel stot hemaj ori
tyofst udent
si tisi mportantt he
l
ecturesar emadeawar eofthei rcrucialrol
einsoci
algui dance.

St
udentr
ecor
dsandf
oll
owup

Theseusual
l
yyiel
dinfor
mationthatwouldfaci
l
itat
ealect
urert
oassi
stast
udentwhose
probl
em mayhavebeenignoredorbrushedasi
deforal
ongtime.

58
Themaj
orser
vicear
easofgui
danceandcounsel
i
ngi
nschool
sar
e:

Educat
ionalgui
danceandcounsel
ingi
sthat
whi
chassi
stsst
udent
sint
hei
rcur
ri
cul
um
andschooll
if
echoices.

Vocati
onalgui
dance whi
ch assi
ststhe i
ndiv
idualt
o choose and pr
epar
eforan
occupat
iont
hati
scompati
blewit
hhisi
nter
estsandapt
it
udes.

Personalandsoci
algui
dancewhichassi
stst
hei
ndi
vi
dualt
obehav
eappr
opr
iat
elyi
n
rel
ati
ontoothermember
softhesoci
ety
.

Counsel
i
ngcouldbeconceivedasani nter
act
iverel
ati
onshi
pbetweent woormor e
per
sonsthatcant
akeavar
ietyoff
orms.Itmayaddr
essnon-educat
ionali
ssuesorev
en
noncounseli
ngconcerns.Counsel
ingshoul
dbeseenasaser v
iceprovi
dedtonormal
i
ndivi
dualstoassi
stt
hem remov eorcopewit
hfr
ust
rat
ionsandobst
aclesthati
nter
fer
e
wit
htheirdevel
opment
.

Act
ivi
ty4:
Commentont
hev
iewt
hatt sar
eacher ebestpl
acedt
ogi
ver
elevantadvi
cet
olear
ner
s
si
ncet heyknowt heiracademi cstr
engthsandweaknesses.Thef
actthatthet
eachers
know thei nt
erest
sandapt i
tudesofmostoft hei
rst
udentsmakest hem t
hebest
personstoassisttheirstudentsinthei
rlear
ning.Howareyouasateacherinaschool
fi
tt
edt oplayt
heser oles?

Ty
pesofGui
danceandCounsel
ingi
nschool
s

Typesofgui danceandcounsel
i
nginclude:I
ndivi
dualandGroup-Indivi
dualgui
dance,
Group Guidance:Concept
,Need and Signi
fi
cance,Organi
zat
ionofGr oup Guidance
acti
vi
ti
es,TechniquesofGr
oupGuidance,Advant
agesofGroupGuidance,Li
mitat
ionsof
GroupGuidance

I
ndi
vi
dualgui
danceandcounsel
ing:

Indiv
idualgui
danceandcounsel ingistai
l
oredt oani ndivi
dual.Iti
sadv i
ce,st
rat
egyor
planningdesi
gnedf orasi ngul
arpersonorthingandt hei
runiquesi tuati
on.Thi
sisin
contrasttogeneralguidancewhi chisfr
equentlybasedondemogr aphicinf
ormati
on
such asageori ncomeormeantf orthegener alpopul at
ion.Themostcommon
refer
encetoindi
vidualguidanceandcounsel
ingisinreferencetochildrenorstudent
s.

59
Thisisideall
ytheroleofguidanceandcounsel ing,educati
onal orcareer
http:
//www. ehow.com/careers/counselors.Indivi
dualguidanceandcounsel i
ngcanbe
usedt orefertoanyadvice,usuall
yprofessional advi
ce,giventoaper sonbasedont hei
r
uniqueci r
cumstances.Thiscouldincl
udel egal servi
ces,careercounseli
ng,f
inanci
al
pl
anni ng,medicalorpsychologi
caladviceoranumberofot herareaswhereatrai
ned
professionali
slookedtof ordir
ecti
on/suppor tinagivenar ea.

GroupGui dance:Concept,NeedandSigni
fi
cance:Groupreferstocollect
ionofpeopl
e,
i
nteracti
onbetweeni ndi
vi
duals,
devel
opmentofsharedpercepti
ons,thedev el
opmentof
af
fectiv
et iesandt hedev el
opmentofint
erdependenceofr oles.Forexampl emany
st
udent sand/teachersatoneschool
maygathertogethert
of orm agroup.

Groupgui danceencompassest hoseactiv

iti
esofgui dancewhi charecar r
iedoni na
groupsituati
ont oassi stit
smember stohav eexperiencesdesirableorev ennecessary
formakingappr opriatedecisionsintheprevail
ingcont exts.I
namor especi f
ict
erm, i
tis
guidi
ngthei ndi
viduali nagr oupsituat
ion.Groupcoul dbeofanyt ype,butforguidance
purposesagr oupshoul dhav eacommongoal .Justcollecti
onofindiv
idualmaynotbe
call
edagr oupforor ganizi
ngguidanceact i
vit
ies.Selectionofgroupmember swillhave
todependonshar ingacommonpr obl
em,v olunteer
ingt obemember sandwi ll
i
ngness
togroupact i
vi
ti
es.

Jones,A.J(1951)defi
nesgr oupguidance‗ asanygroupenterpr
iseoract
ivi
tyi nwhich
theprimarypurposeistoassi steachi ndi
vi
dualinthegrouptosolvehi
sproblemsand
tomakehi sadjustment‘.Groupgui danceisusedt oaddressthedevel
opment alneeds
ofaf unct
ionalgroupconsi sti
ngofanumberofst udentstoimplementprogram that
wouldbenefitt
hem atalltime.St udentsingroupwithcommonpr obl
emsandconcer ns
arehelpedingroupsi.e.smal lorlarge.I
not herwor
ds,ifgui
danceistobeav ail
ableto
all
,i
tshouldbeplannedi ngroups.

Someoft
heobj
ect
ivesofgr
oupgui
dancear
e:

1.Tohel ppeopl einidenti

fyi
ngcommonpr obl
ems,analyzethem andf indr
elev
ant
solut
ions
2.Topl aceawi derangeofi nf
ormat
ionbeforepeopl
ewithcommonpr oblemswhich
couldbe
usefulforthem forfi
ndingsol
uti
ons?
3.Topr ovi
deapl at
form wher
epeoplewit
hcommonpr obl
emscoul di
nteractwi
theach
otherand
couldbebenef i
tedbyeachot her‘
sper
spect
ives,i
deasandexper
iences

60
4.Tohel
pincreati
nganatmospher
ewherepeoplecoul
dgetanoppor
tuni
tyt
oexpr
ess
themsel
vesandinthepr
ocessanal
yzet
hemselves.

Organi
zat
ionofGroupGuidanceAct
ivi
ti
es:Pl
anni
ngofgr
oupgui
danceact
ivi
tymay
focust
hefol
lowi
ngpoint
s.

1.NeedAssessment :Theneedassessmentmustbedonet
ofi
ndoutthecommon
probl
emsofindiv
idualsint
hegroup.Thi
scanbedonebyadmini
ster
ingquest
ionnai
re,
checkl
ist
sandinter
view.
2.Determini
ngsizeofthegroupandt i
me,venueforgroupactiv
iti
es:
Dependingupon
thegroupacti
vi
tythesi
zeoft hegroupshoul
dbefixed.Thesizeshoul
dbe
approachabl
eandmanageabl e.Thevenueshoul
dbesel ect
edtakingi
ntoaccountthe
groupselect
edforact
ivi
ty.
3.Sel
ect
ionofmember sandrol
especi f
icat
ions:Thepar
ti
cipant
sselect
ionf
orgr
oup
gui
danceact
ivi
tyi
salsoveryi
mportant.Thestudentsf
orexampleshouldbe
communicat
edaboutthei
rrol
esingroupactivi
ti
es.

4.Or
ient
ationofMembers:Thegroupgoal
sshoul
dbecl
ari
fi
ed.I
tshoul
dbest
atedi
n
cl
ear
,objecti
veandmeasurabl
eter
ms.
5.Moni tori
ngofact i
vi
ti
esandev al
uati
onofout comes:Ifwewantt oconductthe
acti
vi
tiespur posef
ull
y,i
tshoul
dbepr oper
lymoni t
oredtaki
ngintoaccountthe
goal/
s.Feedbackaboutact i
vi
tyneedstobecollectedfr
om parti
cipants.
Someoft hecommongr oupgui
danceactivi
ti
esare:Classtal
k,careertal
k,di
spl
aysand
exhi
bitions.

TechniquesofGr oupGui dance:Anumberoft echniquesar eusedinorgani

zinggroup
guidance.GroupDi scussi
on:Forexampl eatseni orsecondarystagestudentsshoul d
haveknowl edgeaboutdi ffer
entcar eer.Agr oupdi scussionmaybeor ganizedint he
school.Fororganizati
onoft hegr oupdi scussi
onpr operr oom/hal
l,gr
oupandr el
evant
topicandexper t
/resourceper sonshoul dbesel ected.Thegr oupdiscussionwi l
lbe
usefulonlyift
hemember spar ti
cipat
eef f
ecti
velywithoutt hef
earandallthemember s
havet heoppor t
uni t
yto parti
cipate.Butt heef f
ectivenessoft hegroup discussion
dependsupont hef aci
li
tat
orandt hegr oupselected.

Pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng:Forsol
vi
ngi
ndi
vi
dualaswel
lascommonpr
obl
ems,pr
obl
em sol
vi
ng
canbeappli
edasat echni
que.I
tcompr
isesoft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
eps;
 Exi
stenceofcommonpr obl
em

61
  Focuseddescr
ipt
ionoft
hepr
obl
em

 I
nit
iat
ionofact
ionf
orsol
vi
ngpr
obl
em basedonr
elev
antf
act
s

 Anal
ysi
sofpr
obl
em i
nthel
i
ghtofdat
acol
l
ect
ed

 Li
sti
ngofpossi
blesol
uti
onsandEv
aluat
ionoft
hem

 Accept
anceofdegr
eeofaccept
anceofsol
uti
oni
nthegr
oup

Rol
epl
ay:I
nsmal
lgr
oupr
olepl
ayi
ngcanbeadopt
edasat
echni
queofgui
dance.Rol
e
pl
aying i
s a met hod where real l
i
fe sit
uati
ons ar e si mul
ated by group
members/
part
ici
pants.Thi
sprovi
denewinsi
ght
,int
uit
ions,skil
l
sandunderstandi
ngof
opposi
ngvi
ewpoint
s.Therolepl
ayi
ngmaycompri
seoft hefol
lowingst
eps;

 Exi
stenceofcommonpr
obl
em

 Ori
ent
ati
onofgroupt
orol
epl
ayi
ngandt
hepr
obl
em
 Assi
gni
ngofrol
es
 Pr
epar
ati
onofot
hermember
s/audi
encet
oobser
vei
ntel
l
igent
ly
 Assessi
ngt
her
olepl
ay
 Concludi
ngsessi
onandfeedback
Othermethodsl i
kecasestudyand soci
omet
ri
ctechni
quecanbeused asgr
oup
guidancet
echni
que.

Adv
ant
agesofGr
oupgui
dance:

Wehavediscussedaboutdi
fferentact
ivi
ti
esandapproachesofgr
oupgui
dance.Some
oft
headvantagesofgroupguidanceareasfoll
ows:

Inspi
reslearni
ngandunderstandi
ng:Int
eract
ioningroupsett
ingi
nspi
reslear
ningand
underst
andingofstudent
s.Thestudentl
earnsfrom othermemberofgroup.

Savesti
meandef fort
:Groupgui
dancetechni
quecansav
eti
meandeff
ortofbotht
he
counsel
orandstudents.Thet
imesavedcanbeusedfort
hemor
edif
fi
cultandcomplex
probl
emsofstudents.

I
mpr
ovementofst
udent
’sat
ti
tudeandbehav
ior

Devel
opmentofwholesomeandhel
pfulawar
enessofunr
ecogni
zedneedsand
pr
oblemsofstudent
/s

62
Li
mit
ati
onsofGr
oupGui
dance:

Gr oup guidance t hough ser v es a usef ulpur pose,butt heycannotbe t aken as a

subst i
tut
ef orindi vidualcounsel ing.Gr oupact iviti
esser vemanyoft heobj ecti
vesofthe
schoolgui dancepr ogram,butnotal loft hese.Fur therst udentsmayf eelhesitantto
comeoutwi tht heirper sonalpr oblemsi nt hegr oup.So,i nt hesecasesgr oupguidance
cannotbeofhel p.Gr oupgui danceact i
vit
iesser veusef ulpur posesspeci all
ysav i
ngin
ti
meandef fort.Whi l
eor ganizingt heseact iv
iti
es,somepr obl emst hatacounsel ormay
facear ement ionedbel ow:A r igidt ypeofadmi nistr
ati
oni sof t
enamaj orcauseof
trouble.Gener ally,whent hecounsel orasksf ort imei nthet i
met ableforconduct i
ng
theseguidanceact ivit
ies,he/shemaygetadi scour agingr eply,thetimet ableisalr
eady
full.Noper i
odsar ef ree.Sot hecounsel orislef twi thnoot herchoi cethant otakethe
subst i
tut
emanagementper iod.

Lackofcooper at
iononpartoftheadministr
ationaswellasthestaf
fmembersmay
al
socr eatepr
oblemsinorgani
zi
ngsuchactivi
ti
es.Teachermayfeelt
hisasanaddi
ti
on
burden.Lackofadequat
efundsisanot
herproblem.

Summar i
zingexer
cise
Exer
cise5:Whati sindi
vi
dualgui
danceandcounsel
i
ng?Whati
sgr
oupgui
danceand
counseli
ng?Whatar etheobj
ecti
vesofgroupguidance?How cany ouorgani
zegroup
guidanceacti
vit
ies?St
atethet
echni
quesofgroupgui
dance.Expl
ainRol
epl
aytechni
queof
groupguidance.

Pur
pose TypeandUse
Cogni
ti
veMeasur
e  Psy chomet ricTest s;e.
g.f or
measur i
ngi ntell
igenceQuot i
ent
(I
.Q) ,cogni t
iv estyle/
preference;self
concept ,reasoni ngskill
ssand
probl em sol ving.
 Achi ev ementTest s:formeasur ing
achiev ementi ncogni ti
vedomai n
suchassubj ectmat tertest.
Af
fect
iveMeasur
es Quest
ionnai res,Invent ori
es,Opi ni
onnaires
Formeasur ingat ti
tudes, percept i
onsand
aff
ect
ivebehav i
ors.
Psy
chomot
orMeasur
es Obser
vational Schemes, Practi
cal ski
ll
s
i
nvent
oryFormeasur i
ngdi f
ferentaspect s

63
 ofpr
act
ical
abi
l
iti
es

I
nst
rumentDev
elopmentandVal
i
dat
ion

Thet abl
eabov egivesthestagesinthedevel
opmentofanyoftheinst
rumentl
i
stedi
n
thet able
Domai nSpecifi
cati
on:Thisiswher etheconst
ruct
,at
tit
udeorski
lltobemeasuredi
s
i
dent ifi
edandspecifiedinbothgener
alandspeci
fi
cter
ms.Iti
ncl
udes:
Prepar ati
onofBlueprint
I
tem Wr i
ting
FirstLevel Val
i
dati
onandRev isi
on
PilotTesting
Finalizat
ion

Pr
epar
ati
onofTestI
nst
rument

Thi
sisani mportantstageofprepari
ngthepl
anorbluepri
ntf
orwri
ti
ngitemsf ort
he
i
nstr
ument.Thepl anshowingcov er
ageoftheinst
rumentint
ermsofobjecti
vesand
domaincontentareputonagrid.Thisist
oensuret
hatthedomai
ninfocusiscover
ed
i
nbreathandindepth.

I
tem Wr
it
ing

Thi
si sthepr ocessofcomposi ng thefi
rstdr af
toft heinstr
umentbywr it
ing it
s
componentitems.Thest r
uctur
eoft heinst
rumentst ar
tsdevel
opingfr
om thi
sst age.It
i
s perhaps the mosti nt
ell
ectual
ly demanding step i
nt he pr
ocess ofinstrument
devel
opment.Thepr ocessendswhent hedistr
ibut
ionofitemsinthetestbluepri
ntis
complet
elycovered.

Fi
rstLev
elVal
idat
ionandRev
isi
on

Aft
erthef i
rstdraftoft
heinst
rumentiscomposed,i
tissubject
edtoval
idati
onforf
ace
and contentv al
idit
y.Commentsf r
om thev al
idat
ion i
temsar eused torev
ise t
he
str
uctur
eandi temsont hei
nstr
ument.

Pi
l
otTest
ing

Ther
evi
seddrafti
spil
ottest
edonasampl
eofthepopul
ati
onf
orwhichtheinstr
ument
i
smeant.Fur
therr
efi
nementoft
hei
nstr
umenti
smadeonthebasi
sofpil
ottestdata.

64
 Fi
nal
izat
ion

Dat
afr
om t
hepil
ottesti
ngexer
ciseareusedt
ofur
therr
efi
net
hei
nst
rument
.Att
hist
ime,
t
herel
i
abi
l
ityv
aluesaredet
ermined.

Adapt
ingI
nst
rument
s

Somet i
mes,i tisnotwor ththeef f
ortdev el
opingandv ali
dati
nganew i nst
rument i
f
standar di
zedf or
msexi st.Itcoul
dbel i
ker e-i
nvent
ingthewheelMost t
imeshowev er,i
t
maynotbeabl etouset hestandardi
zeinstrumentint hepur
eform wi
thoutadaptingitto
oursi tuat
ion.Adapt
ationcoul dbewi thmi nimum modi fi
cat
ion.Themodificati
oncoul d
al
sobemaj or
.Thedirectionofmodi f
icati
oni susuall
yintheareasof:
-Degr eeoff i
twitht
het estbluepri
nt
-Culturalbias
-Lengt h.

Aft
er modif
icati
on, t
he inst
rument shoul
d be subj
ect
ed t
o v
ali
dat
ion and
rel
i
abi
l
ity
examinati
onasifi
twasanewinst
rument
.

Devel
opandvali
dat
ethefol
lowi
ngi
nst
rumentswhichcoul
dfaci
l
itat
eyourpr
ovi
ding
obj
ecti
vegui
danceandcounsel
i
ngser
vicet
oyourstudent
s.

Acti
vit
y6:
1.Aquest i
onnair
et ocol
l
ectbackgrounddataony ourstudentsthatarerel
evanttothei
r
academic,socialandcar
eerguidanceneeds.
2.Aquest i
onnair
et omeasuret
heiratti
tudetowardsthecoursey outeach.
3.A50i tem achi
evementtesti
ny ourcoursewhichwill
revealthelearni
ngdif
ficul
ti
esof
yourstudent.

Exerci
se:Adaptast andardi
zedpsychometri
cinventorye.
g.formeasuringself
-concept
foruse iny ourclass.Pr ovi
de an opport
unityf oryourst udent
st otalk about
themselv
es:thei
r“now”and t hei
r“ t
omorr
ow” .Not e whattheyav oi
d saying,what
theyemphasizeandr el
atethesetoyourpr
iorknowledgeofeachst udent.Doyougai na
bett
erunderstandi
ng?Ar eyouconfusedt
hemor e?

Activi
ty7:
1.Admi nisterthequestionnaireyoudevel
opedinf ormeasur
ingtheatti
tudeofy
our
studentst owardsyourteaching.Scoretheit
emsi nthequest
ionnai
re.Rememberto
rever
sescor i
ngfornegat i
vet erms.Takethetot
alforeachsecti
onofthequesti
onnai
re
andf orthewhol einst
rument .

65
Calcul
atet hemeanf orthegroup.Recordthescoresforeachst udenti
nthedif
fer
ent
secti
onsandal sot het otal
scores.Whatcounseli
ngdecisionsneedt obetakenonthe
basisoft hegraph?
2.Callselectedst udent sonindi
v i
dualbasi
sandgett oknowt hem bett
erbasedonitem
ofexercise6.e. g.“Yousai dinclassthatyouwerexyz,butefgiswhatIknewofy ou.
Cany ouexpl ai
nf urther?Orcany ouhel pmereconcil
ethetwov iewsaboutyou?

Dat
aCol
lect
ionandPr
ocessi
ng

Inst
ruments can be admi nist
ered indivi
duall
y ort o a group of l
ear
ners.Af t
er
administr
ati
on,theresponsesshoul dbescor edandt hedatarecordedi
namannert hat
i
samenabl etopr ocessing.Dat apr ocessingcansi mplyinv
olvemanualcalculat
ion
(usi
ngt hehand-heldcalculator)ofper cent
agesandmeansanddr awi
ngofgr aphsto
showt hedistr
ibut
ionofscor es.Itcanalsobet hrought heuseofapersonalcomputer
formor eel
aborateanaly
sis.

Pr
ocesseddat
ashouldbest or
edinsuchawayastofaci
li
tat
eretri
evalwhenneededf
or
of
fer
inggui
danceand/orcounsel
i
ngtoindi
vi
dual
sorgroupsoflear
ners.

Gr
oupandI
ndi
vi
dual
Int
erv
iew

Thei nterv
iewi sagoodt echniqueforgett
ingin-depthinformationthatcouldot herwi
se
notbeobt ainedf rom mostinst r
uments.I
nar elaxedat mospher e,theinter
viewee( t
he
personbei ngi nter v
iewed)coul dfur
nisht heinterv
iewer( theper sonconduct ingthe
i
nterviewer)wi thal argevolumeofi nfor
mat i
on.I nor dernott obedr ownedbyt he
avalancheofi nformation,weneedt osy stemat i
cal
lypl anfor,execute,andf ollow-
up
i
nterviewst hatweconductdur inggui
danceand
counsel i
ngexer cises.

Planni
ngThef ol
lowingst epsneedt obet akeninpl
anningandi nterv
iew:
Step1St ageSet t
ing
I
dentif
icationofchar acteristicsoftheintervi
ewee
Step2Ar rangingt hesitt
ing, audio/Videorecordi
ngDev el
opingani nt
ervi
ewguide
Step3Pi lottesti
ngt heinst r
ument
Step4Fi nali
zat i
onoft heinter vi
ewgui de
Executi
ng:I nexecut i
ngt hei nter
viewpl an,t
heinter
viewerneedsto
 Pr esentt hequest ionsaudi blyandensur ethattheinter
v i
eweef ul
lyunderst
ands
thedemandoft hequest i
on.
 Av oidforcingthepaceofr esponse
 Compl etethequest ionandanswersessi onforaquest i
onbef or
emov ingonto

66
 thenext
.
 Takenotesast
her
esponsesar
egi
ven.

Fol
low–Up

 Developt heinter
viewt r
anscri
pt
 Asf ol
low- upquestionsift
hereareareasthatneedclari
fi
cati
onf r
om
t
hei
nterviewee.
Forgroupint
erviews, t
argetrespondentsshoul
dbei dent
ifi
ed.Agreementsshoul
d
bereachedbyt hegr ouponasubj ectbefor
ebeingrecordedbythei nt
ervi
ewer
.

Gr
oupandI
ndi
vi
dual
Obser
vat
ions

Obser vat
ionsaredesigned t o provideper specti
v esto datagat hering thatar enot
capturebyt estadministrat
ionandi ntervi
ews.Theseper spect
ivesi ncludenonv erbal
behav i
orsandint
eracti
onpat terns.Asadl ook;alookofexci t
ement ,gaitwhenwal king,
shyt endenci
esinclass,andaggr essiv
et endenci
esar esomeoft hechar acter
ist
icsof
thelearnertobecounseledt hataquest ionnairemaynotr eveali
nf ull
.Byobser v i
ngthe
l
earner ,weareabletor ecordingr aphicalanddi rectf
orm,suchphy sicall
yobser vabl
e
behav i
ors.

Thedev el
opmentofanobservat
ioninstr
umentist
hefi
rstst
eptobet aken.Weshoul d
fol
lowthesequenceshowninst eps1to4ont heprev
iouspage.Aft
erdev el
opingt
he
i
nstrument,wecoul
dusei tingatheri
ngdatabyobservi
ngthegroupasauni torfor
observi
ngindi
vi
dualst
udent
swi t
hspecifi
cpr
oblems.

Therear et wo mai ntypesofobser vation.Theobser ver,i

nt hiscasetheteacher
,
parti
cipatesint heacti
vi
ti
esgi ventol earners.Thisenablestheteacherpi
thi
mselfor
hersel
fint heplaceofthelearner(empat hy).I
nnon-part
ici
pantobservat
iont
heobser
ver
l
ooksf r
om adi stanceandr ecordsunobt rusivel
y.Thi
si sthemor ecommonmodeof
observationinguidanceandcounsel i
ng.
Anecdot alRecor d

Thisisrecordofsnapshot sofsi gni

ficanteventsinthelif
eoft helearner
.Theev ents
canber ecordedei therbythet eacherorbyt helear
ner.Whicheverway ,theteacher
keepsther ecordf orthepurposeofhav i
nginsightsint
ot hebehaviorpatt
ernsoft he
l
earner.Thisr ecordisimportantast heteacherpreparest oat
tendt othecounseling
needsofthel earner.

67
St
udentAdv
isi
ng

Thisisanor gani
zedschemef orof
fer
ingguidancetostudent
s.Thefocusi
susual
ly
academicguidanceal
thoughitcoul
dbest r
etchedtoincl
udesoci
algui
dancei
fsoci
al
acti
vi
ti
esinthelif
eoft
helearneri
mpactsnegati
vel
yonlearni
ng.

Inmanyi nst
it
utions,theschemei sdepar t
mentbased.Eachlectur
erint
heDepart
ment
i
sassignedagr oupofst udents.Thest udentsar
eexpectedt omeetperi
odi
cal
l
ywith
theAdvisor,asagr oupori ndivi
duall
y.Wher esuchschemesexi st,t
heyhavebeen
knowntobeef fecti
vei nhel
pingstudentsovercomethei
rlear
ningdif
fi
cul
ti
es.

Recor
dst
obekeptbyt
heTeacher
/Counsel
or

 Recor
dsofAchi
evement

Agoodr ecordofachievementtestcanser
veasanef f
ect
iveinst
rumentwitwhi
chwe
canmeasur eanindi
v i
dual’
sperfor
mancewith(a)t
hoseofothersinhi
sgroupand(
b)
hispastachi
evement.Withthi
s,onecandi
agnosehi
sweaknessandstrengt
h.

Schoolpr ogressofeachstudentcanalsobemeasur ed,needf orremedi

almeasures
determined and the progr
ess oft he enti
re studentsimpr oved.Forinstance,a
Mat hematicstesti
fwell-
constr
uctedcouldpr ov
ideinfor
mat i
onast owhetherornot
;
students’weaknessi
sinthefundamentaloperati
on.

 Per
sonal
it
yInf
ormat
ionRecor
ds

Personalqualit
iesandinterestsar eequall
yimportantasf act
orswhichaffectone’
s
success in occupati
on,li
fe,sociall i
fe,and i
n school.The onlywayt o measure
personal
ityisbyobser vi
nghow t heindivi
dualbehavesindi f
fer
entsit
uat
ions.Such
observat
ionscanbemadei nt heclassr
oom, atpl
ayground,
dur i
ngsoci
algat
hering,
etc.
whent heindi
viduali
squit
ehi mselforhersel
f.

Personali
tyrecordsshoul dcont ainthefol
lowingv
iewsaboutt hestudents;(a)
.Concern
forothers-anti
social,i
ndifferent,dependabl
e,somet i
messociall
yconcer nedordeeply
concerned.
(b)
.Responsi bi
li
ty-unrel
iable,somewhatdependabl e,usual
l
ydependable,conscient
ious,
assumes much r esponsi bil
ity
.( c).Emot i
onalst abi
li
ty-hy
per-emotional,excit
able,
usuall
ywel l
balanced,excepti
onallystable.

68
Heal
thRecor
ds

Thought het eachercannothav ethis,iti

snecessar ythatt heschoolcounsel orhasa
recordaboutst udent’
sheal th.Thisshoul dbemadeup- to-dateindi catingt het ypeof
diseasef rom whi cht heindiv i
dualmusthav esuffered,thedur ati
onofi ll
nessandt he
ti
meoft hey ear,ifpossible.Medi calst atement saboutst udent ’
sear s,ey es,teet h,
postur e,ner v
oussy mpt oms,orspeechdef ectsshouldal sobei ncl uded.Acumul ative
up-to-dat eheal thr ecordwi llhelpt heschoolcounsel orref erpar ti
cularst udentsat
diff
erentt i
mest ospeci al
i
stsf ortreatment .Thisalsohel pst odeci det het ypeofj obt o
whichast udentcanbeassi gned.Ar esearchf ell
owonschooldi sciplinehassuggest ed
thattheof fenceshoul dnotdet erminet hepuni shmentbuti nsteadt y
peofpuni shment
recommendedshoul ddependont hephy sicalstrengthoft heindi vidualof fender .It
therefor efoll
owst hatadet ail
ed,up-to-dat
eheal t
hrecordwi llhelpr emi ndthecounsel or
andt he
school authorityofthei mpor t
anceofi ndiv
idual dif
ferencesindeal ingwi t
ht hechi l
dr en.

Fami
lyRecor
ds

Thehomei soneofthemajorfact
orswhichaffecttheeducat
ionofst udent
s.An
unstabl
ehomecausesthest
udentemoti
onalimbalance.Thefamilyrecordshould
i
ncludenameandaddr
essofpar
ents,t
hei
rnati
onali
tyandoccupati
on,andt hesoci
o-
economicst
atus.

I
ff amilyrecordsar ekeptandmai ntai
nedup-to-
datebyt hecounsel
or,cluescanbe
foundinanat temptt ospotoutst
udent’
sdiff
icul
ti
eswi tht
heai
m ofhelpingtoallevi
ate
hisorhersuf fer
ing.Agoodknowledgeoft hefami l
yrecor
dsofthestudentwillhel
pt o
fosterthetri
angularrel
ati
onshi
p,whichshouldexistbetweent
heteachers,theparents
andt hestudent.

Thecounsel
orshoul
dexami
net
hecumul
ati
ver
ecor
dsofeachst
udentt
o;

(a)
.Helpthecounsel orgetacquaintedwithanewstudentmor equi
ckl
yatt hebeginni
ng
ofthesemest erorsession.
(b)
.Helpst udentswhoar enotwor ki
ngupt oclasslevelt
ocopewi t
ht heirprobl
ems.
Theunder-achiever
sandt hosestudentswhoneedr emedialcour
sesaret hi
sidenti
fi
ed
andhelped.
(c)
.Identi
fygi f
tedst udentsandot herstudent
sofunusualabi l
it
yandhel pthem by
fi
ndingappropriat
eandchal lengi
ngwor kfort
hem.
(d)
.Findoutst udentswhoat tendclassesirr
egul
arlyandencouraget hem towards

69
regularat tendance.
(e).St udyt hepersonali
tytrai
tsofstudent
swhomi sbehaveandsuggestway sfortheir
l
ear ningot heradaptivebehavior
s.
(f).Hel pt hecounsel ortostudystudentsforwhom specialai ds,suchasscholarshi
p
arebei ngconsi dered.
(g).Gai nbackgr oundknowl edgeaboutstudentsbefor
eassistingt hem i
nthechoiceof
cour sef orstudy.
(h).Gat hersomei nf
ormationaboutastudentbefor
econf er
ri
ngwi t
hhisparent
s.
(i
).Di scov erst udentsofexcept i
onaltalent
si nsuchspeci alf i
eldsasar t
s,musi c,
athleticsorcr eati
vewr i
ti
ng.

Act i
vi
ty11:
Whi chrecordsofthest udentsi ny ourclassdoy ouhav e?Howdoy ouobt ai
nthem?Of
whatusear etherecordst oy ou?Whi choneswoul dy ouhav elovedtohav ebutwhich
youdonothav e?Whywoul dy ouwi shyouhadt hem?Thi nkofy ourst udent’
sday s,did
anyofy ourteachersev ergivey ouanyadv ice,suggesti
on,threatetc.If“yes”,Whatwas
i
tupon?Whydi dhe/shehast odoso?Whatwasy ourreaction?Findouti fanyofy our
studentswoul dhavelov edt odiscusshislife,
program, career,
orfutur eplanswithy ou
butwasaf r
aidorreluctanttt odoso.Howmanyst udents?Whywer et heyafrai
dor
reluct
ant?Whatdoy oui ntendt odoaf t
erthis
discovery?Afteraclasst est,doy oudiscussstudents’performancewi ththem?

Techni
ques

Dearlearners,youneedtodeveloporadapti
nstrument sfordat
agatheri
ngforgui
dance
andcounsel ing.uset heinst
rument
sdev el
oped/ adaptedfordat
acol l
ect
ionprocess
datacollected;conductgroupandindivi
dualintervi
ewsandobser v
ati
ons;andkeep
anecdotalrecordsoflear
ners.

I
nst
rument
ati
oni
nGui
danceandCounsel
ing

Weneedasmuchi nformati
onaspossibl
efr
om lear
nersinordertomakeasuccessof
gui
danceandcounseli
ng,I
tiswhenmost,andperhapsalltheinf
ormat
ionisint
hatwe
cantakeagl
oball
ookattheprobl
em andoff
ermeaningf
ul gui
danceandcounsel
i
ng.

Thet oolforgather
ingi nformati
onisknownast heinst
rument .Suchtool
sincl
udetests,
questionnair
es,inventories,i
nter
view gui
desandobser vat
ionalschemes.Justast he
ther
momet erisani nstrumentinthehandsofthescienti
st,soalsoisthequesti
onnai
re
theinstrumentinthehandsofgui dancecounselor
s.Fordatacollect
edtobeuseful,
the

70
i
nstr
umentshoul
d bevalid and r
eli
abl
e.I
nthissect
ion,y
ou wi
l
llearnto devel
op
i
nstr
ument
sfordatacol
lect
ionandadaptexi
sti
ngi
nstr
umentsf
oryourcase.Fi
rst
,let
usseet
hedif
fer
entt
ypesofinstr
uments.

Ty
pesofI
nst
rument
s

Sev er
altypol
ogiesexi
stforclassi
fyinginst
ruments.Forexample,i
nstrumentscanbe
groupedont hebasisof(a)whatt heymeasure,e.g.cognit
ive(
achievementtests)
;
affecti
ve(att
itudi
nali
nvent
oriesandquest i
onnair
es);psychomotor(pract
icalski
ll
tests)
;
and( b)howt heymeasuree.g.powerandspeedt ests.Forthepurposeoft hi
sModul e,
weshal ladopttheschemepr esentedinthefol
lowingtable.

Thefol
l
owingtechniqueshel
passur
egoodcommuni
cat
ionwi
thy
oungpeopl
e
dur
ingthecounsel
i
ngsession:

 Cr eateaposi t
iveandfri
endl yfi
rstimpr ession.
 Est ablishr apportduri
ngt hef i
rstsession, showempat hyandr eassuretheyoung
cl
ient.
 El i
mi natebar r
ier
stogoodcommuni cation( e.g.
,negativeatt
itudes, poorl
ist
eni
ng,
notal l
owi ngy outhtoexpr essfearsoraskquest ions,beingj
udgment aland
i
mpat i
ent ,etc.
)
 Use“ activelisteni
ng”witht hey oungcl i
ent; i
.e.acknowl edgi
ng,confirmingand
askingcl arif
icati
onfrom thespeaker .
 Pr ovidei nformat i
onsimpl yandusev isual aidsasmuchaspossi bl
e.
 Askappr opriateandeffect i
vequest i
onsanduseopen- endedquest ions.
 Al l
owy out htoaskquest ionsandseekcl arifi
cati
on.
 Recogni zeandt akeadvant ageoft eachabl emoment s.
Source:Lev enber g,P.andA.El ster.1995.Gui delinesforAdol escentPr eventi
ve
Ser
vices

TheTr
endoft
heDev
elopmentofSchool
Counsel
ingi
nanI
nter
nat
ionalCont
ext

Basedonar evi
ewoft hethreear t
iclesonschoolcounsel
ingintheUnit
edStates,Sout
h
Korea,andJapan, someobser vati
onscanbemadeaboutt hetrendoft
hedev el
opment
ofschoolcounsel i
nginani nternationalcont
ext
.Theseobser vati
onsi
ncl
ude:(a)from
non-pr
ofessional
st o prof
essional s;(b)from posi
tion t
o program;and (c)from a
remedialor
ientat
iontoapr eventi
veanddev el
opmentalor
ient
ati
on.

Fr
om Non-
prof
essi
onal
stoPr
ofessi
onal
s

71
InJapanandSout hKor ea,t her equirement sforschoolcounsel i
ngper sonnelhav e
becomemor est ringent.Theset wocount ri
eshav ebeenst rivi
ngf ort heest abl i
shment
offormalposi tionsofpr ofessional lytrainedschoolcounsel i
ngandgui danceper sonnel
fory ear
s.Forexampl e,i nSout hKor ea,schoolcounsel orswer ei nit
iall
ydi scipli
nary
guidancet eacher s.Al t
hought heirt itl
ewaschangedt ocar eercounsel ingt eachersi n
1990,t heirr oles wer e mor e orl ess t he same.They wer e ev en gi ven t eaching
assignment sl i
keot herr egulart eacher s.Wor sest il
l
,seni ort eacher scoul dappl yf or
counselingt eacherposi ti
onsaf t
ert heyhav etakent wot ot hreer elatedcour ses.The
l
ackofunder standi ngoft henat ureofcounsel ingandr elatedj obski l
lsmadet hem
unpreparedf ort hewor kasschoolcounsel ingpr ofessionals.For tunately,in2004,t he
needf orfull-
ti
mespeci ali
sti ngui danceandcounsel i
ngwasadv ocat ed.In2005,mor e
than300f ull
-t
ime,r egisteredschoolcounsel orswer eappoi ntedi nschool s.These
counselorsar emor epr ofessionalast heywer etrainedf ormallyas“ professionalschool
counseling teacher s,”hav i
ng t he ski l
ls and exper tise to car ry outgui dance and
counselingi ntheschoolcont ext.Thi si saposi tivechangef r
om non- professionalst o
professi
onal sint hedev elopmentofschool counselingi nSouthKor ea.

In Japan,gui dance and counsel i

ng in school s wer ei ni
ti
all
yt aken up bycl ini
cal
psy chologist
s.Howev er
,ast heydi dnotr eceivei nter
nshipt raininginschool s,they
l
ackedunder standingoftheschoolper sonnelandcul tures.I
nrecenty ears, t
heyhav eto
receivet r
aini
ngt oearnenoughcr editstokeepupt hei
rcredenti
alsasschool counselors.
Thisi saposi tivemov ebecausegui dancewor ki shandl edbyexper t
swhoar efamili
ar
witht he schoolcont ext
.I n additi
on t o cl
inicalpsy chologi
st s,class t eachers are
i
mpor tantpersonnelingui dancewor kbecausepr e-
ser vi
ceandi n-servicet r
aini
ngi s
givent othem.Theymayst udyst udentcases, referproblem casest ogui dancet eachers,
andl earnhowt ocounselfr
om t hei
rpeer s.In2008,soci alworker swer ei ntr
oducedt o
school stoassi stgui
danceandcounsel ingwor k.Theseshowt hatJapani sundergoing
ast ruggleast owhoi sthebestpr ofessi
onalt ocar ryoutguidanceandcounsel i
ngwor k
i
nschool s.

Asf ort heUni t

edSt ates,Gy sbers( 2008)hasdescr ibedt her ecentdev elopmentof
i
ndi vi
dualstudentplanninginhi sarti
cle.Heemphasi zedt hatindivi
dual st
udentplanning
i
snotonl ycoll
ecti
onofst udents’records,betheyhar dorsof tcopi es.Rather,st
udents
needt obecont actedei theronani ndivi
dualoragr oupl ev
elonwhi chtheycanshar e
theirneedsandgoal swi t
ht heschoolcounsel or.Al t
houghGy sber sdidnotexpl i
citl
y
statetheneedf ormor epr ofessi
onalschoolper sonnel ,thepract i
cehedescr i
bedcan
showt hatschoolcounsel i
ngwor kiscar ri
edoutbyt rai
ned, quali
fiedpr of
essionalswell
-
i
nf ormedoft hecounselingpr acti
ceandet hicsintheUni tedStates.

Fr
om Posi
ti
ont
oPr
ogr
am
72
Gysber s( 2008)posi tedt hattomakeschoolgui dancewor kef f
ective,emphasi sshould
bepl acedont hei mpl ement ati
onofschoolgui danceasapr ogram ont hewhol er at
her
thant hesheerest ablishmentoft heschoolcounselorposition.Int he1970sand1980s,
threemodel sofschoolcounsel ingandgui dancewor kthatshar edt hesameemphasi s
wer edev i
sed( Gysber s,2001) .I noneoft hemodel s,My r
ick( 1997)del i
neatedt he
charact eri
sticsofdev elopment alguidanceandcounsel i
ngwor k.Theyi ncluded:(a)
provisionofpr ogramsf oral lstudents;(b)guidancecur r
iculum beor gani
zed,planned,
sequent ialandf lexi
ble; (c)allschoolpersonnelbeinvolved.
The second model ,dev el
oped by Johnson and Johnson ( 1991)i nthe 1980s,
emphasi zed t he dev elopment of st udent
s’ compet ency. The acqui siti
on of
compet enciesbyal lst udentswast hemaj orconcern.

The thi
rd model ,dev eloped byGy sbers and Moor e(1981)i nt he 1970s,was a
comprehensivegui dancepr ogram model .Itconsistedofanor ganizat
ionalst r
ucture
which incl
udes cont ent (compet encies), organizat
ional f ramewor k ( st
ructur
al
componentsandpr ogram component s)
,andr esources(human, f
inancial
, andpol i
ti
cal)
.
In pr
acti
ce,differentt ime composi ti
ons shoul d be all
ocated t ot he fourpr ogram
components( i
.e.
,guidancecur ri
culum, i
ndi v
idualstudentplanning, r
esponsi veservi
ces,
andsystem suppor t
)accor di
ngt ostudents’level
sandt heirdevelopment al needs.

Insum,t het hreemodel sprovi

deuswi thsomeper spect
ivesont hereor i
entat
ionof
schoolguidanceandcounsel i
ngfrom apr oblem-basedappr oachtoast rength-
based
approach,f r
om a r emedialmode t o a preventi
ve and dev el
opmentalmode,f rom
posit
ion to program,aswel lasf r
om asi ngl
ef ocuson r esponsi
veser vicestoa
compr ehensi
v efocusongui dancecurri
culum,indivi
dualstudentplanning,responsiv
e
serv
ices,andsy stem suppor
t.

Witht hesei n mind,wecan ev al

uatet heposi t
ionsofschoolcounsel orsand t he
i
mpl ement ationofschoolgui dancewor kasapr ogram inbothJapanandSout hKorea.
From thear ti
cles,weseet hattheschoolguidanceposi ti
onwasestabl
ishedinJapani n
1995,10y ear sear l
i
ert hant hatofSout hKorea.Howev er
,asschoolcounsel or
sar e
cl
ini
calpsy chologistswhomai nl
ydeliverresponsi veservi
cesinschools,itcanbe
anti
cipatedt hatthisappr oachcouldonlycaterfortheneedsofaf ewstudentswher eas
abroadr angeofdev el
opment al
,exper
ienti
al,andt ransi
ti
onali
ssuesofot herchi
ldren
andy outhisnotaddr essed.

Whileschoolper sonnelar
epr ovi
dingdiff
erentservi
cest ostudentsinthear easof
educati
onal,per
sonalandsocial,
careeraswellasphysicali
ssues,theef
fecti
venessof
theservices,howev er
,isquit
el i
mitedbecauset her
ei sal ackofcooper ati
onand
col
laborati
onamongt hecol
leagues.Withthesetupoft heguidancecurr
icul
um,what

73
theyaredoi ngnowcoul dbecomemor eorganiz
ed,pl annedandsequent i
all
ypr eventi
ve
programs.I tisencouragingthatschoolsinJapanr ecei vecommuni t
ysuppor taswel l
.
Theset upoft heschoolcounsel orsystem andthecol labor
ati
onwi ththeChamber sof
Commer ceandI ndustr
y,schoolboardsofeducat i
on, t
hecommuni tysupportteamsand
non-profi
t-
maki ngorganizati
onsthatwor kwit
hchildrenandy outhpluslawenfor cement
areev i
denceofsy stem supportsaswel lasfinancialandpol i
ti
calresources.These
couldbef avorabl
econdi ti
onstoi mplementcompr ehensiveandintegrat
ivegui dance
program inschoolsinJapan.

Asf orSouthKorea,thepositi
onofschoolcounselorswasestabli
shedin2005.School
counselors’t
rai
ningandr ol
eidenti
tyi
ssuesarestil
lthemai
nconcer nsatthemoment .
Asst atedbyLeeandYang( 2008)
,SouthKoreacanf ol
l
ow theexampl eoftheUnited
Statest oputstrongeremphasi sonthedevelopmentofschoolgui danceworkasa
program int he long r
un.Adopt i
ng t
he modelofcompr ehensi
ve schoolguidance
program canbeanappr opr
iateandfeasi
bledirect
iontodev el
opschoolcounseling
worki nSouthKorea.

Fr
om aRemedi
alOr
ient
ati
ont
oaPr
event
iveandDevel
opment
alOr
ient
ati
on
Accordingt oYagi( 2008)andLeeandYang( 2008),schoolcounsel ingandgui dance
wor kseemst obemov ingfrom aremedialorientati
ontoonet hatemphasizesmor eon
thestrengthsofst udentsinbothJapanandSout hKorea.Thisi sli
ket hedevelopment
ofschoolgui danceint heUnitedStates,wher eemphasi swasf i
rstputinr esolvi
ng
students’career-
rel
atedissuesandotherlearningandbehav ioralproblems,t
henl at
erto
guidance act i
vit
ies which ar
e more pr eventiv
e and dev elopment alin naturethat
emphasi zestudents’st
rengthsandassets.

Int heUnitedSt at
es,t heCompr ehensiveDev elopment alPr ogram approachbegant o
emer getor espondt ot hecal lforar eorientat
ion.Whatbeganwi t
ht heappoi ntmentof
teacherst ot he posi ti
on ofv ocationalcounsel orhas become a pr ogram.Thi s
frameworkhasbecomet hemaj orstructureofor ganizi
ngandmanagi nggui dancei nthe
schoolsoft heUni tedSt ates( Gysbers,2001) .Thel evelofi mplement ati
onofgui dance
programsv ariesfrom oneschoolt oanot her.Amongt hef ourprogram component s,
i
ndi vi
dualst udentpl anni ngseemst obet hemostdi fficulttobei mpl ement ed.Itis
becauset her eisagr eatdemandonhumanr esourcest ocar ryoutef f
ecti
v eindivi
dual
studentpl anni ng.Al though l it
erature on i ndiv i
dualst udentplanning is notv ery
substanti
ali nt hefieldofschoolcounsel i
ng,Gy sber
s’s( 2008)arti
cledoespr ov i
deus
wi t
h some updat ed and v al
uablei nformat i
on on t he i mplementation ofi ndivi
dual
studentplanni ngintheUni tedSt at
es.

Atpresent
,indivi
dualstudentpl
anni
ngexempli
fi
esanintegrat
ionoftheoryandpracti
ce,
asdemonstr at
edbyt hefourexampl
esquotedinthear
ti
cle.Gysber
s( 2008)descr
ibeda

74
numberofr ecentstudieswhichindicat
esubstanti
alimpactonst udents’successi n
schoolst
hroughindivi
dualst
udentplanni
ng.I
nsum, Gysber sacknowl edgedtheposi t
ive
i
mpact softhecompr ehensi
veguidanceprogram ont hewhol eandi ndi
vidualstudent
planni
ngacti
vit
iesinparti
cul
ar,whi
chcouldhelpstudentsidenti
fytheirendowedt alents
andcapabil
it
ies,st
riv
ingtomaket hemostoft hesetol i
veameani ngfulandr ewarding
l
ife.

Ther ei scontinuousdev el
opmenti ntheguidancecurri
culum.Gysbers( 2001)descr i
bed
thatgui dancecur r
iculum typical
lyconsistsofcompet enci
esandst r ucturedact ivi
ties
whi chspansy stemat i
callyfrom kindergar
tentoGr ade12.Inr ecenty ear s,dif
fer
ent
syst emi candi ntegrativemodel sf ortheimplementati
onofschool -basedpr eventi
on
progr amshav ebeendev i
sed.Oneoft heseconceptualframeworksis“ Dev elopment al
-
Cont extualism”( Wal sh,Gal assi
,Mur phy,& Park-
Tay l
or,2002).Accor ding t ot his
per spect i
ve,botht he personaland cont ext
ualaspects oft he per son-env i
ronment
relationshipar econsi deredinschoolgui danceprogramsbecause“ Wi thi
nt hisnewer
per spect i
ve,adev elopingper sonnotonl yaff
ectshisorhercont exts,butt hecont ext
alsoaf fectstheper son’scour seofdevelopment”(
Wal shetal
.,2002,p.686) .

Besidesi ndivi
dualstudentpl anningandt hegui dancecur riculum,r esponsiveser vicei s
another cor e component of t he compr ehensive gui dance pr ogram ( Gysber s&
Hender son,2001).AsSel i
gman( 1998)suggest ed,appr oachest ohel pingpeoplehav e
beenchangi ng.Ther eisal soat r
endt oconductdi agnost icact ivit
iesandper sonal
counsel i
ng wi t
h a posi ti
ve,st rengt h-based or i
ent ati
on.Mor rison,Br own,D’ Incau,
O’Farrell
,and Fur l
ong ( 2006)st at ed “ Af ocus on st rengt hs repr esent
s a differ ent
perspect i
veonhowt oconcept uali
zest udentadapt ationt oschool ”(p.20).Morrisonet
al.presentedani ntervi
ew f ormatt oor gani zeandcol l
ecti nformat ionaboutst udent s’
strengthsandpr otecti
vef actorsi nt heirper sonalandcont extualdomai ns.St udent ,
parents,andt eachersar eallinformant s.Theywi llbeaskedi nterviewquestionsi nt he
fi
vear easof“ I
ndivi
dualAsset s,
”“ Fami lyAsset s,
”“ PeerAsset s,”“ Classr
oom Asset s,”
and“ SchoolAsset s.”Questionsl i
ke“ Doy ouhav eanyi deasaboutwhaty ouwantt obe
wheny ougr ow up? ”(f
orst udents) ,“How doy oupar ti
cipat einorhel paty ourchi l
d’s
school ?”(f
orparents)or“ Whatar et her ul
esandpr ocedur esi nclass?Howdot her ules
helpst udentstol earn?”(forteacher s)wi llbeasked.Bycol l
ectingi nfor
mat i
onabout
fami l
y,peer,classroom,andschoolasset s,schoolcounsel orscoul df orm api
ctur
eoft he
av
ail
abi
l
ityofpr
otect
ivef
act
orst
hatcanbecomet
hebasi
sfordev
elopi
ngi
nter
vent
ions.

Otherthan thi
s,di ffer
entst r
ength-based counsel
ing models have appear ed.As
Seli
gman(1998)st at
ed,“Treat
menti snotjustfi
xi
ngwhati sbroken,i
tisnurt
uringwhat
i
sbestwithinourselv
es”(para.5).CarlRogers,
thefounderofPerson-
Center
edTher apy,
hadastri
kingl
ydiffer
entv i
ewont hedev el
opmentofper sonsandtheroleofcounsel i
ng
andpsychother
apy .Rogerspaidat t
enti
ont ohumanst rengt
hsrathert
hanpat hologies,

75
tohumanasset srathert hanl i
abil
it
ies,tohumanpot ent
ialrathert hanlimit
ati
ons( see
Lopezetal .
,2006).Recent l
y ,
Smi t
h( 2006)proposedandout li
nedt enstagesofstrength
-basedcounsel i
ngtoi l
l
ust ratehowt heappr oachmaybei mpl ement ed.Thetenst ages
are:( a)cr eati
ng the t herapeuti
c alli
ance;( b)identi
fyi
ng st rengths;( c)assessing
presentingpr oblems;( d)encour agingandi nstil
l
inghope;( e)f ramingsoluti
ons;( f)
buildi
ngst rengthandcompet ence;(g)empower ing;(
h)changi ng;( i
)buil
dingresi
li
ence;
and( j
)ev aluati
ngandt er minati
ng.Ov eral
lspeaking,i
nprovidingr esponsiveservi
ceand
designinggui danceactiviti
es,thereisanobv iousmov efrom ar emedi altoapreventive,
strength-basedor i
entat
ion.

From theabov edi scussi

on,wehav etracedt hegener alt r
endoft hedev elopmentof
schoolcounsel i
ngi naninter
nat i
onalcont ext .From thebegi nning,schoolcounsel ing
wor kwast akenupbyt heappointedt eachersont opoft heirregulardut ies.Then,full-
ti
meposi t
ionsofschoolcounsel orswer ei ntroducedint heschool s.Thi si samov e
from non-professionalstopr ofessionals.Ther eaft
er,ther ewasaf urthermov efrom
positi
ont o program wher et hef ocusont hecounsel ing per sonnelwasshi f
ted to
i
mpl ementinggui danceactivi
tiesasapr ogram.Ther eisal soamov ef rom t heremedi al
approachofschoolcounsel i
ngt oapr eventi
ve, str
ength-basedor i
entationt hatseest he
i
mpor tanceofdev elopi
ng student s’potentialsand asset si n ordert ol i
veamor e
fulf
il
li
nglif
e.

TheNeedf
orResour
ces:AConcl
udi
ngRemar
k
Gy sbers and Hender son ( 2006)del ineated three maj orchar acteristi
cs ofschool
counsel ing and gui dance.Fi r
stl
y,gui dance i s a pr ogram,meani ng t hatgui dance
activ i
ti
esshouldbewel l-pl
anned,structured,andsy stemat i
cal
lyimpl ement ed.Secondl y,
guidancepr ogramsshoul dbedev elopment alandcompr ehensive.Thepr ogr ams,when
desi gned,shoul dt ake i nto consideration t
he dev elopment alneedsofst udentsat
differentstagesoft hei rliv
es.Thecont entacr osslevelsshoul dbepr ogressivei nnat ur
e.
Mor eover,thepr ogram shoul dbebr oadenought ot ouchuponi mpor tanti ssuest hat
student scoul d bef acing int hecour seofdev el
opment .Lastl
y ,gui dancepr ogram
shoul df eatur
eat eam- approach,meani ngthatteacher sdonotdesi gnandcar ryout
guidanceact i
vi
t i
esbyt heirown.Rat her, t
eachersshoul dwor kcollaborat i
velyasat eam
tof ormul at
eandconductt heacti
vi
ties.

Basedont hedescri
ptionabov e,schoolcounselingandguidancepr ogramsi nt he
UnitedStates,SouthKorea,andJapandomani f
estthethr
eecharacter
ist
ics.Howev er
,
i
ndel i
veri
ngt heprogr
ams, r
esourcesmaybeoneoft hekeyi
ssuestoconsider.Gysbers
andHender son(2006)pr oposedt hatr
esourcesforschoolcounseli
ngandgui dance
worki ncl
udehumanr esour ces,fi
nanci
alresources,andpoli
ti
calresources.Sucha
perspecti
vecanbehel pfultoevaluateanddev el
opschoolcounseli
ngwor kf ur
therin

76
t
het
hreecount
ri
es.

Fir
stofal l
,t he need f orhuman r esour
ces suggest st hatschool s need mor e
professi
onalschoolgui dancepersonnel.Thi
snotonl ymeanst hatmor emanpowerbe
all
ocatedt oschool st ocarryoutgui dancedutiesandact ivities,butal soent ai
lsthat
thesepeopl eshouldr eceiveappropriat
eandpr ofessionalt
rai ningbef or
et heybecome
qualif
iedguidancet eachers.Forteacherswit
houtpr i
ortrai
ning, on-the-j
obt rai
ningcould
bepr ovidedt ofami l
iar
izet hem withtheknowl edgeandski llsneededf orthej obas
guidancet eachers.Sucht raini
ngandcer ti
fi
cat
ioni ssuesar eimpor tantt
ot hesuccessof
schoolcounselingwork,asadvocat
edearl
ieri
nthi
sarti
cl
ethatguidanceteacher
sshoul
dchange
from non-
professi
onal
st opr
ofessi
onal
s.Thisi
sexact
lyani
ssuefacingSouthKoreaandJapanf
or
theti
mebei ng.

Apar tfrom humanr esour ces,f i

nanci alr esour cesar eanot herimpor tantcr iterionf or
effectiv
eschool counsel ingwor k.Forexampl e, i
ndiv i
dual studentpl anning, asaf ocusi n
Gy sbers’s( 2008)ar ticle,r equirest eacher snotonl yt okeephar dandsof tcopi esof
student s’records, butal sot omeetst udent sindi v
idual l
yori ngr oupmeet ingst odi scuss
student s’transiti
onpl anni ngf orthei rat tainmentofper sonalandcar eergoal s.These
meet ingswhi chinv olveconsul tat
ionwi thschoolgui dancet eacher sorcounsel or scoul d
be expensi ve and i mpl ya l otofmoney .Besi des t his expendi ture,ot herschool
counsel ingwor ksuchasgui dancecur riculum, responsi veser vi
ces,andsy stem suppor t
al
soneedf inancialr esour cest osust ai
nandi mpl ement .Nomat terhow dev eloped
guidancepr ogramsar e,asi nthecaseoft heUni tedSt ates,orhow pr ogr essively
dev el
opi ngt heyar e,asi nt hecasesofSout hKor eaandJapan,f i
nanci alresour ces
shouldr emai nakeyf act orf orthesuccessf uldev elopmentofschoolgui dancewor k.
Althoughl argeexpensesar eant i
cipated, i
tiswor thwhi let ospendmoneyoncounsel i
ng
programs and wor kbecause ear lyi ntervention ormor e desi r
ably ,pr evention,can
enhance t he ov erallwel l
-being oft he st udentcohor ts,whi ch is benef i
cialt ot he
popul ati
on’sheal t
handpr oductivi
tyi nt hel ongr un.Thi si st her easonwhywear e
arguing f ora change f rom t he r emedi alappr oach t ot he one t hatemphasi zes
dev el
opmentandpr event ion.

Lastbutnotl east,polit
icalresourcesar eneededf orschoolcounsel i
ngandgui dance
programs.Ont heschoolpol icylevel,poli
ticalresourcesimpl yclearsuppor tfrom the
uppermanagementi ntheschool ssuchast heschoolsuper vi
sorsorheadt eacher s.
Theirsuppor tcouldbeshowni nthecl earroledescr i
pti
onsofschoolgui dancewor kers,
whichcoul dhelpt oav oi
dr ol
eambi guityoftheseper sonnel.Thi
sr oleambi gui
tyissueis
whatSout hKor eaisf acing.Besides,suppor tfrom theseniormanagementofschool sis
i
mpor tantbecausei tcanhel pt ofocusschoolgui dancewor kont heprogr am i
tselfas
wellast heposi t
ionofgui dancewor kers.Thisi sinli
newi t
hourear l
ierproposit
ionthat
schoolgui danceandcounsel ingshoul dshi ftfrom mer epositi
onst opr ogr
ams,wi th

77
concr
eter
ati
onal
eandcont
ent
s.

On t he otherhand,on t he gov ernmentpol i

cylevel,poli
ti
calr esources ofschool
guidancewor kcouldbepol i
ciesdev i
sedbyt helocaleducat
iondepar t
ment .The1963
EducationalActand t he1997 El ementaryand Secondar yEducat ion Actf r
om t he
Ministr
yofEducat i
on i n South Korea (Lee & Yang,2008),aswel last he school
counselorsy stem i
ntroducedbyt heMi ni
str
yofEducat i
on,Cultur
e,Spor ts,Sci
enceand
Technol ogyinJapan( Yagi,2008)ar egoodexampl esofpoli
ticalresourcesgivenfrom
thegov ernment al
level.

Recogni zi
ngt hei mportanceofgov ernmentsuppor t
,educatorsandschoolcounsel i
ng
per sonnelcoul dt rytosolicithelpandsuppor tf
rom t hegov ernmentormakeuseof
existingpol iciesandr esourcest odevelopschoolguidancewor k.TotakeHongKongas
an exampl e,t he New Seni orSecondar yEducation curri
culum i n 2009 can be an
oppor tunityt oenhanceschoolgui danceandcounsel i
ngwor kbecausewhent henew
cur ri
culum i si mpl emented,allsecondaryschool sar etokeepst udents’port
fol
iosin
theirthreey earsofseni orsecondaryeducat i
on.Thisrequirementi sfavorabl
etoschool
counsel ingbecausesuchr ecordsenableteacherst oassiststudentst oformul
atetheir
transiti
onpl ansandat tai
nt heirpersonalcareergoals,whi chi ssimilartoindi
vidual
studentpl anni ng,akeyel ementofcompr ehensivegui dancepr ogram asposi t
edby
Gy sbers( 2008) .

Concl usivel
yspeaki ng,whereasdif
fer
entcount r
iesorregionsfacedi ff
erentprobl
ems
orlimi t
ati
onsi ndev elopi
ngschoolgui
dancepr ograms,oneimpor t
antissuewehav et o
resolveisr esourcesal l
ocati
onwhichincl
udehuman,f inancial
,andpol i
ti
calresour
ces.
Othert hant hi
s,howev er
,thegover
nmentbodi esandschooladmi nist
rator
sshouldbe
conv i
ncedoft herational
ebehindtheschoolguidanceandcounsel ingwor kinthefi
rst
placeast hemi ndsetandv al
uescouldinf
luencesubsequentdecisionst obemadeand
actionst obet aken.

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80