UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

FEB 540: ENGINEERING DESIGN PROJECT

2014/2015 ACADEMIC YEAR

PROJECT TITLE: DESIGN OF A VERMIREACTOR FOR TANA

KITCHEN IN UON UPPER KABETE CAMPUS.

CANDIDATE NAME: OMUFISI O. MILDRED

CANDIDATE No.: F21/1104/2010

SUPERVISOR’S NAME: ALBERT K. INIMA

A Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirements of

the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Environmental and Biosystems
Engineering, of the University Of Nairobi

MAY, 2015.
ABSTRACT
Solid waste generation in the entire world is part and parcel of every economy. Different
economies generate different types of wastes. For example, research shows that industrialized
countries generate a considerable amount of non-biodegradable wastes due to their high level of
industrialization. Generation of solid wastes is not a problem but the problem is their
management. Solid waste can be categorized into biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes.
The biodegradable waste which is the highlight of this project consists of mostly decomposable
wastes also referred to as organic wastes. Almost every place man does his or her work or stays
is a source of organic wastes. Organic wastes comprise of food wastes, green wastes-from yards,
agricultural produce wastes and food processing plant wastes.

These wastes in a large extent are usually disposed to landfills or open pits. This is where the
problem arises. At the landfills or open pits the organic wastes undergo decomposition.
Decomposition of these wastes generates offensive smells-nuisance of the air. It also creates very
poor conditions on those sites that degrade the environment and are harmful to the health of
animals and humans.

To curb this problem recycling of organic wastes is an important strategy. One great way to
recycle these wastes is through vermicomposting technology. Vermicomposting involves the use
of earthworms to feed on these waste and produce high quality manure known as vermicast.
Vermicomposting technology is a method that recognizes the role earthworms in nature work of
formation of soils through earthworms feeding on biodegradable wastes. This technology
replicates what happens naturally but now in artificial structures known as vermireactors. To
achieve perfect recycling of the organic waste the conditions of the vermireactor need to be
controlled- mostly since earthworms are living things.

The continuous flow through vermireactor is the most efficient in matters of vermicomposting.
This is a vermicomposting system that uses the CSTR bioreactor performance mode whereby the
waste is fed at one point, time is given for conversion to take place (retention time) and finally
the products are to be collected at another end. The continuous flow through vermireactor is the
best vermireactor since it saves on time required for harvesting vermicast, easy to operate and
maintain and influences retention time which is an important factor in worm keeping and
vermicast (vermicomposting product) quality.

Keywords: waste management, biodegradable wastes, recycling, vermicomposting,

vermireactor.

F21/1104/2010 Page i
DECLARATION

I declare that this project is my work and has not been submitted for award of a degree in any
University.

Signature: ………………………………………. Date: ………………………………

Omufisi Ondusi Mildred

This report has been submitted for examination with my approval as a University Engineering
Design Project supervisor.

Signature: ……………………………………… Date: …………………………………

Eng. Albert K. Inima

F21/1104/2010 Page ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this Engineering Design project to my beloved parents, my relatives, my siblings and
friends for their kindness and support throughout my undergraduate study.

F21/1104/2010 Page iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely thank the almighty God for seeing me through the five years in campus and having
given me good health, mental and physical strength throughout my stay as an undergraduate at
the University of Nairobi.

Special thanks also go to Eng. Albert K. Inima for his guidance and great intellectual support.
My gratitude also goes to the able EBE technical staff especially Mr. Macharia, Mr.Wamutitu
Wilfred Mushogo, Mr. Mwachoni and Mrs. Charity for the proficient guidance and support they
continuously offered me throughout this project.

I would also like to thank our hardworking chairman Dr. Eng. Ayub N. Gitau and the entire staff
and student fraternity of the department of Environmental and Biosystems Engineering for their
accompaniment and support.

F21/1104/2010 Page iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................................
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... ix
1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND PROBLEM ANALYSIS ................................................................. 3
1.2.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT ................................................................................................................. 3
1.2.2 PROBLEMJUSTIFICATION ............................................................................................................. 3
1.3 SITE ANALYSIS AND INVENTORY ......................................................................................................... 5
1.4 OBJECTIVE ......................................................................................................................................... 11
1.4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.................................................................................................................. 11
1.5 STATEMENT OF SCOPE ...................................................................................................................... 11
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................................... 12
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................................... 12
2.1.1 History of vermicomposting....................................................................................................... 12
2.1.2 Earthworms ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.1.4 Earthworm reproduction ........................................................................................................... 17
2.1.5Pest and diseases ........................................................................................................................ 17
2.1.5Vermicomposting process .......................................................................................................... 18
2.1.6 Vermicomposting process requirements ................................................................................... 19
2.1.7 Vermireactors ............................................................................................................................ 22
2.1.8Vermicomposting process products ........................................................................................... 27
2.1.9 Vermicomposting: Troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 28
2.2Theoretical framework ...................................................................................................................... 29
2.2.1 How Vermicomposting Works ................................................................................................... 29
2.2.2 Optimal Worm Conditions ......................................................................................................... 29

F21/1104/2010 Page v
 2.2.4 Earthworms Stocking Density and Substrate Retention Times ................................................. 30
2.2.5 Built environment design ........................................................................................................... 31
3.0 GENERATION OF CONCEPT DESIGN ................................................................................................ 36
4.0 PRODUCT DESIGN ................................................................................................................................. 41
4.1 Data analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Calculating vermireactor dimensions ......................................................................................... 42
4.3 Design drawings ................................................................................................................................ 42
5.0 DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................................... 46
6.0 CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 48
7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................................ 49
8.0 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 50
9.0 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................................... 53

F21/1104/2010 Page vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 - Classification of worms

Table 2 - Sample of feeds used in vermicomposting

Table 3 - Temperature data for Kabete

Table 4 - Relative humidity data for Kabete

Table 5 - Rainfall data for Kabete

Table 6 - Worm data

Table 7 - Food waste data

Table 8 - Average monthly temperature, RH and rainfall data of Kabete from 2012 to 2014.

Table 9 - Average annual rainfall, temperature and RH data for Kabete

F21/1104/2010 Page vii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 - Waste bin at the open dump and vermin-crows at the site

Figure 2 - Maps of Kenya and Kabete

Figure 3 - Location of Tana kitchen

Figure 4 - Map showing the open dumping site and the different residences around it

Figure 5 - Adult earthworm

Figure 6 - Anatomy of an earthworm

Figure 7 - Worm classification

Figure 8 - Windrow systems

Figure 9 - Tray or stacking units

Figure 10 - Batch (boxing) unit

Figure 11 - Mechanism of a continuous flow through vermireactor

Figure 12 - Continuous flow through vermireactor

Figure 13 - Continuous flow through system

Figure 14 - Mechanical worm harvester

Figure 15 - Diagrams of the fabricated model

F21/1104/2010 Page viii

LIST OF ACRONYMS
CSTR - Continuous stirred tank reactor

UN - United Nations

HVAC - Heating cooling and air conditioning

RH - Relative humidity

F21/1104/2010 Page ix
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Management of solid waste has become one of the biggest problems we face today. The rapid
increase in the volume of waste is one feature of the environmental crisis, accompanying recent
global development-rapid urbanization, encroachment of fertile area and booming population is
leading to generation of massive amount of waste. Wastes are substances or objects which are
disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions
of the law.

According to the UN Habitat, solid wastes in Nairobi are a result of industrial and manufacturing
activities. Solid wastes in Nairobi constitute 68 percent of domestic waste. The bulk of the solid
wastes constitute 57 percent food waste, 13 percent plastic and 8 percent paper. More about the
high percentage of food waste produced in Kenya is shown in appendix A. Mismanagement of
these wastes result in pollution and contamination of environmental resources. The current total
recycling capacity in Kenya is very low comparative to the waste being generated.

Waste management in Kenya has been, traditionally, by legislation bestowed to the local
authorities. Overtime however, this role has become increasingly challenging and arising from
urbanization and rapid population growth, the ability and capacity of the council’s to manage
waste was over-stripped. Furthermore, the Councils relegated the waste management agenda
to the bottom in priority of allocated insufficient resources both financial budget and physical for
its management. The technical and institutional capacities are equally and seriously inadequate.

Many of the collection systems in the country are poorly coordinated and operated due to a
number of reasons which are: limited availability of appropriate equipment for collection; limited
proper guidelines and supervision; limited technical personnel capacity; low level of awareness
and education on the importance of proper solid waste management. This scenario has resulted in
irregular and non-formal waste collection systems that require a lot of resources for their
regulation. The current final disposal sites have enormous operational and management problems
that require substantive financial resources to rectify the situation. The development of sanitary
landfills requires huge financial investments and calls for some partnership in upcoming
technologies for such investments in the sector.

Presently, the country also lacks modern sanitary landfills for proper waste management leading
to open dumping. This has led to the physical accumulation of solid wastes such as heaps of
garbage and sewage flowing into waste systems posing a great risk to human health and the
environment. Waste generation and pollution pose a major challenge since they contribute to
serious environmental damage and are a threat to the country’s sustainable development.

Universities and training institutions are major sources of waste due to their multiple status of
being training, commercial and domestic entities. The various universities in Kenya have great
population of students, lecturers, supporting staff and other people associated with them. The
populations usually add up to thousands. These universities generate considerable amounts of

F21/1104/2010 Page 1
waste in their respective areas of locations and proper management of solid waste in these
institutions will go a long way in ensuring solid waste management principles are replicated
throughout the country. The solid wastes are generated in considerable amounts from different
places such as hostels, cafeterias, laboratories, workshops, and classrooms. There are different
types of waste generated from universities. The type of waste generated usually depends on the
items used and consumed. The items commonly used in the universities include packaging
materials, papers, pens, food remains, glass, old clothes, computers, metals, wood, medicine and
plastics. Waste is usually collected in bins which are located at various places. For example, in
hostels, the waste bin is placed at the entrance of the hostel. For collecting waste which are
outside the hostels, kitchen and classes, litter bins are placed at strategic points in the campus.
The wastes are mainly collected by employed campus workers. The workers collect the waste
from the points of generation using wheelbarrows or carry the waste bins manually. They take
the wastes to a selected area in the campus for disposal. From this selected area, waste collectors
using trucks will then collect the wastes to a municipal (or any other) landfill outside the campus.
As leading providers of expertise and skills in Kenya, universities are responsible for training
professionals for the various spheres of the economy. These young professionals are the ones
who will formulate the production processes and ensure their implementation. Thus, universities
are therefore in a position to introduce the concepts of clean environment by ensuring good
practices such as recycling of the wastes.

Recycling is the converting of used materials (waste) into new products to prevent destruction of
potentially useful materials. This reduces energy usage, reduces air pollution and water pollution:
and wholly means waste recycling reduces dumping. Therefore coming up with recycling
systems is an important venture for individuals or groups so as to assist in waste management.
There are different methods for recycling food wastes and consequently reduce or eliminate them
being taken to diminishing landfills. These methods are anaerobic digestion, compositing and or
vermicomposting.

Vermicomposting is identified as a potential, short- medium term option for the beneficial reuse
of solid waste streams. Vermicomposting is the breakdown of organic material that, in contrast to
composting, involves the joint action of earthworms and micro-organisms and does not involve
the generation of high heat as is with composting. The worms consume organic wastes such as
food waste, animal waste and sewage sludge; and turn and fragment the waste, which produces a
soil conditioner commonly known as vermicast. Vermicomposting is a widely used processing
technology with minimal environmental effects such as odour and leachate. Traditional
composting of bio waste results in a volume reduction of one third while vermicomposting
reduces the volume by two thirds. Vermicast is an organic fertilizer which releases nutrients
slowly and is therefore a preferred fertilizer for organic farming and horticulture.

Therefore, the need to explore and recognize the role of earthworms in waste management is
rather urgent so as to curb the open dumping practice that is increasingly expensive and
hazardous to the environment. The vermicomposting process is inexpensive and uses low
technology. In addition, vermicomposting is an attractive waste management at source strategy
and can be implemented anywhere for solid waste management. The conversion of organic waste
into vermicompost ensures limited, if any, generation of greenhouse gases subsequently reducing
the ozone destruction potential of disposal sites.

F21/1104/2010 Page 2
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND PROBLEM ANALYSIS

1.2.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The disposal of organic solid waste particularly food wastes generated from residential areas,
institutions and restaurants is a problem. This problem continues to grow with the growth of
population, reduced designated waste disposal sites and poor transport systems for the waste
disposal. Discarding of these organic wastes in open pits has become routine in majority of
places around the country. This process of discarding brings about some damaging implications
to the environment and health threats to the people associated with it. Organic wastes ordinarily
do decay and this process attracts vermin and also the areas becoming unhealthy, dirty, and
unsightly places to reside or do your activities in. The decayed food wastes mixing with other
wastes at the open pits also expose the personnel involved in collecting the wastes to very dirty
and unfavorable conditions of waste management system.

1.2.2 PROBLEMJUSTIFICATION

The Upper Kabete Campus of the University of Nairobi generates food wastes from the Tana C
kitchen. These wastes are first dropped in a waste bin located in the kitchen for storage before
they are taken to a bigger waste bin at an open pit situated behind one of the hostels
(‘Wakulima’). The wastes are to be collected by appointed waste collectors to collect them for
disposal to a designated landfill by the municipal. The waste collectors however, do this process
on a rare basis as scheduled.
Therefore, there arises a problem when the food wastes are left at the dumping place waiting to
be collected for further disposal. The food wastes at the site first of all attract vermin such as rats,
flies and also birds mostly crows.

Figure 1: Waste bin at the open dump and vermin-crows at the site

F21/1104/2010 Page 3
They also undergo decomposition together with other organic materials with time. This
decomposition has negative effects of generation of greenhouse gas methane- has a global
warming potential and leachate that seeps underground.
Vermin such as birds, rats or rodents, as well as numerous species of insects (flies and
mosquitoes) attracted by the abundant food waste are potential spreaders of serious illnesses and
diseases. The crows and other birds may defecate and carry waste offsite causing nuisance,
health and amenity hazards to local residents.
Another concern at the open dumping place is unpleasant odors. These gas odors are produced
by bacterial or chemical processes and can migrate to the surrounding community. Many people
may find the odors emitted from the area offensive or unpleasant. Although the odors may not be
associated with long-term adverse health effects or illness for most people, the added disruption
and stress of day today activities can greatly impact quality of life. Therefore these unpleasant
odors can lower the quality of life for individuals that live near the dumping site and potentially
reduce local property values. The figures in appendix B show the mixing of the food waste and
others wastes such as nylon papers; this is so unattractive and smelly.

Therefore the introduction of a technique to recycle the food waste produced is beneficial. The
use of a well designed vermireactor to vermicompost the food waste produced is the better
option according to this design project. This vermireactor will significantly cater for the food
waste reduction to the open dumping site.

F21/1104/2010 Page 4
1.3 SITE ANALYSIS AND INVENTORY

The site for the design of the vermireactor is the Tana kitchen in the Upper Kabete Campus of
the University of Nairobi. This site is located in Kabete, a region in Eastern of Nairobi Area,
Kenya (East of Africa). Kabete is located at an elevation of 1,827 meters above sea level with
coordinates of 1°16'0" N and 36°43'0" E in DMS (Degrees Minutes Seconds) or -1.26667 and
36.7167 (in decimal degrees).

Its Universal Transverse Mercator position is BU45.

Figure 2: Maps of Kenya and Kabete, source; Google.

F21/1104/2010 Page 5
Figure 3: Location of Tana kitchen, source; Google map

Tana c kitchen information and program

The Tana C kitchen provides a variety of food to cater for the different students and other
customers they serve. Their catering program provides for 21 meals a week. This is from
Monday to Sunday. This information provide details that different food types are to be expected
in the wastes for vermicomposting in the vermireactor and the quantity of food wastes generated
weekly. This information is important in identifying the worm count needed for the vermireactor
and also in determining the size and design conditions of the vermireactor.

F21/1104/2010 Page 6
Figure 4: Map showing the open dumping site and the different residences around it,
source; Google earth.

F21/1104/2010 Page 7
Graph 1: Average rainfall obtained from year 2012 to 2014. Source: Kabete agro –
meteorological station (14/04/2015)

350

300

250
RAINFALL (kg/m2)

200

150

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MONTH

F21/1104/2010 Page 8
Graph 2: Average temperature obtained from year 2012 to 2014. Source: Kabete agro –
meteorological station (14/04/2015)
30

25

20
TEMP(C)

15
MAX
MIN

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
MONTH

F21/1104/2010 Page 9
Graph 3: Relative humidity obtained from year 2012 to 2014. Source: Kabete agro –
meteorological station (14/04/2015)

100

90

80

70
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (%)

60

50
0600Z
40 1200Z

30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
MONTH

Kabete location receives on average of 101 kg/𝑚2 rainfall per annum. The expected rainfall data
for this area can be estimated from graph 1 which was sourced from Kabete agro -meteorological
station (14/04/2015).

From graph 2, it is clear that the average temperature received per month range from 12° C to
26° C.
Graph 3 depicts an average relative humidity range from 40% to 90% per month.

The information for the area’s rainfall, humidity and temperature is important in this design
project to assist in the maintenance of vermireactor conditions for the earthworms’ survival.

F21/1104/2010 Page 10
1.4 OBJECTIVE

The overall objective of this design project is to design a vermireactor that will be used in Upper
Kabete Campus of the University of Nairobi for appropriate disposal of food wastes from Tana C
Kitchen.

1.4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

To achieve the overall objective the following specific objectives were set:
 Assess current waste management methods of the food wastes generated from the Tana C
kitchen.
 To determine the amount of food wastes generated the in the Tana C kitchen of the Upper
Kabete Campus of the University of Nairobi which is the important parameter required
for the worm count needed and vermireactor sizing.
 To identify and collect pertinent environmental design data to which the design of the
vermireactor will be based on.
 To design the vermireactor using the identified parameters.

1.5 STATEMENT OF SCOPE

The scope of this project involves the design of a continuous flow through vermireactor to be
used by the Upper Kabete Campus Tana C kitchen. This vermireactor will use the principle
of a continuous stirred tank biological reactor. It is designed for the purpose of conversion of
the food waste generated from Tana C kitchen amounting to 15 kg/day to useful manure.

The vermireactor design shall have a single point input and single point output. The
vermireactor process will be a continuous one. It is designed to be used at a fixed location but
if need arises for movement the design will allow.

The vermireactor will be the point of concern in this design. The dimensions required for the
vermireactor will be computed using the amount of food wastes generated from the kitchen.
The climatic conditions will be important in the design of the optimum working conditions of
the earthworms.

Out of scope of this project will be the pre-conditioning/ pre-processing of the food waste
entering the vermireactor. Therefore it will be assumed that the food waste entering the
vermireactor will have been ground to approximately but not less than 5 mm pieces and pre-
composted for approximately 9 days.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

Vermireactors are biological reactors where earthworms’ activities take place (Manyuchi,
Chitambwe, Muredzi and Kanhukamwe, 2013). A vermireactor can also be called a
vermicomposting machine. A biological or bio reactor is a device, usually a vessel, used to direct
the activity of a biological catalyst to achieve a desired chemical transformation. Through
vermicomposting process the earthworms in the vermireactor convert the food or organic wastes.
They act as biological catalysts in this process to produce vermicast. A vermireactor system can
in other words be referred to as earthworm conversion, vermistabilization, worm composting, or
annelidic consumption.

2.1.1 History of vermicomposting

Vermicomposting is as old as life on planet Earth. Aristotle, Charles Darwin and other observers
of the natural world have praised the industry of the humble earthworm in creating humus out of
decaying organic matter. Using bins to create a controlled system of vermicomposting is a
comparatively recent phenomenon that traces its origins to a handful of pioneers.

Earthworms have been on the Earth for over 20 million years. During this time they have
realistically done their part to keep the cycle of life continuously moving. Their purpose is
simple but very important. They are nature’s way of recycling organic nutrients from dead
tissues back to living organisms. Many have recognized the value of these worms. Ancient
civilizations, including Greece and Egypt valued the role earthworms played in soil. The
Egyptian Pharaoh, Cleopatra said, “Earthworms are sacred.” She recognized the important role
the worms played in fertilizing the Nile Valley croplands after annual floods.

Charles Darwin was intrigued by the worms and studied them for 39 years. Referring to an
earthworm, Darwin said, “It may be doubted whether there are many other animals in the world
which have played so important a part in the history of the world.” The earthworm is a natural
resource of fertility and life. Highlighting the role of earthworms, Charles Darwin called them
the unheralded soldiers of the soil.

From then on, different experimental studies have been carried out to study the role of
earthworms in maintaining the soil fertility and also in the degradation of the organic matter
present in the soil. Different scholars have tried the possibility of utilizing earthworms for the
breakdown of organic wastes such as animal wastes, vegetable wastes and municipal sludge.

Earthworms have been used for waste stabilization for many years, especially in Southeast Asian
and European countries.

F21/1104/2010 Page 12
2.1.2 Earthworms

The earthworm derives its name from the fact that it burrows and eats its way into the earth.
Earthworms have been on the Earth for over 20 million years. There are 3627 species of
earthworms distributed throughout the world.
Aquatic worms are called as microdrilli and terrestrial earthworms are known
as megadrilli. Earthworms are found in diverse habitats. Organic materials like manures, litter,
compost etc. are highly attractive for earthworms but they can also be found in very hydrophilic
environment close to both fresh and saline water, some species can survive under snow (Sharma,
2005).

Earthworm anatomy

Figure 5: Adult earthworm, source; Google.

The earthworm has a long, rounded body with pointed head and slightly flattened posterior.
Rings that surround the moist, soft body allow the earthworm to twist and turn, especially since it
has no backbone. With no true legs, bristles (setae) on the body move back and forth, allowing
the earthworm to crawl. The earthworm breathes through its skin. Food is ingested through the
mouth into a stomach (crop).Later the food passes through the gizzard, where it is ground up by
ingested stones. After passing through the intestine for digestion, what’s left is eliminated.

Earthworms are hermaphrodites, which mean they have both male and female sex organs, but
they require another earthworm to mate. The wide band (clitella) that surrounds a mature
breeding earthworm secretes mucus (albumin) after mating. Sperm from another worm is stored
in sacs. As the mucus slides over the worm, it encases the sperm and eggs inside. After slipping
free from the worm, both ends seal, forming a lemon-shape cocoon approximately 1/8inch long.
Two or more baby worms will hatch from one end of the cocoon in approximately 3 weeks.
Baby worms are whitish to almost transparent and are 1/2 to 1 inch long. Red worms take 4 to 6
weeks to become sexually mature.

F21/1104/2010 Page 13
Figure 6: Anatomy of an earthworm, Source; Google.

F21/1104/2010 Page 14
 WORM CLASSIFICATION
Table 1; the binomial nomenclature for earthworms

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Annelida

Class Oligochaeta

Order Opisthospora

Family Lumbricidae

Genus A large number of genera have been

described in literature
species A large number of species under each genus
have been described in literature

Earthworms have also been classified on the basis of their ecological niche (Bouche, 1977) and
feeding behavior (Lee, 1985). The figure below shows these two types of classification of
earthworms;

Figure 7: Worm classification, source; (Vinod Kumar).

F21/1104/2010 Page 15
Epigeic (phytophagous) worms are humus feeders and surface dwellers i.e. found in the top
organic profile of the soil and do not live in mineral soil horizons. They feed on decaying organic
matter and do not have permanent burrows. They do have a high reproductive rate and high
cocoon production rate though they have a short lifespan. Due to their high metabolic activity,
they are the type of worm most used in vermicomposting. Examples include Eisenia fetida,
Eisenia andrei, Eudrilus eugeniae, Perionyx excavates and Drawida modesta.

Anecic worms (geophytophagous) are surface feeding worms that construct and live in
permanent burrows in the mineral soils but come to the surface to feed on organic matter which
they pull into their burrows. They play a great role in burying surface litter and thus area great
help in incorporation of organic matter into the soil. They have a low cocoon production and
limited reproductive capacity but with a longer lifespan. They are such as Lampito mauritti,
Lumbricus terrestris and Octochaetona serrata.

Endogeic (geophagous) worms live in the mineral soil beneath the top soil surface forming
horizontal tunnels to the soil surface. They feed on soil more and are important in improvement
of soil texture. Therefore they are not beneficial in organic matter decomposition. Their
reproduction rate is moderate and they have shorter life span. Example is Octochaetona
thurstoni.

According to their feeding habits, earthworms are classified into detritivorous and geophagus
(Lee, 1985). Detritivores feed at or near the soil surface mainly on plant litter or dead roots and
other plant debris in the organic matter rich surface soil or on mammalian dung. These include
epigeic and anecic forms. These are also called as humus formers. Geophagus feed deeper
beneath the surface, ingesting large quantities of organically rich soil. These include
endogeic forms. These are also called as humus feeders.

2.1.3 Basic characteristics of vermicomposting earthworm species

It is necessary to select the suitable earthworm species for vermicomposting. Such worm
species should be tolerant to diseases and its culturing techniques should be simple
enough to adopt. These simple earthworm characteristics features which are to be known
are highlighted below;

I. The earthworm should be an efficient converter of plant litter or animal waste to

body, so that its growth rates are high.
II. It should have a high consumption, digestion and assimilation rate (vermicomposting
qualities).
III. The earthworm should have wide adaptability (tolerance) to environmental factors
(capability to live in varying temperature conditions). Eisenia fetid has a wider
tolerance for temperature than Eudrilus Eugeniae and Perionyx Excavatus.
IV. It should have a feeding preference and adaptability for wide range of organic
material (high and rich organic matter).
V. The earthworm should produce large numbers of cocoons that should not have long
hatching time, so that multiplication and organic matter conversion is fast.
VI. Their growth rate, maturity from young one to adult stage should be faster.

F21/1104/2010 Page 16
 VII. Earthworms should have compatibility or tolerance with other worms (as with
possibility of use of mixture of species) as would add to productivity of biomass
(worms) and conversion rate at different strata (layers) of organic matter, i.e. faster
composting. This feature, i.e., vermicomposting with different layer feeders have so
far received very little attentions;
VIII. Earthworms should be disease resistant.
IX. Earthworms on introduction of substrate should have least inactivity period.

2.1.4 Earthworm reproduction

Earthworms are hermaphrodites but they do not do self-fertilization. Cocoons or eggs are usually
small and vary according to earthworm species. Cocoon color changes with age. An earthworm
starts laying cocoons at the age of 6 weeks. In favorable food and weather conditions one pair of
earthworms could produce approximately 100 cocoons in 6 weeks to 6 months. Cocoons
incubate roughly for about 3 - 5 weeks.

Earthworms possess the ability to regenerate body segments, which are lost by accident or
coercion. The time taken by a given earthworm population to double in its number or biomass,
specifically depends upon the earthworm species, type of food, climatic condition etc. -also
called doubling time. The adult worm might live for about two years.

2.1.5Pest and diseases

Earthworms used for composting mostly do not experience diseases caused by micro-organisms.
However, those worms fall prey to certain predators such as moles, birds, mites and to a disease
known as sour crop. The worm predators are described below;

Moles: moles take earthworms as their food. Therefore if they get access to worms they certainly
will eat them. Barriers can be created to prevent them reaching the vermireactors.

Birds: birds too will eat worms if they find them. Therefore measures such as coverings should
be taken to make sure they do not access the vermireactor.

Centipedes: centipedes eat compost worms and cocoons. If they do become a problem, one
method suggested for reducing their numbers is to heavily wet (but not quite flood) the worm
beds (Munroe et al).

Ants: ants are a problem to vermicomposting since they will eat the feed input to a vermireactor.
They are usually attracted to feed that are sugary. Therefore, they can be avoided by limiting the
amount of sugar in the feed. Keeping the bedding above pH 7 also helps (Munroe et. al).

Mites: various types of mites can be found in the vermireactor. However, the red mites are a
major problem since they are parasitic to the worms. Red mites suck blood from the worms or

F21/1104/2010 Page 17
cocoons. Other mites such as white and brown mites will eat the food provided to earthworms-
this can be helpful in decomposing the wastes. The best prevention for red mites is to make sure
that the pH stays at neutral or above. This type of Ph can be achieved by keeping the moisture
levels below 85% and through the addition of calcium carbonate, as required.

Sour crop or protein poisoning: this is a disease and is brought about by presence of too much
protein in the feed. This is as a result of overfeeding. A worm with a swollen clitella or one that
is crawling aimlessly on top of bedding indicates sour crop disease. Affected worms can quickly
be given a dose of mycin which is usually given to chicken and cattle. Sour crop can be
prevented by ensuring that the worms are not overfed and making sure the Ph is maintained
regularly. A pH of neutral and above limits sour crop.

2.1.5Vermicomposting process

Vermicomposting is a bioconversion process (Manyuchi et al. 2013). It is an aerobic, bio-

oxidation and stabilization, mesophilic process of organic waste decomposition that depends
upon earthworms to fragment, mix and promote microbial activity (Gunadi, 2002).The main
objective of vermicomposting is to process the organic waste in minimal time and as efficiently
as possible.

Vermiculture on the other hand is not be confused with vermicomposting. Vermiculture is the
practice of vermicomposting but with the aim of harvesting worms as a product. In vermiculture
the number of worms is to be continually increased to obtain a good harvest. The worms are
either used to expand a vermicomposting operation or sold to customers who use them for the
same or other purposes (Munroe). However, the harvesting of worms is not limited to
vermiculture but also in vermicomposting, there may be a net earthworm production that can be
harvested.

In vermicomposting maximum worm population density has to be maintained if the goal is to

produce vermicompost. If the goal is to produce worms, then the population density should be
kept low enough so that reproductive rates are optimized.

Vermicomposting processes operate as a biological reactor as previously discussed. The structure

constructed to accommodate the process is referred to as the vermireactor. The gut of the
earthworms also acts as a bioreactor in the vermireactor leading to the process being called a
reactor within a reactor. It can be operated in batch, semi-batch and also in continuous mode.
The following steps are involved in vermicomposting process;

I. The earthworm ingests the substrate particles.

II. Inside the earthworm there is the physical size reduction of the ingested particles by the
action of the earthworm gizzard.
III. Digestion of the substrate occurs as it passes through the body of the earthworm while at
the same time microorganisms and enzymes present in the earthworm gut act upon it.

F21/1104/2010 Page 18
IV. The substrate then exits as vermicast a few hours after ingestion. The time is dependent
on nature of substrate, worm species and the length of the worm body.

2.1.6 Vermicomposting process requirements

Vermicomposting needs some basic requirements for it to occur. They include the bedding, food
source (feed), sufficient moisture, good aeration and well maintained temperature. Apart from
these requirements there are other important parameters to be considered which are the salt
content, urine content and Ph. These requirements and parameters are discussed in detail below;

The bedding
It can be defined as any material that provides a good or stable environment to earthworms. For
the vermicomposting to work well, the bedding has to show the following properties;
 It should have a high absorbency to make sure it is able to absorb and retain adequate
water as the worms breathe through skin.
 It should have a good bulking potential such that the earthworms get oxygen in an
efficient way.
 It should have a low nitrogen content (high Carbon: Nitrogen ratio): Although worms
consume their bedding as it breaks down, it is very important that this be a slow process.
High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation and associated heating may
be fatal to worms.
Shredded paper or cardboard makes an excellent bedding (Georg, 2004), particularly when
combined with typical on-farm organic resources such as straw and hay. More about the
favourable bedding used for vermicomposting is shown in appendix D.

Food source

Vermicomposting needs the food source also referred to as feed/substrate which is the organic
wastes. Earthworms are voracious eaters and can use a wide variety of organic materials as food
but do exhibit food preferences (table 2 exhibits some of the feed used for
vermicomposting).Earthworms feed mainly on dead and decaying organic waste and on free
living soil micro flora and fauna (Lee, 1985). Under ideal conditions, worms can consume an
amount of food higher than their body weights. However, the general rule of-thumb is that they
consume an amount of food weighing half of their body weight per day. The actual amount of
food that can be consumed daily by Eisenia fetida varies with a number of factors, not the least
of which is the state of decomposition of the food. Manures, which consist of partially
decomposed organic material, can be consumed more rapidly than fresh food (Munroe).

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Table 2: Samples of feed used in vermicomposting
Food
Biosolids- human waste
Fresh food scraps
(e.g. food prep waste,
leftovers, commercial food
processing wastes)
Pre-composted
food wastes
Cattle manure
Poultry manure
Corrugated cardboard
(including waxed)
F21/1104/2010
Advantages
Excellent nutrition and
excellent product. It can
be activated or non-activated
sludge.
Excellent nutrition, good
moisture content.
Has a good nutrition. The
partial
decomposition makes
digestion by worms to be
easy and fast. Meat and other
greasy wastes can be
included; there is less
tendency to overheat
Nutrition is good. It is
worms’ natural food and thus
little
adaptation is required.
Has high nitrogen content
that results in good nutrition
and a
high-value product.
Excellent nutrition due
to the high-protein glue
used to hold layers
Disadvantages
Heavy metal and/or
chemical contamination if
from
municipal sources.
Odour during application to
beds. possibility of pathogen
survival if the process is not
complete
Extremely variable depending
on
source. High nitrogen content
can result in overheating.
Meat & high-fat wastes
present can create anaerobic
conditions
and odours, also attract
pests, so fresh food scraps is
not to be included without
pre-composting.
The nutrition is less when
compared with fresh food
wastes
Weed seeds make pre-
composting of cattle manure
necessary
Probable high protein levels
can be dangerous to
worms, so poultry manure
must be used in small
quantities. Major
adaptation is required
for worms not used to
this feedstock.
Must be shredded prior to
feeding (waxed variety)
and/or soaked (non-waxed).
Page 20
 together. Worms do like
this material.

Moisture

It is an important requirement for earthworms. Worms breathe through their skins and moisture
content in the bedding of less than 50% is unsafe. Also it should not be too wet since it may
create anaerobic conditions that is fatal to earthworms The bedding as previously discussed must
be able to hold sufficient moisture to make sure the worms are to have a habitable environment.
With the exception of extreme heat or cold, nothing will kill worms faster than a lack of adequate
moisture (Munroe).

The model moisture-content range for vermicomposting or vermiculture processes is 70-90%.

Researchers have found slightly different optimums
o Dominguez and Edwards (1997) found that 80-90% range to be the best, with 85% as the
optimum,
o Nova Scotia researchers found that 75-80% moisture contents produced the best growth
and reproductive response (GEORG, 2004).
The two studies found that average worm weight increased with moisture content (among other
variables). Thus the results suggests that vermiculture procedures with the aim to produce live
poultry feed or bait worms and where individual worm size matters need to keep moisture
contents above 80%, while vermicomposting operations where worm size should be limited need
to operate in the 70-80% range.

Aeration

Worms need oxygen to survive thus anaerobic conditions in their habitat should be avoided.
Anaerobic conditions can be brought about by factors such as high grease levels or excess
moisture with poor aerations in the feed or bedding. This condition can kill the worm very
quickly. Anaerobic conditions are also a good environment for different set of microbes to thrive.
This is one of the main reasons for not including meat or other wastes in worm feedstock unless
they have been pre-composted to break down the oils and fats, (Munroe).

Even though oxygen requirements for worms are essential, the worms can be uncertain. This is
because worms can at times survive harsh conditions where oxygen is limited. In commercial
vermicomposting worms can operate quite well given that there are provisions for ventilation.
They operate well in good ventilation and when the bedding is not too densely packed to enable
them move easily. Worms do help themselves in less dense packed material by their movement
through it. Their movement is significant in vermicomposting since the vermireactor as a
bioreactor does not need turning of the material.

Temperature

Temperature influences the activity, metabolism, growth, respiration and reproduction of

earthworms. The various earthworm species need moderate temperature ranges from 10-35C.

F21/1104/2010 Page 21
At low temperatures of 0C Eisenia Fetida worm can survive but with minimal reproduction and
consumption of food. For vermicomposting operations to be efficient 10C should the minimum
and 15C maximum while for vermiculture the appropriate temperature range is 15C-20C
(Munroe).

High temperatures in vermireactors cause worms to move out or else they will die. Warm
temperatures simulate their reproduction.

Other parameters

2.1.7 Vermireactors

Usually, vermicomposting occurs in vermi-reactors. Inside the vermireactors the worms maintain
aerobic conditions in the organic substances while they accelerate and enhance the biological
decomposition of the organic substances to vermicast (product). The vermireactors can be
plastic, earthed pots or wood worm bins.

The major types of vermireactors are the windrows, batch (boxing units), tray or stacking units
and continuous flow-through systems. Windrows, tray or stacking units and batch or boxing
units are batch vermireactors where the earthworms, bedding and feed are put initially and the
vermicomposting process is allowed to take place until all the vermicast are obtained at a given
retention time. The continuous flow-through systems however, are continuous vermireactors
whereby the earthworms are added initially in the bedding, the feed and more bedding are then
continually added at certain intervals whilst the vermicast are also continually harvested.

Windrow systems

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 Figure 8: Windrow systems, source; (Munroe).

These types of systems are used both in the open air and under cover. Their disadvantage is that
they require large spaces both on land or large buildings. Vermicomposting in this type of
system can be carried out in a number of different ways that include the static pile windrows,
top-fed windrows and wedges.

Static pile windrows are made of piles of mixed bedding and feed. These are then inoculated
with worms and allowed to stand until the process is complete.

Top fed windrows is different from the static pile windrow type. This is because it is set up as a
continuous flow operation thus no mixing and batch feeding. Simply it means that the bedding is
placed first, then inoculated with worms, and then covered repeatedly with layers of food.

The wedge system is a modified windrow system where one can harvest the vermicast produced
without disturbance to the worms. The windrow is set at 45º and then the organic material
applied against it.

Tray or stacking units

Figure 9: Tray or stacking units, source; Google-tray/staking worm bins images.

Tray or stacking units can also be referred to as stacked bins. They try to overcome the
problem of space encountered while using the windrow or bin system. They increase space
by adding a vertical dimension to vermicomposting system. The bins must be small enough

F21/1104/2010 Page 23
 to be lifted, either by hand or with a forklift, when they are full of wet material (Beetz, 1999).
The material is pre-mixed and then placed in the bin, afterwards the worms are added, and
finally the bin is stacked for a pre-determined length of time. After the time has elapsed it is
then emptied. The stacked-bin system has a high initial cost of set-up which is a
disadvantage for large sale operations. The costs arise due to requirements for unheated
shelter, bins, and a way to mix the bedding and feed, and equipment to stack the bins, such as
a forklift.

Bin system

Works as a top fed windrow but the only the difference is that a windrow work under open
air but this system contains the vermicomposting process within four walls and a floor. This
system is most common for household level vermicomposting where bins are used. For large
or medium scale vermicomposting it has a disadvantage of extra cost of building and
maintaining the bin, as well as the cost of the large bins.

Figure 10: Batch (boxing unit), source: Google – worm bin images.

Continuous flow through system

This system vermicomposting process occurs continually i.e. there is no time the process is
stopped to harvest the vermicast. This type of system is mostly a rectangular box which is
raised with two partitions. One partition which is on the top is where the vermicomposting
process takes place while the other at the bottom is the collection chamber. This is shown in
the below figure;

F21/1104/2010 Page 24
 Figure 11; Mechanism of a continuous flow through vermireactor, source; (Chitambwe,
2013)

The material/feed is added at the top to chamber through a cover. The cover or lid might have
holes as provision for ventilation to the system. The vermicast produced by the earthworm is
then harvested by the help of a breaker bar. The breaker bar design changes according to the
user preference. The breaker bar is supposed to move though produced vermicast, loosening
the material for it to fall off to the collection chamber.
The term “flow-through” refers to the fact that the worms are never disturbed in their beds – the
material goes in the top, flows through the reactor (and the worms’ guts), and comes out the bottom
(E. fetida tends to eat at the surface and drop castings near the bottom of the bedding).(Munroe)

Figure 12: Continuous flow through vermireactor, source; Google- continuous flow
through worm bin images.
F21/1104/2010 Page 25
 Figure 13: Continuous flow through system, source; Google- continuous flow through
worm bin images.

Figure 12 and 13 shows the continuous flow through vermireactor system that is used in this
design project. The breaker bar design used in this project design is also highlighted. There
are however different design arrangements for this type of vermireactor system.

F21/1104/2010 Page 26
Various food waste retention times have been used in vermireactors from 1 month up to 6
months. However, high retention times result in poor quality of the vermicast since they become
unstable. A continuous flow-through reactor is therefore the ideal vermireactor for stable
vermicast production. No comprehensive information has-been given for continuous flow-
through vermicomposting reactors which have the potential to produce quality vermicast at less
labor requirements. Hence, there is need to design a user friendly continuous flow-through
vermireactor for vermicomposting (Manyuchi et al. 2013)The continuous flow-through
vermicomposting reactor can be used by medium scale vermicomposters.

2.1.8Vermicomposting process products

Vermicomposting process results in three useful products. These include the vermicast,
vermiwash and the worms themselves. Vermicasts are dark brown solid particles in nature.
These vermicasts are rich in the primary nutrients of fertilizer- nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and
potassium (K) as well as trace elements depending on the feedstock type used.Vermiwash is a
leachate produced alongside the vermicast and is also rich in NPK. In some process
arrangements the excess earthworms also can be harvested. The earthworms can be sold as fish
bait or animal protein supplement or input for emerging or existing vermireactors.

Using a continuous flow through vermireactor the vermicast and vermiwash is collected from the
bottom. This collection system design varies from different users and requirements. Worms can
be collected/harvested manually, through self-migration or through mechanical methods. Manual
methods involve use of the hands to handpick the worms from the vermicast. Self-migration
involves harvesting basing on behavior of worms migrating to new regions so as to find fresh
food or avoid dryness and light. Once the worms move to the good conditions area they are
collected in a container that is usually set up to trap them. Mechanical methods make use of a
mechanical device that has been designed and constructed for the purposes of harvesting
earthworms from vermicast. The figure below shows an existing mechanical worm harvester
used in the USA, Canada and Australia.

F21/1104/2010 Page 27
Figure 14: Mechanical worm harvester. Source (Munroe, p23)

2.1.9 Vermicomposting: Troubleshooting

When carried out correctly, vermicomposting will not produce offensive odours or attract flies.
The best approach is prevention, but if smells occur, there are a number of possible causes and
steps to remedy the problem.
I. The system can start to smell if it becomes overloaded, as it will contain more feedstock
than the worms can process.
II. The bedding is too wet and compacted. Solution: (a) contents are gently stirred to allow
more air in and the food wastes input should be stopped for a week or so. Make sure that
your food waste is still buried. (b) The lid can be removed or left slightly ajar to allow the
contents to dry out.
III. The vermicompost has become too acidic. Solution: some calcium carbonate should be
added and the amount of citrus peel and other acidic food waste should be cut down.

In conclusion compared to composting, vermicomposting involves the joint action of earthworms

and micro-organisms. It also does not involve the generation of high heat as is with composting.
The worms can consume various organic wastes such as food waste, animal waste and sewage
sludge. They also turn and fragment the waste. The ecosystem of the organic horizons where the
epigeic worms are found is characterised by a wide community of decomposition specialists
mostly dominated by fungi and bacteria.

Vermicomposting has an exceptional position in the area of environmental engineering: it is the

only pollution control bioprocess which has a multicellular animal as the main bio agent. Indeed,
it is the only bioprocess-outside the ones involving one or other type of animal farming- in which
a multi-cellular animal is used in reactor systems to generate a product other than the animal
offspring.

All other engineered bioprocess except a few which are based on plants (botanics/ species),
revolve around the use of enzymes, bacteria, microfungi, or fungi, or microalgae in mobile or
immobilized modes. Such processes have been extensively studied, modelled, designed and
engineered. In contrast, no design or operation criteria based on bioprocess engineering
principles has been developed for vermicomposting (Tasneem 2009). Significant work has been
going on the science of vermicomposting, especially in terms of biotic and abiotic factors, which
influence vermicast production, earthworm growth and fertility. Studies are also being
increasingly reported on the vermicompostability of newer substrates and newer earthworm
species. But the aspects of vermicomposting process design, control, operation, and optimization
are by and large still unaddressed.

Vermicomposting technology is known throughout the world, although in limited areas. It repre-
sents an alternative approach in waste management, inasmuch as the material is neither land
filled nor burned but is considered a resource that may be recycled. Therefore, vermicomposting
is compatible with sound environmental principles that value conservation of resources and sus-
tainable practices.
F21/1104/2010 Page 28
2.2Theoretical framework

2.2.1 How Vermicomposting Works

A basic vermireactor consist of spacing for the worm activity. The spacing hosts the bedding, the
worms and the feed stock. Worms naturally cannot chew or bite and they rely on their feed being
decomposed first by microorganisms. After the feed decomposition the worms then ingest the
decomposed feed together with the microorganisms. This is the major reason why it is advisable
to precondition a vermireactor feedstock before inputting into the vermireactor. The rate of
decomposition is aggravated by the worms adding important micro-organisms to the soil or
bedding and feedstock in the case of a vermireactor.

Once the worms have ingested the feed provided, the longest period it takes for them to produce
vermicast is 24hrs. They do deposit the vermicast produced on the top of the vermireactor
contents i.e. the bedding. According to (Munroe, p 15) the output of vermicomposting is
generally 10% to 50% of the weight of the input.

2.2.2 Optimal Worm Conditions

A vermireactor should achieve certain conditions for the vermicomposting process to work out
well. A temperature of 10°C to 15°C should be maintained. The moisture content to be
maintained for vermicomposting should be between 70-80%. Air should be adequately provided
since vermicomposting process is aerobic.

Temperatures of a worm bin can be maintained in various ways. To lower the temperatures the
vermireactor can be put under a shade, its air flow increased, the bedding moistened and also by
use of a fan. The temperatures can be raised through making sure the lid is covered at all times,
use of insulation and also use of a heater.

Moisture values for a vermireactor can be maintained by first choosing a good absorbent bedding
material. Newspapers or corrugated cardboard are the most widely used bedding material
because of the ability to retain moisture once they have absorbed it. Therefore, one has to
sprinkle the required amount of water to the vermireactor bedding.

Maintaining aerobic conditions can be achieved by ensuring the vermireactor is well ventilated.
Mixing is recommended so as to loosen and aerate the bedding. This should be done carefully to
ensure that fresh waste materials are not buried. The precondition process of the waste should
ensure that they are not too finely grounded i.e. less than 5mm (Recycled Organics Unit, 2007)
to control creation of anaerobic conditions. The preprocessing/preconditioning of the waste
should be done always for rapidly self-degrading wastes such as food. This is because these
wastes require a large intake of oxygen if not preconditioned. Preprocessing on the other hand
also increases the performance of vermicomposting systems.

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2.2.4 Earthworms Stocking Density and Substrate Retention Times

Earthworm density refers to the weight of earthworms used/m2 of the vermireactor. Earthworm
density is very critical because the earthworms function as a bioreactor inside the continuous
flow-through vermireactor themselves. This is because the bioconversion processes of the
organic waste take place inside the earthworm gut whereby the organic waste is the input and the
vermicasts are expelled into the vermireactor as a product.

Worms need a certain density in order to have a reasonable chance of running into each other
and reproducing frequently (Munroe). At low densities it becomes hard for the worms to meet
each other while also at high densities (mostly higher than 5kg/𝑚2 )the worms compete for both
food and space. At these two conditions the rate of reproduction of the worms is minimized. The
stocking density that is mostly used for vermicomposting is between 5-10kg/𝑚2 .

The rate of vermicasts produced is depended on the length of the earthworm, the shorter the
earthworm, the shorter the residence time inside the earthworm gut. Earthworms ingest 75% of
their body weight/day. Therefore it is assumed that more than 7kg of vermicasts can be produced
per day given that the earthworms increase in number, weight and size daily.

Different quantities of earthworms have been inoculated in different organic wastes and the
earthworm response in terms of growth and reproduction rate has been monitored. Earthworm
activity during vermicomposting has been monitored by looking at the earthworm biomass gain,
cocoon production, weight gain, increase in worm length and worm number as well as the
growth rate. Additionally, parameters such as temperature, feed type, earthworm stock density
and feedstock loading rate have been studied to see their influence on earthworm activity. The
earthworm growth rate during vermicomposting is calculated according to Equation 1:
𝐵2−𝐵1
G= -------------------------Equation 1
𝑇𝑥𝑛

Where
G = Earthworm growth rate (mg/worm/day)
B1 = Initial biomass of worm (mg)
B2 = Maximum biomass obtained by worm (mg)
T = Number of days in which biomass is attained
N = Number of earthworms inoculated

The earthworm biomass gained per unit feed mixture (mg/g) is calculated according to Equation
2:
𝐵2−𝐵1
------------------------------Equation 2
𝑊
Where
W = Total quantity of organic waste taken (g)
F21/1104/2010 Page 30
In addition, the earthworm reproduction rate is calculated according to Equation 3:
𝐶
R=𝐸-------------------------------Equation 3

Where:
R = Earthworm reproduction rate
C = Total number of cocoons produced
E = Total number of earthworms

2.2.5 Built environment design

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning comprise a major field of engineering. The design of
environment control system requires an understanding of the complex interactions between the
biological system within the space and the environment provided to that system. The biotic
system will have specific environmental needs and its growth, production, and well-being will be
strongly influenced by the environment. Concomitantly, the biotic system will strongly influence
conditions within the airspace. The goal of environmental control should be able to create a
balance favourable to both biological and physical systems.

The calculation of temperatures within buildings, or of heating and cooling loads, requires
knowledge of the thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and density of the construction
materials. The thermal resistances of air films adjacent to surfaces, and of air spaces, are
also required and, as the latter are dependent on the emittances of surfaces, data on these
parameters are also needed. The thermal resistance, which is the quotient of thickness and
thermal conductivity, has been given and, where appropriate, for the material thicknesses most
commonly used. As in most cases there is a linear relationship between thickness and thermal
resistance, other values are readily calculated.

2.2.5.1 Psychrometry

The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of gases and water vapour. An understanding of the physical
and thermodynamic properties of air–water-vapour mixtures (psychrometrics) is fundamental to
the design of environmental control systems for plants, crops, animals or humans.

2.2.5.2 Properties of moist air

Pressure, volume, density and thermal properties are related by the use of the laws for a ‘perfect

F21/1104/2010 Page 31
gas’. For a mixture of dry air and water vapour, this law can be used with only negligible error at
the range of temperatures and pressures used for environmental control.

𝑀𝑅𝑇
P= -------------------------------Equation 4
𝑉

Where:
P = absolute pressure (Pa)
M = mass (kg)
R = gas constant (J/ (kg. °C))
T = temperature (°K)
V = volume (m³).

Specific humidity (H) is the weight of water vapour in kilograms per kilogram of dry air. It is
sometimes called absolute humidity or humidity ratio. The base of 1 kilogram of dry air is
constant for any change of condition, making calculations easier.

Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the actual water-vapour pressure (Pw) to the vapour
pressure of saturated air at the same temperature (Pwsat). The vapour pressure at saturation
(Pwsat) is given in steam tables for different dry-bulb temperatures.

RH% =𝑃𝑤 /𝑃𝑤𝑠𝑎𝑡 ------------------------Equation 5

Where
𝑃𝑤 = water vapour pressure
𝑃𝑤𝑠𝑎𝑡 = water vapour pressure at saturation

Specific volume is the volume of dry air per mass of dry air.

Humid volume is the volume of an air-moisture mixture per mass of dry air. In ventilation
calculations, the volume is in cubic metres of mixture (air + water vapour) per kilogram of dry
air. The base of 1 kilogram of dry air is used because the kilogram of dry air entering and leaving
the system in a given time will be constant once a steady state flow is established. Humid
volume increases as the temperature or water-vapour content increases. The humid volume of
air–water vapour mixtures is given in standard thermodynamic tables, or may be read from a
psychrometric chart.

Temperatures: Air–water-vapour mixtures can be described by the dry-bulb temperature, and

either the wet-bulb or dew point temperatures:
• dry-bulb temperature is measured with a common thermometer, thermocouple or thermistor
• wet-bulb temperature is the temperature at which water, by evaporating into moist air, can
bring the air to saturation adiabatically in a steady-state condition
• dew point temperature is the temperature at which moisture starts to condense from air cooled
at constant pressure and specific humidity.

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Enthalpy (h) is the heat-energy content of an air– water-vapour mixture. The energy is a
combination of both sensible heat (indicated by dry-bulb temperature) and latent heat of
vaporization (energy content of the water vapour). Enthalpy scales appear on psychrometric
charts expressed as kJ/kg of dry air.
Enthalpy can be calculated from the equation:

h = S × tdb + H × ℎ𝑤 ----------------------------Equation 6
where:
S = specific heat of dry air (1 004 kJ/ (kg. °K))
tdb = dry-bulb temperature
H = specific humidity
ℎ𝑤 = enthalpy of water vapour (kJ/kg water vapour).

Thus:
h = 1.004 × tdb + H (2454 + 1858 × tdb) kJ/kg
where:
2 454 = latent heat of vaporization (kJ/kg)
1 858 = specific heat of water vapour (kJ/ (kg. °K))

2.2.5.2 Heating and cooling loads

2.2.5.2.1 The cooling load

The cooling load is the rate at which heat is removed from the conditioned space to attain the
desired temperature and relative humidity. Heat-gain analysis on the building should be carried
out in order to calculate the cooling load. The cooling-loads are normally calculated when sizing
heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems and their components. The types of
heat gain into a structure is illustrated below

Figure 15: Types of heat gain into a building

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2.2.5.2.2 Heating load

Heat loss calculations are made to determine a building heating load. The heat losses are
essentially of two kinds:
• the heat transmitted through walls, ceiling, floor,
or other surfaces
• the heat required to warm outdoor air entering the space
the types of heat loss from a building are illustrated below

Figure 16: Principal types of heat loss from a structure

2.2.5.3 Overview of Heating, ventilation and air-Conditioning systems and equipment

The purpose of an HVAC system is to provide a suitable environment for people, animals and
plants by controlling temperature, humidity, air contaminants and air circulation. HVAC systems
are categorized into heating, air-conditioning, ventilation and air-handling and electrical systems.

2.2.5.3.1 Heating systems

Some heating systems produce heat from the combustion of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal,
while others use electricity or solar power. The heat produced is distributed through ducts and
pipes by fans and pumps. The equipment used in heating systems includes furnaces, boilers, heat
pumps and heat exchangers.

Furnaces: Furnaces use forced convection to remove heat produced within a furnace’s firebox,
and are classified according to airflow type. The up flow furnace heat exchanger, while the down
flow furnace is the reverse, with air flowing downward. Natural gas, liquefied propane gas
(LPG) and fuel oil can be used as energy sources for furnaces.

Boilers: A boiler is usually made from copper, steel or cast iron, and transfers the heat from a
combustion chamber (or electric resistance coil) to water, in either the liquid phase or the vapour
phase, or both. Boilers are classified both by the fuel used (gas, fuel oil, wood, coal or electricity)
and by the operating pressure (low or high pressure).

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Electric heat pumps: A heat pump is a unit that (i) extracts heat from the environment, (ii) raises
the air temperature to the desired level, and (iii) delivers the air to the required space.

Heat exchangers: A heat exchanger is a used to heat from one medium to another, whether in
direct contact or separate.
2.2.5.3.2 Air-conditioning systems

An air-conditioner is a unit that can provide both cooling and dehumidification in order to attain
the desired conditions inside a building. Occupants within a building produce excess heat and
moisture, which must be dissipated. The capacities of air-conditioning systems are often
expressed in either tons or kilowatts (kW) of cooling. The ton is a unit of measure related to
the ability of an ice plant to freeze one short ton (907 kg) of ice in 24 hours, and its value is
3.51 kW). Some examples of air-conditioning systems include chillers, cooling towers and
evaporative cooling systems.

Chiller: The most common types of chiller are reciprocating, screw, centrifugal and absorption
chillers. These are often used in large commercial buildings.

Cooling tower: In a cooling tower, water is re-circulated and cooled (evaporation) through direct
contact heat transfer with the ambient air. This cooled water can then be used to absorb and
reject the thermal energy from the condenser of the chiller.

Evaporative cooler: This system is effective under hot and dry conditions. It uses the adiabatic
evaporation of water in air. Air is drawn through the wetted pads or sprays and its sensible heat
energy helps to evaporate some water, which reduces the dry-bulb temperature of the air. Most
greenhouses use evaporative coolers for cooling in the summer period.

2.2.5.3.3 Ventilation and air-handling systems

Air-handling systems transfer the heated or cooled air between the main heating or cooling units
and the building space. Examples of air-handling systems include cooling coils, fans, ducts and
diffusers.

Coils: Coils are essentially heat exchangers designed to transfer heat to or from an air stream,
and are used to provide air heating, preheating, reheating, cooling and dehumidification.

Fans: Fans move air through ducts and system equipment to provide heating, cooling and
ventilation to the building zones. A fan utilizes a power-driven, causing air flow.

Ducts: Ducts are conduits used to carry air from air handling units to or from the ventilated
spaces. They can be used to supply, return or exhaust the air to or from the conditioned space.

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3.0 GENERATION OF CONCEPT DESIGN

4.0 Data acquisition

Data was collected for food wastes quantity from the Tana kitchen using beam balance. The
daily food waste quantity generated from the kitchen results was recorded.
Earthworms found in Kabete area were collected. The earthworms were found in heaps of litter
and trash and also around Kabete dam. The length and weight of the earthworm collected were
measured. The diagram showing worm weight being measured is found in appendix E.
The Kabete Agro Meteorological station was resourceful in providing temperature, rainfall and
humidity data of Kabete area. The monthly minimum and maximum temperature, relative
humidity for 0600 and 1200z and rainfall data was collected for the years 2012 to 2014.

Data collected

Table 3: Temperature data for Kabete

MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE

(C)
2012 2013 2014
MAX MIN MAX MIN MAX MIN
JAN 0 11.9 23.9 13.9 25.1 13.4
FEB 26.4 13.5 25.5 13.5 25.1 14.3
MAR 26.6 13.9 25.1 15 24.3 14.2
APR 23.9 15 24.1 14.9 23 14.2
MAY 23.5 14.2 22.8 13.8 23.5 14.8
JUN 22.3 12.8 29.2 18.5 22.3 14.1
JUL 21.4 12 22.6 10.9 21.6 12.5
AUG 22.7 11.7 20.8 11.9 0 12.4
SEP 24.6 12.2 24.5 12.2 22.3 12.2
OCT 24.6 14.2 25.6 13.3 0 14.5
NOV 23.3 14.1 23.6 14.5 0 14.4
DEC 22.8 14.1 22.9 14.1 0 13.8

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Table 4: Relative humidity data for Kabete

MONTHLY MEAN RH (%)

2012 2013 2014
00600Z 1200Z 0600Z 1200Z 0600Z 1200Z
JAN 63 41 79 61 72.3 50.4
FEB 67.2 39 73.7 48.9 78.8 55
MAR 69.9 36.9 82.2 53.5 78 51.6
APR 85.9 62.6 86.6 64.9 84.5 58.2
MAY 85.1 67.5 83 60.1 81.5 55.1
JUN 86.8 67.4 88 70 87.6 64.4
JUL 89.1 66.4 76.3 57.4 85.7 61
AUG 84.6 59.4 88.3 63.4 81.1 54.3
SEP 80.5 53.6 77.9 51.3 81.5 52
OCT 84.5 55.7 68.9 39.6 79.9 51.7
NOV 86.5 59 84.8 58.7 84.8 58.6
DEC 85.6 59.8 83.6 65 79.6 55.2

Table 5: Rainfall data for Kabete.

MONTHLY RAIN (kg/𝒎𝟐 )

2012 2013 2014
JAN 0 45.1 30.2
FEB 16 0 146.5
MAR 5 175.2 154.7
APR 352.6 508.8 81.7
MAY 262 53.4 72.8
JUN 39.9 20.3 101.5
JUL 23.4 5.4 10
AUG 42.4 51.7 28.9
SEP 8.9 25.9 23.9
OCT 241.5 7.6 136.2
NOV 261.8 128.4 95.5
DEC 244.7 163.2 88.6

Table 6: Worm data

Worm no. Length (mm) Weight (g)
1 50 0.256
2 100 0.401
3 150 0.891
4 130 0.534

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Table 7: Food waste produced from Tana kitchen data

DAY/WEIGH Monda Tuesda Wednesda Thursda Frida Saturda Sunda

T y y y y y y y
Bucket (Kg) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Bucket + food 18 19 18 21 14 10 12
waste (Kg)
Food waste 17 18 17 20 13 9 11

4.1 Assessment of current food waste disposal situation

The current food waste disposal method from the Tana Kitchen is not effective. A visit to the
wastes site revealed poor practices of dumping of the food wastes. The food wastes from the
kitchen are put in a collecting bin at the dumping site. In the bin the wastes were mixed with
other non-biodegradable wastes such as paper, cans, and plastics. The waste could also be seen
outside the bin. This could arise due to delay from waste collectors to collect the wastes to
another site, presence of animals at the site in search of food and high waste generation
compared to the rate at which they are collected. The pictures showing the waste site condition is
found in the appendix B.

The outcome of interviews contacted with the residents and workers in areas around the site
indicated dissatisfaction with the current food wastes management methods.3
Out of 4 people were not pleased with the existence of the site for purposes of waste disposal.
They also showed concerns of odours, vermin (mosquito, flies, crows, stray dogs and cats) and
environmental degradation arising from the disposal of wastes at that point.

4.2 Desk study

Thorough desk study was conducted for the evaluation of data collection results. Through the
desk study it was found that food waste problems are not only experienced in Kabete but in
Kenya as a nation, in the East Africa region, the continent of Africa and also the entire world.

Various methods have been used by people around the world to combat this problem.
Vermicomposting is also one of the methods and is being practiced only by few countries around
the world. Vermicomposting from those who have practiced it prove to be an efficient method
for organic waste recovery. For food waste recycling vermicomposting is odourless, requires
little labour, little capital is required to start it and less energy can be required to run it. This is
not the case when compared to anaerobic digestion of organic waste.

F21/1104/2010 Page 38
Research also indicates the existence of various ways in which vermicomposting can be carried
out in vermireactors. The continuous flow vermireactor system is the one preferred for middle or
large scale vermicomposting operations.

The parameters used to design vermireactor size include the worm weight and length and the
amount of food (organic) waste to be put in the reactor. Once these values are known the reactor
size is calculated using the optimum stocking density required for vermicomposting and also the
right amount of food waste the worms can eat in given time.

4.3 Sizing of the vermireactor

The vermireactor was sized. Calculations were performed for the vermireactor area required to
host all the vermireactor reactants. The calculations were done using the stocking density that
should be used to achieve efficient vermicomposting. The amount of food waste a worm can
consume a day also helped determine the number of worms to be inoculated in the designed
vermireactor and also the time the vermicomposting process can be achieved

Using these values the vermireactor design was drawn using AutoCAD and sketch-up.

4.4 Modeling of the vermireactor

A model of the designed vermireactor was fabricated. The model structure was made up of wood
while the harvester bar component was made of steel metal. The dimensions of the model were
0.4m by 0.3m by 0.48m. The 0.48m height was divided into 0.24 m for the collection chamber
and the other 0.24m was for the worm activity area.

After completion of the model vermireactor fabrication, the bedding was prepared by shredding
and moistening them. The bedding material was corrugated cardboard and newspaper because of
their high C: N ratio that is best for worm bedding.

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 Figure 16: Diagrams of the fabricated model :( top left) the model vermireactor outside
appearance, (top right) the drawer system for collection of vermicast, (bottom left)
inside the vermireactor- the harvester bar and wire system and finally (bottom left) the
bedding material put inside the vermireactor.

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4.0 PRODUCT DESIGN

The parameters considered in the design of this continuous flow through vermireactor included
the amount of food waste, worm weight, temperature, humidity and rainfall data collected.

4.1 Data analysis

Average values for the weather data collected were calculated. They are tabulated in the table
below.

Table 8: Average monthly weather data of Kabete (temperature, RH and rainfall) from 2012 to
2014.

AVERAGE AVERAGE
TEMPERATURE AVERAGE RAINFALL
DATA RH DATA
MAX MIN 0600Z 1200Z
16.33333 13.06667
January 71.43333 50.8 25.1
25.66667 13.76667
February 73.23333 47.63333 54.16667
March 25.33333 14.36667 76.7 47.33333 111.6333
April 23.66667 14.7 85.66667 61.9 314.3667
May 23.26667 14.26667 83.2 60.9 129.4
June 24.6 15.13333 87.46667 67.26667 53.9
July 21.86667 11.8 83.7 61.6 12.93333
August 14.5 12 84.66667 59.03333 41
September 23.8 12.2 79.96667 52.3 19.56667
October 16.73333 14 77.76667 49 128.4333
November 15.63333 14.33333 85.36667 58.76667 161.9
December 15.23333 14 82.93333 60 165.5

The average values of temperature, humidity and rainfall were used to generate graphs recorded
under site analysis. From the generated graphs the temperature and humidity ranges and also the
average amount of rainfall experienced in Kabete was obtained.

Table 9: Average annual rainfall, temperature and RH data for Kabete

Average rainfall 101 kg/𝒎𝟐
Average temperature range 12C-26C
Average RH range 40%-90%

F21/1104/2010 Page 41
Average worm data

50+100+150+130
Length = = 82.5 mm/8.25cm
4

0.256+0.4010+0.891+0.534
Weight = = 0.5205 g
4

Average food waste data

17+18+17+20+13+9+11
Average food waste for the a whole week = = 15kg
7

4.2 Calculating vermireactor dimensions

Using a stocking density of 10kg/𝑚2 which is suitable for vermicomposting and the fact that a
worm consumes half of its weight a day the surface area required for the vermireactor was
calculated.

Average waste generated daily = 15kg

Average weight of 1 worm is taken as 0.5g

A worm ingests 50% of its body weight thus a 0.5g worm will ingest 0.5⁄2= 0.25g/day

0.5𝑔 𝑥 15𝑘𝑔
Therefore 15kg food waste needs = = 30kg of worms
0.25𝑔

30 𝑘𝑔
Using a stocking density of 10kg/𝑚2 , the required surface area = = 3𝑚2 .
10𝑘𝑔/𝑚2

From this surface area the selected length and width of the vermireactor was 3m by 1m.

4.3 Design drawings

F21/1104/2010 Page 42
F21/1104/2010 Page 43
The overall structure of the designed continuous flow through vermireactor

F21/1104/2010 Page 44
The designed continuous flows through vermireactor with one of the sides open i.e. cross-sectional view

F21/1104/2010 Page 45
5.0 DISCUSSION

Practice of various solid waste management systems to curb the various environmental pollution
problems is of importance. Waste management systems that have not been practiced in a nation
but have been successful somewhere else should be given consideration. In this project the key
solid waste management system is vermicomposting. Vermicomposting is a new technology that
really has an effect in controlling the amount of organic wastes taken to dumping sites. In Kenya,
vermicomposting is a new waste management strategy that needs to be considered to help in
managing the high amount of organic waste produced nationally.

Vermicomposting is being practiced but in only a few countries around the world. In these few
countries this process has proven to bring a major effect on reducing the amount of food waste
taken to landfills and other dumping sites. Vermicomposting is practiced from household level to
large scale organic waste producers. In these settings the different types of vermireactor used in
vermicomposting are utilized. For the household level, organic waste recycling is practiced using
the batch or boxing unit while for the middle to large scale levels the windrow system, tray or
stacking units and continuous flow systems are used.

This design project focused on the continuous flow through vermireactor because of its
advantages over the other vermireactors. The advantages include the ease in harvesting of
vermicast and vermiwash produced, little maintenance required and ease in maintaining the
earthworm conditions needed inside the vermireactor. The designed vermireactor of 3m by 1m is
designed to allow the input of pre-composted food waste from the Tana kitchen on a daily basis.
It uses bedding made of corrugated cardboard that is cheap and locally available. The
vermireactor structure also uses locally available materials that-wood. Its design is simple and
can easily be constructed and maintained. Operating the vermireactor does not require much skill
therefore the labour required is not issue if little training and guidance is provided.

The vermireactor aerobic conditions are to be maintained through ventilation allowances while
constructing the vermireactor. The temperature and moisture are to be monitored manually. They
temperature will be monitored using thermometer. If the temperatures are high they will be
reduced to the optimum temperature using one of the methods discussed under optical worm
conditions in the theoretical framework. The vice versa is also true. Moisture conditions can be
measured by a moisture metre or through laboratory methods. Adjustments needed for the
moisture content can be changed using the methods highlighted under optimal worm conditions.

The vermireactor with the 30kg of worms is required to substantially reduce the amount of food
waste generated from Tana kitchen to the dumping site behind Wakulima hostel. The flow
through system of wire is made of high yielding point material to withstand the weight of
feedstock and worm acting on it. The vermicast is collected efficiently with the drawer system
provided while the vermiwash is collected through a wire meshing system to a collection tray on
the bottom of the vermireactor. All these designed system is supposed to work in coordination to
make sure the worms convert the food waste generated to useful products (vermicast and
vermiwash).

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Model/prototype development

A model of the real designed vermireactor was constructed. The materials needed included wire,
wood, steel rods and nails.
The wood was cut into pieces with the given dimensions of the model (0.4m by 0.3m by 0.48m).

The machine components used are shown in appendix F. The work was done in the metal and
wood workshop where the machines and equipment were found.

Appendix F highlights the different stages the model went through to attain the final product.
The processes involved to attain the final product include cutting (both wood and metal), joinery
work (using nails for wood and welding for the metal work) and finishes-painting.

The model vermireactor was tested if it worked. The results were good. The upper chamber
could hold the worm activity, the harvester bar movement was good and the collection chamber
of drawer and mesh system ensured the vermicast and vermiwash was collected.

The wire system, the harvester bar and the vermiwash collection system could be modified using
different designs.

Appendix G shows the input and output obtained from the working of the model vermireactor.
The worms inside the model vermireactor were obtained from Kabete area form heaps of litter.
The results of the model vermireactor showed that the optimal conditions for the earthworms
were easy to control in Kabete with considerable ventilation according to the size of the model.
Since there was no decrease of the earthworm numbers and the earthworm activity proceeded on
well then the environmental control for the actual vermireactor is not a problem. In case of
problems with optimal conditions of the vermireactor in Kabete the problems could be controlled
using methods described under heading 2.2.2 optimal worm conditions.

F21/1104/2010 Page 47
6.0 CONCLUSIONS

The current method of disposal of food waste from Tana kitchen was assessed. The results were
such that the wastes were taken to a dumping site (awaiting collection) whereby problems
discussed in the problem statement arose. The assessment results indicated the need to come up
with an efficient way that was to help in disposing the food waste generated.

The various data needed for this design project were collected. The food waste quantities
generated was established and recorded. The length and weight of worms collected was
measured and recorded. The weather pattern of Kabete, Kenya was obtained from the Kabete
Agro Meteorological Station.

Through research about the various vermireactor designs used for vermicomposting the
continuous flow through vermireactor was chosen to provide efficient vermicomposting process.
The vermireactor was then designed after the acquisition of all the data needed. It is a structure
made of two chambers. Its dimensions are 3m by 1m by 1.1m. The top chamber is made to house
the worm activity while the bottom chamber is the collection chamber of the vermicast and
vermiwash.

The design project however met challenges such us insufficient funds to obtain adequate
resources to help in the design work and also to buy worms that were needed to run the model
fabricated. The design project designed for the vermireactor to ensure the worms temperature
and air requirements are in place. However, because of limiting resources the accurate
ventilation rates could not be achieved.

The overall of objective of this design project was met. The vermireactor required for use in
recycling food waste generated from Tana kitchen was designed.

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7.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following recommendations are given from this design project;

 Utilization of different designs used in the place of wire system to enable the
vermireactor to be a continuous flow system.
 Design of a different system to enable the collection of the vermiwash produced.
 Design of a more efficient HVAC system for areas with extreme temperature and RH
values.
 More resources especially funds to be allocated for research purposes of the
vermicomposting technology.

F21/1104/2010 Page 49
8.0 REFERENCES

 G. Munroe, “Manual of On-Farm Vermicomposting and Vermiculture”, Organic

Agriculture Centre of Canada, pp. 1-56.

 National Environmental Management Authority. (n.d). Retrieved

fromhttp://www.nema.go.ke/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=314:com
posting-waste&catid=120.

 Student Welfare Authority. (n.d). Core Functions of SWA. Retrieved from

http://swa.uonbi.ac.ke/node/700.

 Vermicomposting primary and secondary solids from the pulp and paper industry by
Michael Quintern, Hailong Wang, Guna Magesan and Alison Slade, June 2009.

 Ndegwa, P., Thompson, S., & Das, K. (2000). Effects of stocking density and feeding
rate on vermicomposting of biosolids. Bioresource Technology.

 Recycled Organics Unit Inc. (2007). Literature review of worm in waste management.
Sydney Australia.

 T. Abbasi, S. Gajalakshmi and S. A. Abbasi (2008), “Towards modelling and design of

vermicomposting systems: Mechanisms of composting/vermicomposting and their
implications”, Indian Journal of Biotechnology, 8, pp.177-182.

 PARTHA DAS SHARMA’s Weblog on “Keeping World Environment Safer and

Greener”, retrieved fromhttp://saferenvironment.wordpress.com/2009/08/06/solid-waste-
disposal-a-burning-problem-to-be-resolved-to-save-environment/

 Manyuchi. M .M and Phiri. A (1 Dec 2013). Vermicomposting in Solid Waste

Management: A Review, International Journal of Scientific Engineering and
Technology, 2(12), pp. 1234-1242.

 Vermicomposting technology for solid waste management by V.K. Garg, Renuka Gupta
and Anoop Yadav, Deptt. Of Environmental Science and Engineering Guru Jambheshwar
University of Science and Technology Hisar 125001, Haryana, India.

 Manyuchi, M. M., Phiri, A., Chirinda, N., Govha, J. and Sengudzwa, T., (2012).
Vermicomposting of waste corn pulp blended with cow dung using Eisenia Fetida, World
Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Technology, 68, pp.1306-1309.

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  M. M. Manyuchi., A. Phiri., P. Muredzi and N. Chirinda (2013). Bioconversion of food
wastes into vermicompost and vermiwash, International Journal of Science and Modern
Engineering, 1(10), pp. 1-2.

 M. M. Manyuchi., T. Chitambwe., P, Muredzi and Kanhukamwe Q (2013). Continuous

flow-through vermireactor for medium scale vermicomposting, Asian Journal of
Engineering and Technology, 1 (1), pp. 44-48.

 J. Check., W. Sereda-Meichel., Lai-Shun. M and E. Macadam. Design Review Package

for Vermicomposting Machine (Final year design project, Dalhousie University
Mechanical Engineering Department). Retrieved from
http://poisson.me.dal.ca/~dp_13_08/document/Design%20Review%20Package.pdf

 Aalok. A., Tripathi. A.K., Soni. P., (2008). Vermicomposting: A Better Option for
Organic Solid Waste Management J. Hum. Ecol, 24(1), pp. 59-64.

 Gajalakshmi. S & Abbasi S. A. Earthworms and Vermicomposting, Indian Journal of

Biotechnology, 3(2004), pp. 486-494.

 Sujit Adhikary (2012). Vermicompost, the story of organic gold: A review. 3(7), 905-
917. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/as.2012.37110.

 Redmond OR (2014). HDG FT Worm Composting Bin (motion picture). United States of
America. An HDG Production.

 Vermi Co. (2001) Vermicomposting technology for waste management and agriculture:
An executive summary. Vermi Co., Grants Pass. Http://www.vermico.com/summary.htm

 Katheem Kiyasudeen S, R. S. Jessy and M. H. Ibrahim, (July 2014). Earthworm's gut as

reactor in vermicomposting process: A mini review, International Journal of Scientific
and Research Publications, 4 (7). Retrieved from www.ijsrp.org.

 D. C. Jadia and M. H. Fulekar, (2008). Vermicomposting of vegetable waste: A bio-

physicochemical process based on hydro- operating bioreactor, African Journal of
Biotechnology, 7 (20), pp. 3723-3730.

 Sharma S, Pradhan K, Satya S & Vasudevan P, (2005). Potentiality of earthworms for

waste management and other uses: A review, Journal of American Sciences, 1 (1), pp. 4-
16.

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  Bouche MB, (1977). Strategies lombriciennes. In: Soil organism as component of
Ecosystem. Lohn, U. and Person, T. (eds.). Biological Bulletin (Stockholm). 2, pp. 122-
132.

 Lee KE, 1985. Earthworms: Their Ecology and Relationships with Soil and Land Use.
Academic Press, Sydney.

 Vinod Kumar Garg, Renuka Gupta & Anoop Yadav, (n.d). Potential of vermicomposting
Technology in Solid Waste Management.

 The history of vermicomposting garden guides. (n.d). retrieved from

http://www.gardenguides.com/121248-history-vermicomposting.html#ixzz3Y6sQRrAa.

 Gunadi B, Blount C & Edwards CA, (2002). The growth and fecundity of Eisenia fetida
(Savigny) in cattle solids pre-composted for different periods. Pedobiologia, 46, pp. 15-
23.

 Beetz A, (1999) Worms for Composting (Vermicomposting). ATTRA-National

Sustainable Agriculture Information Service, Livestock Technical Note.

F21/1104/2010 Page 52
9.0 APPENDICES

Appendix A

The pie charts show that high amount of food waste are produced compared to other solid waste
produced in Kenya.

State of landfills

F21/1104/2010 Page 53
Appendix B

Open dumping site conditions (behind Wakulima hostel)

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Appendix C

More characteristics of worms

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Appendix D

Properties of different bedding materials.

Appendix E

Weighing a worm in the laboratory.

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Appendix F

Machines used in the workshop

Working in the workshop

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The different stages of development of the model vermireactor

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Final structure of the model vermireactor

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Appendix G

Food waste that was input into the vermireactor.

The output after earthworm activity in the vermireactor.

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