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    John P. Bentley - BAD

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    Aman Baze

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 148
    Ewe -a7/4 ‘ | Le ©) Seated edtion © Longman Oe poe Lined i { i Addon Wesley Longmiat Linitee Edloourgh Gute Hatlow. Bases CMD0075 : © United in id assokited Companies throughout he world ees) Limited 1983,1995° All hs reseed no prt is publication maybe. ‘eprodiced, tredin areieval sein or hie a ja tay frm of by any meat eaewonis chen oxaopsing recta or tec Wht ater epee Welter pemicionof te Fabien creams eta Fesrited copying athe United Kingdom feed one Copyright Licensing Agency Lil, 90 Tottentam, Court Read, Londen, WIP SHE Fiast published 1983, Second edition 1988 Thind edition 1995, Reprined 1995, 1996 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data ‘catalogue entry fo this book is avallale fom the Erish Lay ISBN o-582-23779.3, Library of Congress Cataleging-in-Publication Data Bentley. Jotn P, 1943- Principles of measurement systems /Johun P. Bestey, ~ 3d ed Dom Includes biographical references and index 1. Physical instruments. 2. Physical measurements, 2 Engineering instruments, 4. Automatic con. 1.Title Qcsspa 1993 530.8420 94-29098, cp Set by 4in 10/12 pt Compugeaphie Times Prodaced by Longnaa Singapore Publishers (Pe) Lu. Printed in Sigapore To Pauline, Sarah and Victoria ! Contents Preface to the third edition “Acbiowledgements Part A General principles ‘The general measurement system, ‘Messuremest system — purpose, structure and elemenss ‘Stotle charecteratlea of messurement eystem elements 24 22 23 24 ‘Systematic charscterstior ‘Generalised model of system element Staistial characteristics deatiicaton of stati charscarnion calibration ‘The accuracy of measurement systems In the steady stste Bu 32 33 ‘Measuremeat ercor of a system of ideal elements “The ertor probability deny function of «system of non-ileal elements Error reducsion techniques Dynamic cheracterltics of measurement systeme 4a 42 43 4a ‘Tronsfer function Gis) for typical system elements [deatification of the dynes of an element: step and frequency respome [Dynami errors in measurement systems: definition and calculations ‘Techniques for dynamic eompensation LLotding ettects and two;port networks a 52 Electrical leading? Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits ‘Two-port networks 2 13 18 29 » 30 33 a 3 50 3 61 or or j 6-4, troduction: deterministic ad random ction: deterministic ae random sige 6-2 ted eccelerometer respectively. ‘Te sin une has an wstsines secistance of 1000 aad gauge factor (Section 8.) of 2.9. Non fe showa in Fig. 2.10), (b), and (c) which lie characteristics of a strain gvige, thermocouple Fig. 2.9 Goma model et asa 2:10 Example of ‘ifbeo orbics {by Copper conan STATIC CHARACTESTICS OF MEASUREMENT BYSTEN ELEMENTS, Fe yornmet [cere { mie » Dae © i eae af 4, ies [enw ee] g i oe | LPBRRos i 2.195 x 10-8 ( J 4 ® ea os alee fo a Uitte eee 43 "Cand a reforescejunetion at 73°C, Th < Sitre 7s is snl compared ts eee et, TH Model applies the eation Wemewar cos era "» Pau 20™ fh pls de 20955 othat E(T;) canbe epproxinatel by 38.74, the agest einen 7a £30 [2.7] The dynamics are represexidy afore, raasee fe poses? Sq ass 0 0 3g se) : ‘ ‘where: = mean or expected value (specifies cextre of distribution) ‘@ = standard deviation (jpecifies spread of distribution). 2.3.1. Statistica i 1 Variations In the output of a single element with time aun (29 eens he eect vl nes oh need : ‘arable ha. Ths {0 is a small deviation in O from meas vate , cx Suppose eet ota ee Ty devin Al Al fom respective mean aes. es ; single clenerteg.a pres nnwacer, i held cost, 0 = (22)ar+ (22 Jan + (22)an pas) a Bag) ot Rapa Src tee expected value of 10 vob snot chain oa ney oa ion; a range af values such a8 099, 1.01 ‘Valeo obtained. Tas ae 02, 098, ee, seatered ‘about the expected i Ths AO is & linear combination of the vasables. Al, Alay Alf the paral Repeal is the abit ofanelemepisgie ie epetablty in he eles. erates can be clued using extn (29), cn be shows! ai & : some ip fr the sme input dependent variate yl near combination of independent variables 3,25 eae lied to it. Lack of repeambiliy is due to random effects in the =avirorment. An example is the vortex flovmeter (Section 12. 24: et cone = for a fixed flow rate x 10a gt Bigeecaes and if sj, 5 have Gaussian distributions with standard deviations 61, 03:03 ‘Fequency output f= 209 Hz. Because Bie ees th PU sign is ot erect ie waves eopecively, then the prebablitydisributin of jie lio Gausstn with standard and 211 He, the measured frequency varies between 207 deviation 9 given 7 a7) Miai uy, Kye notzem, thea there wi é From 2-15} and [2.17] ve see thatthe standard deviation of AO, i.e. of 0 about ‘here willbe coresponding tin vaiadens Or thes mean 6, is given by + ado} + aici) te restace of ste pong tine sican groge ot the autpet vole ‘Auctuations in the supply voltage of a age of an amplifier, random ‘Standard deviation of a = z “e ly vole ofa delecion bridge ante rt Sanur fr o single ae JIG Jers (22) oi, + (22) 4] eta ‘making reasonable assumptions fr th element he h Fs Iu ty (8 measurement systems esas Ses functions ofthe npus Site Meena! em mao rian inte npn wher aoe i vii etn Ts be hd oy noun, ake} if aration west Gc lowing density function of he elemeat, Previous elment) the probabil sing (2.18 ened oNtPotO can be i. “section) is being performed én the clement thea 0p can be estimated directly from ‘yet ar ceo ea sian probability sty function nena st O= Ki +a +NO + Kul > hr Bag) and the corresponding probability density function is EO MCreecMEW) SY EY EMS Eigen 1] Pe ala 2.32 Statistical vai tolerance } 220) = latfons amongst a batch of similar elements — 2.3.9 | whete Rp = mean value of distribu piece Spal 01: However a mantener ga ee, ny a ealaa The uscr has Iwo choices: ae fee ans eee rca ut te manure vale 000 ap nay india te wa na ee veasuremest error. This is the usual practice. i XM: pertem scale manee at Sey a publ actin detach, Tetony ere cece ea or ‘Ro bit is time-consuming and expentive. There i ala 4 real rence, Standard deviation of ‘ouput fora borch of flamers Fie 2.2 oleae “Table 2.1 Mode fe ‘a plaiqun reistacee Miia ennoneter fora stinty in the value of Ry dus 10 the limited securacy of the ealibration ‘equipment. | ‘Thie effect is found in any Fatchof *ifentical elements: significant variations are found in batches of theeracouplesand hermisters, for example. la the general case ‘we ean sty that the valuss of parameters, such as linear gain A and zero bias fora batch of elements ae:strbued statistically bout mean values K. @ ‘Summary ‘Inte general case ofa atch of several “Hentcal elements, where each clement i subject to random varatios in environmental conditions with time, bah inputs Te Jy hand parameters Ka, et. are subject to statistical variations. If we assume that each statistical variaion can be represented by a Gaussian probebility density furctoa, then the probability density function ofthe element output Oisalso Gaussian Lat af 0") a 10) =e ag el were he meat vale Oise by: OsK+tNG +0 + Kulul + Kip (2.23) ta the etandand deviatin opis riven by: wo [yas (yas (2) ae paw ‘Tables 2.1 and 2.2 sucumarse the atic characteristics of @platinam resistance Novel Ra Rd at VAP) fear a Rana rns cts (2) = uate RTT ‘pata men va Fatle2.2) Mae or Weal PETS Typ iraoce 0 cures! pan = eon 4 2054 Ow Isom, Br Peale S88 lesa iooS ne 34 by = lala 5 10% 1 a = 10” is sibeio, (® hati Sei eihah eKatae 2-4 Identification of static charactoris tics — calibratio, 24.1 Standards aoe » andthe meastrement ofthe vaiabler, , 219. Calbation of cent 2.4.2 STATIC CHANACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM ELEMENTS peeve { titwaey | eg: stants pra i san aes Aoorensing abel eg Pressure ansdset {the true value ofthe variate, I is quantified in terms of measurement ero" |. the difference between the measured value and the tre value (Ch. 3). Thus the accuracy of sIsboraory standard pressure gauge isthe closeness of the reading to the truc value of pressure. Tis brings ss back tothe problem, meatione ia tie ‘previous chapter, of how to establish the true value ofa variable, We define the tue value of @ variable as th measured value obtained witha standard of ultimate accuracy, Thus the accuracy of the above presoue gauge io quaatified bythe Uiffereace between the gauge reading, fora given pressure, and the reading given by the aliate pressure tancird, However, the manifacturer ofthe pressere puge ‘muy’ nec have acessto the wltnale standard to measure the accuracy of his prodacts, He caa, however, messure the accaracy of his gauges relate 10 4 porable intsmiedite or transfer standard, e.g. a dead weight pressure texer. The acewracy of the wansfer sandard mustbe found by callbraticn agains the ultimate pressure standard, This introduces the concept ofa traceability Indéer, whicl is shown in simplified form in Fig. 2.14, ‘The element is calbroted sing the laboratory standerd, which should itself be calibrated vsing the transfer aandard, and tis in turn should be calibrated using ‘theultimate standard. Each elenen inte ladder should be sigifcantly more accurate ‘than the one below it SI Units Having inuoduced tie concer of standards and traceability we can now discuss Kio Kal a Can TR A Or ee fe poe cal eet thi Ont Oni Eee} neg Snes een peer jffs Pemenest yun I somo thea E = p11 . jingle eee ato hs Ae Bi ~ 0-4, giving: i 7 , : a ‘ Tied pues RGR “Abr I = 21> i $d) 64.4 Bade + ily Th 22:0 +03) + Bas 4h 6a appa peel Scie The teria ae Ion 282 RIS Rly Sm Eads Hl eo me the sbave condition, The indicator ly ‘i ome ef cyan cng cet ees | as bel Wt one it 25°C. Th b SO RAS Kt + a thuleh > Fk Mane of et er bao-T pn Samir vation of one pi. 4-0 (pss sl 3.2. The error prob: : Ideal slerten ey density function of a system of non- = eee Ba ctvironmental effects. The standard seroma ‘standard deviation 0 cal varlaions in inpus J, Jy. with then, esing the result outlined in Section 2.3, the probability deasity function of the ‘system output O and system error Bis also Gaussian (eqn [3.10}). Equations [3.8] (Gased on 2.231) show how to calculite the sundard deviation of the ouput of each ‘cement in tura, strting with 09, forthe Ist, and finishing with ¢p, for the nth, ‘We note that the standard deviation f he system input is zero end tht the standard tion of the error is eq 1 that of the system outpat ean 9) “An cxanple ofthe calculation of E and cy fora temperatare measurement system {summarised in Teble3.2. The system (Fig. 3.3) consists of «platinum resistance thermmmeter, a resstance-o-current convener sal a recorder. a betivees themean value of ceerenen ncaa Fo eben ee Sis pay sensation a Cy 30 at ee LT ee re 34 Ea for mi emp of elements 7 EiSitea by era bands Table 3:3 SSunmary of Suaneb ee ae ieee 4 yer mA Ty = 116.9870 T= “doaste SRediaicnt Br OST teat eaek = dno g aoe ant tS eh = 94 bone ae) oe ( armed nen kee pili i ‘say, then the mean ouput value O, will ave the ideal value Oy = KJi + a; for tach element in the system. In the special cae a, = 0 for all, = Ki and the rnean value E ofthe system error will be zero, provided that KyK-° Kir Ky = 1 (table 3.4). Theerror probability éensity function p(E) is theresult of combining i tecungelacdistibutions; each of width 2h, f= 12,....n- Im > 3, then the fesullantcistrbutin p(E) approximates a Gaussian distributions! the larger the ‘alueof m the closer the distribotios is » Gaussian. The standard deviation ¢e of Tvl mean values = = 1813, a = 9250 {ioo 0 Tua sac devnons S10 tld a yay 7a ities (Bim CE a ey ee a ae coe bs ceed ting Gel le for cobs several Caan Wears ets give in Secon 2:3 (cs (2.16) and LIT). Table 3.4 ese Sean thn Ba gin somes ole hate dancard eviion 9 ie a- (Ja (ay deena anette dotibeton of wih 2h in 3. There twchriques for combining =a ee) ee ‘he esnel arn vebe oe eine nce = Sis tow comping sven ‘The models for the tetmomet ae given in Tables 2.1, 2? and tempera is 1174 sisenoe ie 144.93 0, Tible3.2Ty = 116.98°C, f, esstance-tcurrent 3.3. Error reduction techniques Ia thetwo previous sections we saw thatthe error of a measurementsystem depends n the now ideal charaterisies of every element ia the system, Using the calbraton {echiiques of Section 2.4, we ean Hentfy which elemons inthe cystem fave the ‘most domiast non-ideal tehaviour, We can then devise compensation strategies for these elements which should produce significant reductons in the overall systm fr. This section outines compensation method: for nonlinear aed environmental ‘flees ‘Ore ofthe most common methods of correcting a nolinear element isto iatrxace 4 compensating non-linear element into the system. This method ie tustated in 33 32 TO component: somtlinear element 4 Oo ow) a ieee 7 Smee ieee rs vote or daprey es |e S Ta F a ay BT wee Sia ig. 34, Gea noninar lament, described by UD, we neem compenan clement C(U), ich thatthe overall 'S & lose the ideal seaipht ine as posible Srey te ot4 dllecton bridge to compensate fore oe . 3, NTMHOr A dled precede ar eae cba in Section Seas Sightly by changes in ambient teasers A more mcessfal method of coping wih environ zvironmental inputs. Suppose tat salen then a second element, subject to the sane a ‘mrodiced into the system 59 thatthe two eft CLC} of the elements ‘The method is ilusrated incar characteristics alfected by an envionment vironmental input, is deliberately & ®) Ung eps Cire ees {0 Gang edie Sram Fig. 26 Closet lop force wanstocer ‘Senet ‘eae stances so that x the two resistances —e. The brie effectively subtracts ‘compressive srain ~e. lefts excel ost ffi dosed and he environ a esac ogi pls epee feck as lope ch eee 3 technique for 8 for modifying inpats and ron-tnearty, Figure 3.6 illustrates the technique Direct equation 36 force anstucer. The vl The Veltge oa a po xvas emetbjo o — cree (aNeh tah apie Team rps ee fe Loe care magne’) which provides «balancing force in tng he SE te mole i for he manen ve ave Sher fabs : ate DS Vom eden <1? ei env et a Bin Reps) if dt enpune eas ie ge nwt ig $ KKKp > 1 s ist then Your = | i Pt Fa = ff Then eye ey SES alte tee denen at waa us kro Th cn prog eer et tnd Kho moiig input andor once cc ee «a Your. This eat be conten ty K+ Ll giving by repeating the above analysis with K replaced is sisted, ‘tine Rand Ky TK + Kuhdkake® ee Which again reduces to Voy = Fm ‘course, have to ensure that the gain K’, : required power, the feedback clement ca Inverse equation “This isthe direct equalon; here 0 i the dependent variable whic i expressed in terms of de independent variable yy dn i Sestion 2.4.2 we anv bow the let equation soul be derive fro sf dats obtained in acliratoneapeiien, nection 3.2 eqn 2.9) was used to derive he error probubiliy density function for a complete measurement sys: ‘The slondy-sate chancteritic of aa element can also be represented by a1 ternative equition, Ths is the inverse equation; here the signal inpt 8 the sependent variable und fe apa O aad exvircnmental ins ue dependent ‘arial, The general form of is equaon ist T= 0+ NO) +a" + Ku + Ki Bam wherethe values of K”:1V’() 2". et. are quit different from those for the direst ‘equation, For example the direct and iverse equations fora copper/constanan (ype T thermocouple, Wit reference junction at 0°C are DIRECT Em 4845 10-7 74 4682 x10" 7% — 3.789 x 10°* TE +1652 x 10-1 7 mV INVERSE T= 15,35 E— 03913 B + 2.068 x 107 =A005 10-4 EC 8) where Elethethermocruple c.f and The measured junction temperature between ‘and 400°C. Both equations were derived using a last squares polynomial fit.0 BS 4937 dita Jor We alect equation isthe dependent vara and Tube snepepdent srriable; forthe inverse equation Tis the dependeat variable and E the independent “Variable, While the direct equation is more useful for error estimation, the inverse ‘equation Is more useful for error reduction, "The use of the inverse equation in computer estimation of measured values best implemented in a number of stages; with reference t Fig. 37(a), these ere: 1. ‘Treat the uncompensated system a a single element. Using the calibration procedure of Secon 2.4.2 (or any other method of generating da) the parameters K’, a’, ete, inthe inverse model equation T= U4 NU) +0" + Kull + Kit B19) representing the overall behaviour ofthe uncompensated system can be found, "This procedure will emble major environmental inputs fy, 1, to be identified (here may be more than ene of each (Spe). 2. The uncompensated system should be connected to the estimator. This consists firstly of ccmpiter which stores the model parameters K’, a”, N’(), ec. Tr erots due 10 environmental inpus ae considered signficanl, then environmental sersorsto provide the computer with estates i, fof these fnputs are also necessary. The output U of the uncompersatel system is aso fed (0 the computer, 3. The computer then calslates an rita estimate I’ of singh inverse equation: Y= RU ANU) + a! + Kili + Kai B20) ov Figs 37 Conmputer ‘eiadon of msued Yale sig averse Messen of | onal a aa Bi » equired, then it may be possible to further improve the xiotor by ara the ample ayer Was of se cae fp ig¢ Of known standard inpuis 7 end the correspondi : sysiem error E = O — Icaleslated, The Moc malay oe At attempt shculd sow be mad 0W be made to Gt the daa set by a lat eqs sali ne of he fom Or 8) f= where b 62) pone apa ii esa sna 2 ta. Ht correlation coefficient: - aa ee ah eo bae Tl peed, Rate jean between Eand O dita should now be evaluated, Ifthe magnitude of ris greater than O.S, ten there is reasonable correlation between the and O dati; this ‘meat the systematic eror of eq [9.7] if present and wo ean proceed to stage Bo correct forit Ifthe magrinede of rs less than 05, thn thee sno coretin ‘between the E and O data; this means that the errors Eare purely random and fo correction can be made. 8, _Ifapproprate, eqn [3.21] can beused to calculate an improved measared value: 0 =0-E=0- (0 +5) Bay The dlsplacemest measurement stem of Fig. 3.7)) shows this method, The lucompensated system consists of an inductive displacement sense, an oscillator (Gection 9.5) end a Schmit trigger (Section 10.1.4): The sensor bas a noe incar ‘elation between inductance Lan displacement x, the oscilitor a nolinzar relation between frequency fand inductance L, This means thatthe averse model equation, relating dlplacement x1nd frequency fo! the Schmit igges output signal, has the non-linear form shove. The estimator consists of a 16-it pulse counter and a ‘computer. The computer reads the sate of the counter at te beginaing and end of {fixed tine interval aad thos measures the frequency fof the pulse signal. The ‘computer then calclats x from the inverse model equation using model coefiients sored in memory. Conclusion “This chopter has shova how to find the error of a complete measurement system under steady state conitions. Measurement error was first defined and then tie ‘error probability density function was derived fretly fors geaeral system of ron ideal cements and ten forthe typical example ofa temperature measurement systerh, ‘The last section discussed 2 range of methods for error reduction, Ret ces 3.1 raraDne CG aad VET ILP 196 usa Mets for Technolog, pp. 1657. English Univers Press, Laon 232 SakOEANT 24 196) "Predicting aocucy ia gas mas low comparing wstens", Contre, Tan. 1869, Problems. ‘A messurement system consis of a ehromel-sdume thermocouple (wih cold junction ‘ienpenstin), mulivolrto-curteconeri a fecorde. Table Prob. gives ie model ‘runt, and parameters for each element. Assuming that ll robbs dstbutons re fal, eau the mean and andar deviation af the ener probably cistron, wen the inp temperature ie 117°C. 39 ‘able Prob (= he ux enh Tne Ran vane RCE a Hey et 0 he isa Bs wiae BE Sear? . = 10 mVav=t os rave" SS ato a2 herent ETc ere yen cont of pane ser, delice rig, wpe pine ie he lea etesend are sara te eT 9.8. Figure Prob. 3 shows a Mock diagram ofa force = 10 vo, P= 50n (He = Us ol, F = 30H (© Commnt ea the prastcn sige rasta igifiince of the vaio of he supply volage ¥, Fes = im =o — a oo ‘= = t (ries we rig Probst ‘TanlePob. S| ‘THE ACCURACY OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS IN THE STEADY STATE can eer 1 Vas |_Naet Te a Moor ‘3.4 Figure Prob 4 en black dagran ofa vatineter The motor produces wtorgee T propel tovolige V apd he outpat angular dispcerent of @ i proportional to T. The silliessK, ff the sprig eat vary By + 10% about he nominal vale of x 10~rad N“'n-*. Given hat dhe flowing we avalabl: (Ade voltage amplifier of pin 1000: ‘yollage subcactin ut; (i) twable igus diplacemen:rasucee of semvity 100 Vad (@ diaw alk diagram of « moified nyse ung these compootas, which edo the effect of changes in Ky ( caoulte tte elect of 10 per cet incense In Kon te sensitivity of be eaaied 3.5. Atempersire measurement ytemconssts of thermocouple, ampli, bit malgge-b- ‘ign convesict anda nroctnpuct ih dnp fates Tabla Pry § give the model guna td pares foreach clemerin tbe sytem. The emperaize ofthe Bermncoule ‘Beasuemeat junction i T, (Cand tb temperature of the reference juncton i T,"C. The -Bleroompute soricte ft 7, hating + nonzero mein vale. ()Basimate the mevn and standard devatin of he ero probaly densty funtica when tte Inpot temperature Ty fe 100°C. Trextreangular distrbution as Gaussian with ¢ = ANS (Explain rey whatmodifcatons shouldbe meta ths sytemn 9 odbc the quaties ‘clelited in). “Termncole ‘elie: Tala Mcrae etatccmenee th diy Mee ENT) VeREerthy emery To Kat, touti-7) ean Aamex10-2 | Ra2ss Beto tis eek? Soe Bra Saisie! ‘8.6 A full yecity measurement ystenconsissof aptotue, differential pressure ans, {oi aslopue to digitl conberterands microcompulee wih diy ficities. Tale Pob. (ve themovel eqistios ant pareters focal elenent a tesystem. The micrommpet (slouates the mensared value of ylocty ssuneng vcotstan density at ‘Ambgucw__ Miceconpace rasa rniner Giga neve: wah dg Modi eaoat PaO mare, SRT K-08, fain é ees fas eee meee a “tala of) remap ua oe cae ALA aR NOIRE oa ¢ © ©) Eat end sada ceva fe crept dey coe nog f ‘he trae valet Velocity Os 14,0 me~1. Use the procadure of Table 3.1, real, ©) =the Fectangular distributions ai Guussiin with @ = ANS, ae (>) Explain briefly what modifi 3 slike eas could be madeto th sysem to reduce the quanties 42 j } np 0 at aaa y, Fle. 1 Temperare ensor in dd 4 Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Systems 1 the input signal to an clemeat ic changed suddenly, from one vilue to another, then the ouputsigeal O will ot instrtaneosly change © itsnew value. For example, ifthe iemperatire input to athermocaupe is sodden changed from 25"C wo 100° ome time will elapse before the en. outpat competes the change from I mV tod mV, The ways in whichan cement responds w sudden input changes are termed, its dynam charscteristics, ard these ere wost conveniatly summarised asing & transfer function G(e). The Fit section of his chapter examines the eynamics of tppical elements and derives the corresponding transfer function. The next section camines how stasdard test signals can be uied to identify Ge) for an element. 1 the input signal toa multielement menairerent system is changing reply. then the waveform of the system output signal is in general different from that OF the {put signal Section 3 explains how this dymamle error can be found and the final section oulines dynamic compencaton methods hat can be used to minimise errors. ‘Transfer function G(s) for typical system elements First-order eloments ‘A good example ofa irstorder element is proviled by a temperature sensor with fan electrical omtput signal, 4 thermocouple or thermistor. The bare element (not rclosed ina sheath) is placed inside a Oud (Fig, 4.1), tnvally at ime ¢ = 0— {Gust before ¢ = 0), the sensor temperature is equal io the lui temperature i.e. 7) = Ty{0—). If the id tonperstire ie waddeny raised at ¢ = 0, the sensor is 90 longer ina stendy state and its dynamic behaviou is described by the heat balance ‘equation: rate of change of rate of heat inflow — rate of heat outfloy = FaNE Of Manas Of rea) ‘Assuming thst Te 7, then th rate of heat dulow will be ser0, and the rate of heat inflow W will be proportcnal ta the temperate dffereece (Tp ~ 7). From Chapter 14 we have W = UAT, ~ 1) watts 142) 43 ING. 3F Me amnesty Systane “rae Pr ee & rer immune diptil oméner wa ainty i 4 i Pape . xn Dynamic Characteristics of ieee Measurement Systems ee ‘ioe posse Tica oe Ss Retna dntetba us Gen nthe hs % Balin yw oo could be madet th sem W rdce the quates the input signal /o an elemest i changed suddenly, from ote value to another, then the oupatsignal O wil not instantaneously change tits new value. For example, ‘ifthe emperatire input oa thermocouple ie euddecy changed fom 25°Cto 100°C. some time will elapse before the e.n-f, output completes the change from 1 mV to4 mV, The ways in whichan element responds wo sudden mpuichangesare termed lie dynamic characterctes, al thece are most conveniently summaried wsing & transfer function G(s). The first section of this chapter examines the dynamics of typical elements and derives the cortesponding trnsfer functie. The next section ramines how standard test signals can be used to identify G) for an element. If the input signal oa maltielement measurement system is changing rapidly, then the waveform of the system ouput signal is im general diferent fom that OF te {pat signal, Section 3 explains how this dynamic error can be found aad the fizal sction oulines dysamie compeasation methods that can be used to minimise errors. 4.1. Transfer function G(s) for typical system elements 441.1. Firstorder elements ‘A good examsle ofa first-order clement is proved ty a temperature sensor with anclecrial ostput signal, eg. a thermocoupl or thermistor. The bre element (tot faclosed in a sheath) is placed inside a idl (Fig. 4.1). Inilly at time # — 0 Onmet (Gast before ¢ = 0), the sensor temperature is equal to the fui emperturei.. T(0—) oe = TO). I the Mid temperature is siddeny raised at ¢ = 0, te sensor Is 00 longer in» ste statcandils dynamic behavioue is desexibed by the heat balance ‘equation: rate of charge of i sensor heat content (1) Gy ‘Assuming that Tp > 7, then the tate of heat Butflow wil be sero, and the rate of WJ ff vex ‘etow W wil be froporicnal the tempore dilererce (Tp ~ 7) From Guuper i we have 4 Tener Ehorln f W = UAT, ~ 1) was (321 YY cose ot weet teflon — rain ot head Baty = Phitsseuce OF lcastinewenr sysveus Defintion of Laplace transform were UW mC lt he eral et traser coef between uid and Saree tye etocive teat rmnser aa, The incase of heatceeene a CEE MCT = 703) sesen-where Akg te a : $ontor mash tad 2 ie specie Heat ofthe sensor material. Thos, asnnng Af sod Cate consti re 3 Hehe as i case eat ont | Thil «linear eifterentat equation jn which ea and AT are multiplied by AQIRN svelte eqution is Mat order tose dads ie he Mees vp Hetittve presen, The quiticy MCICA hus ths dineasoneor oo (pases ert) Wm? xl xm and is referred to as te time constant A sar ay 41 tf the system. The diferent equation ‘where 5 is a complex variable ofthe form 6 = ju where j = Vi. Table 4.1 gives Laplace transforms for some ‘otder to find the transfer function for the sengor. ‘of eqn [4.5]. Using Table 4.1 we haves msATO) ~ ATO-)1 + ATG) = ato 14) where AT(O—) isthe temperature deviation af initial conditions crior to #= o.Ry DYWAWC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT BYBTEMS Tals Laneandorm mmo nts ni [eran Fesaie Stet Sate ses aa v= 10-1 inpeinive Sy stance we a0 -)= I [4 tint=0 atimpaie 40 Ore ‘ 1 : iidioe Beueead ties NN OS ete ; iN a ‘Exponential "tp ai) 0. a ate fr pees eee [yesieian ea omth a fs ‘Sine wave toot z So" scivess Suet aete NS Epa vida Coe St yet a cpio = say , ‘ ésfinkion, ATO 0, siving wAT\s) + ATIs) = ATH) Tes) = aT a (s+ DATE = ats) 43) OYWAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS A809 Pe SOR ame. Tees. estate cot 0) oF ches etd ye roof he tale 1 rg43. Bema model Sean, fe ctpt tote Laplace transform of tina, oven ne es 1 Rf ajoumic ealalaons S rite wei ts = a aor ow ~ Defntion of element ‘raster faction = ‘the output signal is simply ‘Ad th tmnifer function of the transfer function technique lends itself t td Bock diagram eprsenation seca sho Se Tenover r eect ¢ Free STE 9% te enter atone eet is zs aft st Rage tat w ae . “Trassfer foto for @ | — —~ frst order element a - (4.10) 5 200) _ 20. a7 is. ‘ATHS) AT ATC) oa EONS gt ATe@) 1+ 10 yee nal eof an clement vith statis chances hen by eqn 2.9) and cea cnmatrisis defined by Glo), the effect of mal apd ore sent Sanlastesins Pe 43. in whicn seaastate snivty G00), 18.12) oe DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUNEWENT SYSTEMS a te inf } ie } E ving or effort i mbt Md oie 16.16) howe Ed z js is peconi-order linear differeatial equation in which Axandits derivatives fare multiple by coastat cefficiets ad the highest derivative present is Auld, Troe dee damped a een oy = | Ene and, i a7] them m/k = 1743, 20k = ey and [416] can be expressed inthe standard form: Linear second-order rrential equation peas differential equat aa dae 1Gpainee S80 pare 1 Bap Fare aP : (4.18) In order to find the wransfer function fort lenient we require tle Laplace transform fof ege (4,18). Using Table 4.1 we have: sc) a=) ~ ay) + ny aco) + a9 Deising AF end Arto be the deviation ia Fandxttom inital t afer) 14.19) cyst cont APSF 10>, ae 5 — 50-) fs Since AKO—) = 40-) = O and Ax(0—) = 0 by definition [4.19 reduces w d Ate 4.51 “he diteeatl equation row becomes: [he + s+ t]an = taro 1420) At + M+ biO-) + hae = FeO) « ar aT oe ‘ i hich using 14.1), reduces ta Eee mat A dara 82 Low where 19 = Seady-stite sensitivity X, and pocus m ee ica i eam [Figure 4.5 shows an analogous electrical element, a series L~C-R circu Dame, ‘Comparing [4.14] ad [4.22] we se tha’ is snalogous tos, Vis analogous to and L, Rand 3C are analogous to m, \and k respectively bee Table 5.3) The 49 Fial4s Secs C-c-8 ‘rout } : Yams Len i Seay i bs ee : wea (4.22) : let erat feo described by we Sree an Seem ie Be eon mer con wig ‘dynamics of an element 42> Wdentifieation of the + = 42-4" Stop reponse of trst- and second-order elements 5 ‘rem Table 4.1 we see : im Table 4.1 wc seat he Laplace tans of sep of wit height ui s fiew-oner element with i ep iat sen the Lance santos Eo = Geafa) = —1 Tt ‘Expressing (4.231 in pata faction, we have: fey — TS As Orr Cem 5 Equating eoetficents of constants gives 46 Brie d= pT = VG + 15) is subject to a clement output signal is: 1823] = 1, and equating coefficients of s gives foe gat : Tea" Using Table 4.1 in reverse, Go, 00 hve rm (424) fe. finding a time signal corresponding to tinsform | 10 = #9 ~o9( wate) = ft 3 0: Response of estorder element to uni step f= 1 = #0(=!) 50 Fe Ar cenen cane DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUIEMENT SYSTEMS tee fae toe x08 iakfipe ine san foes = ie! boos taiefae te 2098 ee ‘The form of the sesponse is shown in Fig. 4.6 ‘As an example ofthe use of equation [4.25], consider the temperatre sensor of ‘Section 4.1.1 Initlly the temperature of the sensor is equal te that ofthe Suid, re. T—) = Tp(O-) = 25°C, say-1f Tis suddenly eased to 100C, thes represents t step change AT; of height 75°C. The corresponding change in sensor temperature is given by AT'= 75(1 ~ e°"7) and the actus temperature of the sensor at ae ris given by Ty) = 25 +7501 ~ «°% 4.26) ‘Thos a time ¢ = 1, T= 25-4 (5 0663) = 723°C. By measering the time taken for Tto rise 0 72.3°C we can find the tne constant of the elemext. If the second-order element wit uansfer funtion L On Te is bjt toa unit step ingot signa, then the Laplace trasfonm ofthe element cutpet signal is: Le 271 presi {4.271 ia patil Factions we have: jo = 7 te 4 S ia) (be +Bee) + where A= ul, B= ~ 26lay, C= A. This gives: Fd) 6+ 2a) LO SFE toe or 52 esc ~SUREmcr B¥STEMS DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS aoe (+ 24) scSowa “a ote Paty sersemel ®t =1 wre be, as : #6 bolt a= Py Te Ee ARTS i ‘ a \ oa ‘épeadg on wher € i greee tan , (critical damping) then: | os oa oa Ta sd se ee Lune damping: $1 daapng, ¥> 1, 990g ‘anew seady maxiceum value Evenly as ¢becemes large Ax tenis to2mm, ie. x sees as value of I2ram, From Fig. 7 we gee that for & = 0.5, (9 tas Fo= 1.17 a the peak of the fit oscillation, Le. Ax) fas a naximum value of 2.24 mam, The first oscilation peak occurs atime f, where Eufy = 1.8 Le. fy = 3oms. The difference (f— 1) between maxim und seady-aste values OFfo() for € < 1 is trmed the maximum overshoot. Maximum oveatoot is given by aan ely -# ise tdepends only on & Por vahes of < 1, an extinat of fcan be Fund fom auc of aun vtstoot nd en ioving Ey cube tinted from meacunement af fy since Wy = #/{t,V(1 — 21 ‘So =1—e- bo) 2 [conse Ie eh amacve—iy] (4.32) foe fa ace enor aang AGM gta co ep ‘anpiy conta N 9 0Nia"" The sendynate iy ee SE como Ure = Vikim) = 10? nds! ang damping SNe tl tetitat ough ete) oa force ts suddenly increased from 10 to 12 ‘ie. there | - 6 AFOC2N. The esung stage an dagen eg a? 4.2.2 Sinusoidal response of first- and second-order elements. in a, wi rom Table 4.1 wesce dat he Laplace transform of sine wave tint anplitide and angular equency f(@) = wll! + ot), Thus asine wave Aula = steady sit fof amplitude Tis input w afirstorderelemert, then the Laplace transform of the ski % step height x unit sup response () fut sige (433) t 5 1 LO iw Ee apresing (4.351 input ration we have Ay Be (351 C+ Feu (4.35) 1 a= era S609 86.6 + 0.58 sin 86.60] metre ~ HI ~ M608 16.6 40.58 in 8640) mm. ta. 3 j= where 1 1 (murste rp Trey EE) eet ape MHP) C7) ee std) aan Lae oe S ONE Topeay ee 2 Using Table 4.1 we have: orl oy L $i = See + Tape 438) Reine 2) ‘Transicntenm Snot! rm tn Re tet perms, wa ul tania tem as decayed ozo ‘and measure the simisoidal signals Seiwa S00 = Tag Her + 0) (4.39) coat a ie heeft he unt Salis lo ine wav kequacy Suatinith smpliode INC + 20%, and anted in phase oy 9 ee we) ‘elaive. the input sive wave, These. from the wansfer function Gt) transforms. Ir we replace 1b Go) = 1161 + jn). The magni We ste that when wr = 1, Aifference @ = 45", These tesa 34 re 48 See Wfeader element = ze Tae YYHAME CXARACTERISTICS OF MEASLREMENT SYSTEMS (4 } | fet= oben : a3 (ose ot is 303930 mow) ex oyo)=-un ep On dsinlar 9) 159) ce fete inner aires a Ome eon we aj bese ayes dea 1 a woes ee Here we hve: 1 Gis) = Fig. 4.10 Frequeny esponve characters eticoutorier cane ay = ig. 4.10; both ampli : entaltave atin Sage [hata macinum valee which is great Ee (citing ee elas = SEG ad occ at the resonant frequency tn where tan = VC = 28) (@ < 1/2). Gace ai oti ine \Gthaluox aay and wy can be found. Av aliea tide) verso ml ean see a8 es he 420dB; and 1 1GU)| = 0.1, Ne aod, OS LAI = ION eh Fine = ‘Transfer function for complete measurement Dynamic error of a measurement system he. 4.12 Simple ‘Ste with dyosmics, DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS pynamio errors In measurdment systems Figure 411 shows complete meatenent st comiuing of slant Te Fa Hoa scay sate on near dynamic characterises a an Use semen ped by 4 constar sea -sae senivity Kanda tans function Gi? akne ahr s6n=ahoy 6x) atid dks) Aids) AG) scant — a 7 Fa mene ‘We besin by assuming that he steady-state senshvity Ky Ky «= Ki + Ka OF sheeneral aster is equal (0 1; ie the system has 00 sieady-stte error (Secon Sy ri syitem trator function Gi) isthe product ofthe infividual clement transfer funcion, i.e, G6) = G1): GO-GO) Tn principle we can use equation [4.41] 10 fid the system ouput sem 2° esrapeing toe te vying inp sigs (We ir ind tL aps atom Srey er, then ising (4. the Laplace transform ofthe outpt signals AO (0) a GapalG), BY expressing 406) i paral factions, and sg standard abies Gr Lapicetasfrms, we ess id th corresponding ime signal NOC) Expressing this matherzaticaly: 00) = SHG ATE sunere 2! denotes the inverse Laplace transform. The dysamiz error E() ef the aarseemnest ystems the diference between the measured signaland he nu ia Tre ne uiflereace botweon 4O(0 and AT) 8 waa) aa) E@ = 400 = alo Using [4.42] 8 haves Bw ~ & GEST) — A100 “Te simple temperature measurement system (Fg. 412) first inodiced in Son “Ti, provides 2 good example of dynamic erors, The thermacouple Ras ¢ ne eased een “rc tenpersoe anol gue [420 a: ant Tim [one Speier Tomo aan Rea 58 a0 > HURB went AVSTENS Mrenant oF 103; the amptitierw time constant of 10-4 the recorder (Ctapter 11) is tt C9 Lesa er, sina augue iS sal a gat ons Sarthe ond et 1 Tore Sida) oo Ci ae Stan ate ) #12007 4 2 cup ; = 2A oe eietaneren onoyseeret) “Using Table 4.1 and eqeaton 14.30), eS IE te 8 ne em « a9) 10 peta + 200) ) ie ier series fo Fourier teres for indicates too low a reads 4 ling. The Be! term decays periodic signal SCL + 200) term decays to ze ater 400) = |oGui(f sin (ue + 8) siving FO = M1 6GaIsin (oe + 4) — sinony teas is measeringa sinssoal *C and period T = 6.6. angular The frequency response fusction Gija) i OU atari 4s CHUA GO OSI Me VOT HOUSER ITOH ~ OO a 49) 288 Giie)ou1(=0—tan="(10) —tan: —a5° We bal foi the oye sti at te vals ef GG) and Cer nw “am decent bye 1 oe cy Sl Cl DYNAMIC CNARACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS, es prone ph her cede il lbp et ten pom pir fropenen Since Tt) = sin sandy) 20. 0 Ws = A) f : (450) BQ) = 2010.1 sin ¢ — 85%) — sin 1) t ze acca re Sel fereecen peas cia coma ran Biscuit ‘measurement system is more likely to be periodic rerseeratiet pergtaas ges toe eit eee es se sage if periodic meanirement signa is the time variation of the eres Siaviea Se Sarre ae args es os st yr. In order to calculate anor te i ae see Be 2 a het ea Rares tc Soren soe ee eens the fundamental frequency wy = 2a/Treds~', he $9) = 0 + "Fa, cos mye (22) mia sho she Be 1452) te 2 [Sp ama a Le = average value of f(t) over T swe E [dr mene ot sort npg 9 re ete a) se devin of 19 poe olde amicus =o Hie a aunt i ftom fa o: ‘i.e. there are only sine terms present ic the Fee ayy consent “the general conclusions drawn Fie erasing oe in the following section. The system input signal is thus g - u4s3, a1 = "Fhsia mae armoni at feqpency na. In order to where f, = by is the amsfitue of the nth i ery aa Mayan peaayl beter te a armen : the system From Fig. 49 the corresponding outpat sie JG Gnw,)| sin (mt + 4) mare Chit aes “Ge me raquts Wiehe prince of eperposton, whch ea task propery 58 PANGIPLES OF MEASUREMENT sYBTEuS of near systems (Le, 9 yes decried by Ba f ‘be wated as follows: e a oat i } Da TiO esas k utput 04 (0 and an tap (9 causes an utp oO et a8 inpat 1) + a4) ctases en opt 0,0) + O30, protic he ayers inar. rf | ‘This means af the Yotl Input signal is ths sim of {4.53}. then theft ocpat seals the uc of the rape Wear ate e sponses beach ste wive, 14.54 AAO SEL Gdoeiy| sin ime + by) ~ sn re} (455) SSSREMEP eppow hat ihe inp © the temperture measuremect sytem ig i Seales ave of anplinide 20°C ans period T= 63 (.e. vj = 240 = Irate, 4:13, The Fourier Series forthe input sigaal is (4.59) Figure 4.13 shows the amplinude~t frequency ant phasetrequeacy relationships for the input tenpertur; these define th spectrum ofthe signa! The spectrum, 3,5, Trads Thus 1EO1~0.100, leani=0.033, 16(5)1=0.00, |egjy1~0.014 ant ag GO) ~ — 85°, aig G13) = 90", 88 GUS) = = 92°, “axe GTi) = — sie ‘Aezin the above values are determined mainly by the 10 thermoven He highest signal frequency we = 7 iso Feeorder a, = 200. The syste ouput 137) pe dneconsant; ill well blow dhe natural frequency of the signal is ful) = S000 sn ¢ = 85> + 001 anc sn + 0.004 sin (5¢ — 92% +4 01002 ein (7 — 93%)) LEME 4.13 shows the system frequeecy response chaneterstie, (eequeney spectrum aad the output waveform: We pte ht, in de 1455) cutpet signal outpu signal, sie 2 ut (ee) ‘neue 5 MEASUFEM AT eveTEMS DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAS : ire u “Bs ‘cts a Soe nal 1t1+ een per ‘ieee Peet; 0 tie ‘cco : ‘mesaremen — Aine Pee ty Frequency ecm gt sr epee soe Fig. 413. Calaation of Aynanic eras wih periods input signal re bee ised elie we les of he 3, a 7h aos a 7 etcetera he el aombaebeiaes a Tahe input signal as well as being reduced in amplituce a ages apne ‘enone dts car be xed to eauning heya eo ir ame Random iis cant ropes by eonions fequeny spect (Chaprer 9) 4.4. Techniques for dynamic compensation csi ato (4581 we eat in rer have () © Or a peo siesl te baowingcodiens mist be ebeyed: Gl enor Fie. 4.1¢ Pecennge limi ang beh 62 ARR; STEN 16G011=/ay24, an) 1G Gy) 88 GG) =arg Gj24,)=: ! {Grn % 864 Onan) m-- <= arg Glisy mo tere mis he over ofthe (Caan) UE SNE fhe ge semen harmo, For 1 radon Onl ony we regina fequecy spect containing frequencies ba cose 2 Take OME UR eee ia practog A sient fePrecat & theoretical deal which will be di Sater one tll reron one eh nia be eon forthe frequencies freseat inthe signal, For exam meee ica 000 <1 oe 0 ‘unmepeanted| raat met ‘cecal ie irs Tae ‘Having |dentifed the dominant elements inthe system, the most obvious method cof inpreving dynamic response is hat of inherent design, tn Ue eae of «frat Sidcrtcnperature censor withr = MC/UIA, x ean be minimised ty minimising the acsare rio M/A — for example by using a thermistor in the frm of thin ke, Ih be ese ofa second-order free sensor With sy = (sm, ea be maximised ‘by muainising Wm, ie, by exing high stiffness and low mast m. Increasing fy however, reiuces the steady-state semsiiviy K = 1k From second-order step and frequency response graphs we sce that the optimom ‘value of damping rato {i around 0.7. This value ensures minimum seting time Tor the sep response and |GGi)] clsest to unity forthe frequeney response. "anotter possible method is hat of open-loop dynainke compensation (Fig. 4.18). Govan urconpenated clenentor system Gu(8) a ctmpensaing element Gs) fe intrlueed isto the systen, such thatthe overall tranifer function GO) GxdayGcls) satisfies te requires conaition for example eqn (4.61)). Thus ifs qesdfag ettuit (Fig. 9.16) is wid witha thermecouple (ig. 415), the overall time constant is reduced to 7, 50 that |GGa)| is close W uty over a wider range UBittequences. The main problem wit ths wed is that reat change with eat transfer coefficient U, thas reducing the effectiveness ofthe comeasation (Chapter 1) ‘Knother method is wo incxporst te elemeat to be compented into a closed ogy sytem with high gain negative feedback. Aa example ofthis is the constant tenpenture anemomete: system for measuring uid veloety fhetatons (Section Tay Aner exariple is te closed loop accelerometer shows in schematic and block diagram form in Fig. 4.16. ‘The applied acceleration produces an inertia force man e seismic mass m (Coupe 8). This isbalonced by the foros ofthe permanent magneton the earTent (edtack coil, Any imbalance of forces is detected by the caste force element 1 pane a dsplicement which is detected by 2 potentmerte displacement sensor Pepe 5). The putentonnster ouput votage i amplified giv acurentoutpat seth eto the feedback coi rough a standard ressor to giv the outut olag, sAnalyaisof te block diagram shows thatthe overall system rans function fs AVG) _ mh 1 ats) af rE a(t \ Kakoks af 0, Kaoky zi) 14.62) se gis wade age 9 that Kyi > 1 (Chater 3) ene stem tani aia be cree fm 63 ul ae PREM os 1ST Eas Fig. 4.16: Sctematic — ‘cceleromtter i system natal frequency system damping ratio en ef(—t Tem) ee elastic force element is mW much great mene ich can be made constat an 42 4a 44 DDYHAMIC CHARACTERIGTICS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS ‘complets measurement systens wis then ghveloped and applied to # temperature Incasreniert system subject step, sinehwaye and periodic inpst signals Pally iments nf dynaimke compensation, which reduce dynamic errr. were expe Reference AA weauay a 1957 Piper of Automate Ceol, English Universi Pres, London 99. 208-9, Problems ‘A eimpeature measurement syst const f linear elements and hss an oven! stay Sn sei of unis. The dyramio ee pte are determined by de fir oner tna function of te sensing element At ine r= 0, the sensing element i nuddenlywansirred from sien 29°Cto baling water. Ore mint iter the ements sadly ansterre back toute Ualngthe daa gvenbelow, calcula the ysem dynamic eror atte following mes {= 10,20, $0,120, and 305 Sensor dase Mass = 5510-7. Surface mea = 10°? Specie at = 023 kg™!°C- ie ranser coefien for ni = 0.2W nr?*C~! Heat unser coeficent for wate = LOW m*#°C-! ‘A force vemor has a mas of 05k, stifoess of 2.10 N mane damping ecstat (), Caculte the teatyatte sensi, ar freqency aad damping rata forthe snr. () Casula the dplacemess of te sor fora steady input force of 2 10) tei fr lel noone or 2 4.3, derive a expen for te resin hipacemect ofthe sensor. [A force measurement sytem coos of liner elmesis and has at overall ses ste Sasinwy of umiy. The dynamics of te system are determined bythe ecom-orer ara oni of the sensing element which has natal equency a,» 40 nds"! a» damping Tio ¢ = 0.1 Ciel the sysem dynamic evor corresponding th periodic apt force FU) ~ SO(sin Oe + Sia 30 + $n Sr) An uncompensated thrmecoule has «Ee constant of 105 ina fs moving Hii (a) Calcul the bandwidth of the thernocouplefrequeney respons () Find the miage of fequecis for ubich the amplitude rao othe unosmpensated Inermovouple ie Oat within 5%. () Aleadiag Sul witherueferfonsion Gis) = (1 + 109/(1 +3 wkd co compensate for themocoople dye. Cele the range of eagcncsf which Ur amplitode rato of the campeasied system i at within 5%. (a), ‘The velo of te liu roduced, causing he thermocouple ine corte to nerease 020+. By setehng [GU] explain why the effeiveress of the above compeasaton is eeduced. 65 INCIFLES OF MEASUREMENT SYSTERS 4.5. An dani fore sense hs a eff ‘icp cacy eager 0 erg tg & (@) Cabal te toto (© senso neural (i) seasoe na quanti: 4:0 A toad cel coats of ‘usta Sims), Greinae ented pe ee ee ee is (ean why he ud as ‘ist aoa wo thea al are nce cowsiig of piel crys, charge ampli and recorder or this application. Explain Ate meen 9 shown in Fig Prt mre. i ty Wa eer i Pont oe svete = [ose es Pea] 5A saa Loading effects and two-port networks tn ourdisesssion of measurement systems no consideration has yet been given 1 the effcts of loading. One iniportan effect is that of Inter-lenent loading where {giver element inthe sytem tay medi the careers of he previos elmest ‘dor example by drawing curren) Ie turn, the characteristics of this elemest may te molified by the folloving element in the sysem. Inte-clenentloading § normally erectile lauding effect whichis described ia the Gs section of thi chapter usin ‘Trévenkn and Norton equivalent circuits. The second secton begins by disessing the analogies between electrical and non-electrical variables. This means tht thechaneal and thermal ystemcan be described by equivalentcirevis and seasian “meats by tv-pet networks. Two-port networks are then used to describe process fondling; here te itrodsctcn ofthe sensing element ino the processor systent being Mmastred causes the value of the measured variable to change, Finally (Wo-port enworks are used to describe bilateral transducers which us reversible physial fects. Electrical loading “We have so far represented measurement systems as blocks comected by single fines Mire the transfer of iformation and energy i in terms of one variable only. Thus qi tomperature measurement sytem of Fig. 3.2 the information transfer between tdements isin terms of volage onls. No allowance can thereore by made for the Soplfier draving current from the termoccuple andthe indkator drawing cursent taelthe amplifier. In order to describe both Voltage and curent behaviour atthe ‘Connection oftwo elements we nee represent each element by equivalent cients SQunsctensed by io terminals, ‘Tke eennedtion is then shoyn by two lines ‘Thévenin equivatent circutt “théveni’s theorem sates that any network consisting of liar impedances and Tollage sources can be replaced by m equivalent erout consisting fx voltae see Ep, and a series impedance Zp, (Fig. 5.1), The source Ey is equal wo 8 oP PRINCIPLES OF WEASUREMENT SYSTEMS ete foe sn des nem ei mc a danpig contact of 14 Nam" £01k, spring ites 0f 10%) S (6) Cakeaite the feng quae 4 1, senor natural quanti: incorporated into 2 eh i: along compos we ao peers ne” ee bli elmer, Loading effects and two-port Peron spacenet tensor: seasivy 10Vn~! networks ape ce ree RM setny AV! Fepnet trea lagu tee oulpet,easiviy 25.NA-* Colt Reve ‘0 ee tnovralscsson of mesurmeat sss no comidration bat yt been given © se ehleeoe AUN adie, One imprint fe s ato! ner lement adi nee ee ‘a given element inthe system may modify the characteristics of the previous clement ao agra). str, Ue cancer of tr elemert ny (erty eli lementin tse. ner

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