Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Composites Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Characterization of a novel natural cellulose fabric from Manicaria

saccifera palm as possible reinforcement of composite materials
A. Porras a, A. Maranon a, *, I.A. Ashcroft b
a
Structural Integrity Research Group, Mechanical Engineering Department, Universidad de los Andes, CR 1 ESTE 19A 40, Bogota, 111711, Colombia
b
Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Identifying novel natural fibers/fabrics with proper properties as reinforcement material is a new
Received 15 October 2014 challenge in the field of bio-composites. Hence, the aim of this paper is to study the possibility of using a
Received in revised form natural fabric extracted from Manicaria saccifera palm as a novel reinforcement in composites. This fabric
12 December 2014
was extensively characterized by chemical composition analysis, infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis,
Accepted 28 December 2014
Available online 10 January 2015
morphological studies (SEM), thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and physical /mechanical properties
studies. From SEM analysis it was identified globular protrusions spread uniformly over the fiber which
could help the mechanical interlock with the resin. As well, Manicaria fabric showed good thermal
Keywords:
Manicaria saccifera fabric
stability, low density, low moisture content and good tensile properties. Further, their properties are
A. Fabrics/textiles comparable to most natural cellulose fabrics and some synthetic fabrics, such as fiber glass fabrics.
B. Mechanical properties Manciaria saccifera fabric showed to be a suitable candidate as natural reinforcement material for the
B. Thermomechanical development of bio- composite.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Over the last years, the depletion of petroleum resources, and
the increasing environmental regulations, have stimulated the
research on composite materials made of renewable, recyclable,
and biodegradable resources [1,2]. For instance, cellulose-based
fibers/fabrics are being used as reinforcement elements in bio-
composites, as they display several advantages in contrast to con-
ventional reinforcement materials: low cost, low density, accept-
able specific strength, good thermal and acoustic insulating
properties [3,4]. Still, their mechanical properties are intrinsically
dependent on factors such as the origin and maturity of the plant as
well as the processing method implemented for its extraction [5].
Therefore, a proper understanding of their overall mechanical
behavior is one of the challenges in working with such fibers/
fabrics.
Even though cellulose-based reinforced composites have been
widely studied during the last decades [6,7], researchers have
centered their attention to a few natural fibers/fabrics with the
demonstrated potential to effectively reinforce either thermo-
plastic or thermoset polymer matrices: flax [8e11]; jute [12e14];
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: emaranon@uniandes.edu.co (A. Maranon).
hemp [15,16]; sisal [17,18]; ramie [19]; kenaf [20,21]; bamboo
[22,23]; oil palm [24]; and coir fibers [25], among others. However,
as the spectrum of these fibers is narrow, the identification of new
natural fibers/fabrics has turned into an active research challenge in
the bio-composites materials community. For example, in the last
years fibers/fabrics such as: Arundo donax L. [26]; Cissus quad-
rangularis [27]; Abelmoschus esculentus [28]; Ferula communis [29];
Cynara cardunculus L. [30]; Althaea officinalis L. [31]; Sansevieria
ehrenbergii [32]; Prosopis juliflora [33]; and Polyalthia cerasoides
[34], have been suggested as interesting alternatives to reinforce
novel composites.
As the large variety of plants present in nature offers a moti-
vating opportunity to identify new fibers/fabrics, a research chal-
lenge is to find sustainable resources for the development of bio-
composites. For example, amongst the natural diversity of Latin
America, Manicaria saccifera palm is an interesting renewable
source for manufacturing green composites as different parts of it
are used by indigenous inhabitants as sources for house thatches
and sails (leaves); hats (bracts); food and drink (fruits and seed-
lings); medicines (fruits and leaves); and sago (trunk) [35e37].
Among those, pouch-like bracts of closely woven texture (termed
natural fabric), which temporally cover the entire inflorescence and
the pendant infructescence (see Fig. 1), are a promising source to
create new composites [38]. Hence, this work presents a systematic
study of this natural fabric extracted from the Manicaria saccifera's

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.12.033
1359-8368/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A. Porras et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73
Fig. 1. a) Manicaria saccifera palm [55]. b) Manicaria bract and Manicaria fabric. c) Fabric optical micrograph. d) Fabric SEM micrograph.
bracts as a possible reinforcement in composites. This study in-
cludes fabric's chemical composition analysis; Fourier Transform
Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy; morphology (SEM); Thermo-
Gravimetric Analysis (TGA); and physical/mechanical properties.
2. Experimental methodology
2.1. Material
Manicaria saccifera bracts (Fig. 1(b)), of a length between 0.8 m
and 1.2 m, were collected manually by a native community of the
Choco Region in Colombia. Bracts are made of brown fibrous ma-
terial constituted of numerous inter-crosslinked fibers as shown in
Fig. 1(c). Due to its particular weaving design, resembling a fabric, it
is not possible to extract a single fiber for testing as they are all
interlocked, displaying several points of bifurcation (Fig. 1(d)).
Therefore, this research is limited to the characterization of the
natural fabric as a whole.
2.2. Chemical composition
Chemical analysis of the Manicaria saccifera fabric was performed
according to ASTM standards procedures and TAPPI methods, even
though TAPPI procedures were proposed for wood and pulp. Spe-
cifically, ash, extractive, lignin, and cellulose content were deter-
mined. Samples were taken from five locations of the bract in order
to characterize its complete behavior along the natural fabric. The
reported property was the average values of the tested samples.
2.2.1. Ash content
The ASTM standard method E1755 was used to determine the
ash content of the fabric when it was ignited at 575 ± 25
C during
3 h. To avoid flaming, a dried sample (1.0 g e previously oven dried
at 105
C) was carefully heated to 250
C in dried porcelain cruci-
bles, and the temperature was held for 30 min before increasing it
to 575 ± 25
C. The ash percentage was calculated based on the
ratio of the weight sample after the ignition process to the original
67
dry weight. A Sartorius ED2245 analytical balance and a Thermo-
lyne muffle furnace type 6000 were used for the experiment.
2.2.2. Extractives content
To determine waxes, fats and surface resins of the fabric, the
extractives content test was carried out following the TAPPI T204
method. Before the test, the fabric sample was oven dried at 105
C
and milled then into a sufficient length to pass a screen of 0.40 mm.
The extraction process was performed by boiling 5 g of the fabric
with ethanol-benzene mixture (1:2, v/v) in a Soxhlet apparatus for
5 h. After, the solvent mixture was evaporated, and the weight of
the residual part was determined. Extractives content was calcu-
lated based on the percentage of the extract dry weight to the fabric
dry weight.
2.2.3. Lignin content
Lignin content was determined based on the TAPPI T222 pro-
cedure. An extractives free sample (2.0 g, previously dried) was
treated with 72% (w/w) sulfuric acid for 2 h. During this time the
sample was macerated and stirred with a glass rod to assure
complete solution. After that, the material was diluted with water
to give a mixture containing 3% of sulfuric acid. Once the dilution
was completed, the system was boiled for 4 h with a constant
volume to coagulate the lignin. Then, the coagulate material was
allowed to settle after cooling, and the insoluble lignin was filtered
(glass vacuum filtration assembly), washed (hot water >90
C),
oven-dried (105
C), cooled, and weighed. The lignin content was
calculated based on the percent of filtered solid weight to the initial
dry weight of test specimen.
2.2.4. Cellulose content
Cellulose content was measured following the TAPPI T203
method. A sample (1.5 g) was extracted in 17.5% sodium hydroxide
solution at 25
C. Alpha, beta, and gamma cellulose fractions were
determined by oxidation with potassium dichromate. Alpha-
cellulose was the pulp fraction resistant to 17.5% sodium hydrox-
ide solution; beta-cellulose was the soluble fraction, which was
reprecipitated on acidification of the solution; and gamma-
68 A. Porras et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73
cellulose was the remaining fraction in the solution. During the first
oxidation, the beta plus gamma cellulose, the dissolved fraction,
was measured, and alpha-cellulose was determined as an undis-
solved fraction by difference between the total pulp specimen
(100%) and the dissolved fraction. Then, in the second oxidation,
the gamma-cellulose was determined. Finally, the beta-cellulose
was found by the difference between the first and the second
oxidations.
2.3. Spectral analysis
Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was carried out
on Manicaria fabric. For this analysis, the fabric was powdered and
mixed with KBr. Then, very thin films were prepared using a
manual press machines, Maekawa model BRM-32. IR spectra of the
samples were recorded using the Nicolet 3810 FTIR spectropho-
tometer in the frequency range 4000e500 cm1. Three replicas
were tested.
2.4. Morphology
Surface morphology of Manicaria fabric was studied by scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). Specimens were observed using Joel
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), model JSM-6490LV. Prior to
the analysis, samples were coated with a thin layer of gold to
achieve good conductivity using a Dentom Vacuum Desk IV appa-
ratus. In addition, the Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
technique was used to identify elements in the sample. Ten samples
were observed in both the longitudinal (inner and outer surface)
and the transverse section.
2.5. Thermal properties
To analyze the thermal stability of Manicaria fabric the Ther-
mogravimetry (TG) technique was used. Tests were carried out
using the TA Instruments Q600 thermogravimetric analyzer and
platinum sample pans. Measurements were conducted from
ambient temperature to 600
C at a heating rate of 10
C/min in a
nitrogen atmosphere. Samples weights were approximately be-
tween 8 mg and 10 mg. To verify the reproducibility of the obtained
mass loss curves, two sample runs were performed under the same
experimental conditions. An approximate overlapping of the curves
was considered as a suitable test.
2.6. Physical properties
2.6.1. Moisture content
Moisture content was measured according to ASTM D1348
standard using method B, where the specimen was weighed
outside of the oven. Fabric samples were dried in an oven at 105
C
until a constant weight was reached. The moisture content was
calculated from the change in weight of the oven dried sample to
the net dry sample. A total of fifty samples were tested.
2.6.2. Water absorption
Water absorption was evaluated following the ASTM D570
standard using the twenty four hour immersion procedure. It
involved the determination of the amount of water absorbed under
24 h in controlled conditions room. Fifty samples were tested.
2.6.3. Areal density
The measurement of fabric mass per unit area was determined
according to the ASTM D3776 method. To increase the reliability of
the samples size, the fabric was gently cut using a rectangular die.
The area of the specimens was calculated multiplying the length by
the width, and the weights were measured to the nearest 0.1% of its
mass using an analytical balance Sartorius ED2245 model. One
hundred specimens were tested.
2.6.4. Volumetric density
The density of the fabric was measured by displacement method
with ethyl alcohol analytical grade, as immersion liquid, using the
ASTM D792 standard. A precision weighing balance, Sartorius
ED2245 model, was used to weight the samples. Weights of seventy
five specimens were measured to the nearest 0.1 mg.
2.7. Mechanical properties
Manicaria fabrics were tensile tested according to the ASTM
D5035 method using a universal mechanical testing machine, Ins-
tron model 3367, equipped with a load cell of 30 kN. Standard
conditions in the testing room were 23 ± 1
C and 60 ± 5% RH.
Fabric specimens prepared by the cut strip method
(25 mm  150 mm) were characterized in longitudinal directions,
the preferential growth direction of the fibers. Tensile tests were
performed at a gauge length of 75 mm and a crosshead speed of
10 mm/min to keep a constant time-to-break at 20 ± 3 s. Wood tabs
were used to prevent gripping damage by machine clamps. One
hundred specimens were tested to obtain average tensile proper-
ties. Taking into account that the fabric have many void regions, the
cross sectional area, used to convert load into stress, of the speci-
mens were calculated using an effective width. The concept was
proposed by relating the experimental area with the density of the
fabric in order to determine the width specimen without void areas,
assuming a homogeneous and continue solid (see Fig. 2(a)). The
effective width (We) was determined by equation Eq. (1), which
involves the mass (m), length (l), thickness (t), and density (r) of the
sample.
m
We ¼ (1)
l$t$r
2.8. Statistical analysis
Specimens for physical and mechanical measurements were
taken from five locations of the bract in order to characterize the
complete behavior along the natural fabric. As it is shown in
Fig. 2(b), the first (S1) and last sections (S5) were the tip and base of
the Manicaria bract, respectively. The properties found throughout
the study were expressed as means standard deviations. To estab-
lish if there is statistically significant difference between the mean
properties from one section to another, statistical significance was
analyzed using analysis of variance-one way (ANOVA). To this
purpose, a p-value of p < 0.01 was considered statistically signifi-
cant with a 99.0% confidence level.
Fig. 2. a) Effective wide of the specimen. b) Sections of Manicaria fabric.
 A. Porras et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73 69

3. Results and discussion Table 2

Properties of Manicaria fabric in comparison with other cellulose based natural fi-
bers [7,26].
3.1. Chemical analysis
Fiber Cellulose (%) Hemicellulose (%) Lignin (%)
The chemical composition of Manicaria fabric at selected sec- Jute 61e71 14e20 12e13
tions is presented in Table 1. It shows that all the sections exhibit Sisal 65e78 10e12 8e10
similar content of ash, extractives, lignin, and cellulose. Therefore, Flax 71e81 16.7e20.6 3
Hemp 68 15 10
Manicaria bract can be considered as homogeneous in terms of its
Coir 32e43 0.15e0.25 40e45
chemical composition properties. Chemical analysis showed that Oil palm 65 e 29
Manicaria is constituted primarily of cellulose (66.86%). The total Piassava 31.6 e 48.4
cellulose content is expressed in terms of alpha (a), beta (b) and Ferula 53.3 8.5 1.4
e
gamma (g) cellulose. Specifically, The a-cellulose (74.11 ± 0.46%) Artichoke 75.3 4.3
Althaea 44.6 13.5 2.7
indicates the high molecular weight of cellulose content in the Arundo 43.2 20.5 17.2
fabric; it is a natural polymer with high strength and stiffness per Manicariaa 74.1 12.0 31.1
weight and it is the building material of long fibrous cells. The b- a
Determined according to TAPPI T203 and T222 methods.
cellulose (13.91 ± 0.29%) indicates the degraded cellulose and the
g-cellulose (11.98 ± 0.30%) consists mainly of hemicellulose. In
general, the fabric contains a considerable amount of a-cellulose region of 1500e1600 cm1 belongs to C]C of aromatic skeletal
that makes it suitable for composite applications, since its me- vibrations in lignin. Also, the peak near 1650 cm1 may be associ-
chanical properties are determined mainly by the cellulose content ated to C]O stretching present in lignin groups, although this can
and microfibrillar angle. A high cellulose content and low micro- also be assigned to proteins too. The absorbance at 1450 cm1 is
fibril angle are desirable properties of a fiber to be used as rein- associated with the CH2 symmetric bending present in cellulose.
forcement in polymer composites [39]. Other well-defined peaks at 1375 cm1 and 1246 cm1 corre-
Additionally, the ash content of the fabric, mineral and inorganic spond to the CeO stretching vibration of the acetyl group in lignin
material, is 2.37 ± 1.36%. This value is in the range (1.0e8.3%) of ash and hemicellulose component, respectively. In the region of
content reported by other authors for natural fibers [39,40]. On the 1050e1160 cm1, the absorptions can be attributed mainly to the
other hand, high lignin content was found (31.13 ± 1.57%). As shown carbohydrates (cellulose and lignin) [43]. Furthermore, the possible
in Table 2, Manicaria lignin content is greater than other natural presence of moisture in the fabric could be reflected in the intensity
fibers (i.e. jute, sisal, flax, hemp, ferula, artichoke, althaea and of the broad band in the region of 3400 cm1 and it may also
arundo), usually containing up to 20% [7]. However, natural fibers contribute to the deformation of water molecules near 1650 cm1.
extracted from other palm trees show high lignin content as well In general, the FTIR band identified of Manicaria fabric compares
(i.e. coir, oil palm and piassava). This high value could affect the well with other reported values for new natural cellulosic fabric
fiber-matrix compatibility and this may lead to a reduction in the [44,45].
physical and mechanical properties of composites. Nevertheless,
fabric properties can be improved considerably using surface 3.3. Morphology
modification treatments. For instance, chemical treatments can
remove lignin and impurities, decreasing the hydrophilic property Microscopic examination of the longitudinal section of both the
of the fibers, and increasing wettability with hydrophobic polymer inner-outer surface and cross section view are depicted in Fig. 4.
matrices [41,42]. The longitudinal outer surface is referred to the part of the fabric
that is in contact with the environment, while the inner surface is in
3.2. Spectral analysis contact with the flowers of the palm. In the longitudinal section
outer surface view, an epidermis of lignin, waxy and fatty acid is
The FTIR spectra of Manicaria fabric is shown in Fig. 3. The main
constituents of the fabric, a cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
(determined by the chemical analysis) are identified in the spectra
as well as in the defined bands of the characteristic chemical group.
A broad absorption band at around 3400 cm1 corresponds to the
OeH stretching vibrations of alpha cellulose and hydrogen bond of
the hydroxyl groups. The peak at 2900 cm1 is the characteristic
band for alkyl CeH symmetric and asymmetric stretching vibra-
tions of a-cellulose. In addition, the band at 1735 cm1 can be
attributed to the carbonyl C]O stretching vibration mainly due to
hemicellulose group, whilst the absorbance that appears in the

Table 1
Chemical composition of Manicaria fabric at selected sections.

Component (%) S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Ash 2.19 2.12 2.75 2.83 2.60

Extractives 0.54 0.50 0.49 0.54 0.60
Lignin 30.42 32.99 29.66 31.23 31.34
Cellulosea 66.86 64.39 67.10 65.40 65.46
Alpha cellulose 73.64 74.20 74.63 74.24 73.84
Beta cellulose 14.39 13.97 13.72 13.74 13.71
Gamma cellulose 11.98 11.83 11.65 12.01 12.44
a
Calculated from the difference of total constituents. Fig. 3. FTIR spectrum of Manicaria fabric.
70 A. Porras et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73
observed in the surface of the fabric at different levels magnifica-
tions. Fig. 4(a) (30) shows that most of the fabric is covered by this
epidermis. Fig. 4(b) (500) illustrates that the epidermis has small
holes on the surface that are called stomata, through which the
plant cells can breathe [8]. At higher magnifications, Fig. 4(c)
(1000) shows that the fabric is constituted by fibers that are
covered with lignin, impurities, waxy layer and fatty acid, too.
This substance on the fabric surface contributes to an ineffective
fiber to polymer matrix bonding and poor surface wetting. There-
fore, surface modification treatments are recommended to improve
the adhesion properties with the matrix. Among chemical treat-
ments, mercerization or alkaline treatment is one of the most
common, effective, and low cost procedures applied on natural fi-
bers. This treatment removes a certain amount of lignin, wax and
impurities covering the surface of the fiber. As well, it leads to in-
creases surface roughness and the amount of cellulose exposed on
the fiber resulting in better mechanical interlocking [46]. Several
scientific works have reported that mechanical and thermal prop-
erties of the composites are enhanced significantly by this treat-
ment. For example, Yan et al. [47] and Yan and Libo [48] reported an
improvement of flax fabric/epoxy polymer interfacial adhesion by
alkali treatment.
Longitudinal section SEM images of the inner surface view at
increasing magnifications are shown in Fig. 4(dee). In Fig. 4(d)
(30) is easier to observe that Manicaria fabric is a fibrous material,
and it is constituted by cross-linked fibers. In fact, it is noticed that
one fiber can bifurcate into two new ones. As well, globular pro-
trusions are also found in great number on the fiber strand
(Fig. 4(e), 1000), and the EDS analysis identified globular pro-
trusions as silica bodies, which are spread uniformly over the fiber
(Fig. 4(f), 5000). In the outer surface the protrusions are covered
by impurities and lignin. Similar protrusions were also reported for
other fibers extracted from palm tree [49]. According to the
Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of Manicaria fabric. Longitudinal outer surface (aec). Longitudinal inner surface (def). Cross section (gei).
literature [24], the silica bodies could help the mechanical interlock
with the resins when it is used as reinforcement in polymeric
matrix composites. As well, when the silica bodies are dislodged a
perforated crater is left, which would enhance penetration of ma-
trix during composite fabrication. This results in better fiber-matrix
interfacial adhesion.
In general, the SEM study revealed that the longitudinal surface
of the fabric varies from outer to inner surface in terms of the
amount of lignin, wax, fat, resin, and impurities found. At the outer
surface, the fibers are more condensed by this material than the
inner surface. This is attributed to the fact that Manicaria fabric is
the material that encloses the flowers of the palm tree, and only the
outer surface of the fabric is permanently exposed to the environ-
ment (e.g sun, rain, dust, pollution, impurities). However, the
microstructure of fiber is the same in both inner and outer surface.
The transverse section of Manicaria fiber is shown at different
magnifications in Fig. 4(gei). The single fiber cross section has a
polygonal shape, and the traditional morphology of a fiber consti-
tuted by the epidermis, cell wall, and the lumen are present
(Fig. 4(g)). Also, the lumen varies in size but its shape is usually
well-defined. The fiber is actually a bundle of hollow sub-fibers that
are linked together by means of middle lamella, which consist of
hemicellulose and lignin (Fig. 4(h)). As is reported in the literature
[7,17], the cell walls are reinforced with spirally oriented cellulose
in a hemi-cellulose and lignin matrix. These helical windings of
cellulose microfibrils are shown at high magnification in Fig. 4(i).
3.4. Thermal properties
Knowing the thermal stability of natural fibers is an important
aspect in the development of natural fiber thermoplastic compos-
ites because the molding processing temperature is limited by this
parameter. Therefore, thermal decomposition characteristics of
 A. Porras et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73 71

(8.95e9.86%) and water absorption (70.27e74.17%) of Manicaria

Fig. 5. TGA and DTGA curves of Manicaria fabric.
Manicaria fabric were studied by thermo-gravimetric analysis
(TGA) and the 1st derivative curve (DTGA).
A typical TGA-DTGA for Manicaria fabric is shown in Fig. 5. Three
main mass loss steps were observed. The first step up to 100
C is
related with evaporation of moisture in the fibers (weight loss
around of 9%). The second, between 220 and 300
C, is associated
with the decomposition of hemicelluloses (weight loss around
30%). The last one, between 300 and 370
C, is due to lignin and
alpha cellulose degradation (weight loss around of 64%) [28].
Furthermore, the residual solid mass percentage detected at the
final temperature (600
C) was around 23%. In brief, the thermal
analysis illustrated that Manicaria fabric is stable until around
220
C; therefore, the composite processing temperature is
restricted to temperatures below 220
C to avoid thermal degra-
dation of the natural fabric.
In previous studies carried out by other researchers [50], the
onset decomposition temperature range was about 215 ± 10
C for
almost all natural fibers like bagasse, bamboo, hemp, jute, kenaf,
cotton, rice, and wood, except a higher value for pine. Furthermore,
most fibers at 310 ± 10
C completed almost 60% or higher weight
loss values and an average residue value of 20 ± 4%, at 800
C.
Therefore, the thermal properties obtained in this study are in
accordance with the values reported in the literature.
3.5. Physical properties
Table 3 illustrates the physical properties (moisture content,
water absorption, density of area, and volumetric density) deter-
mined for the fabric. It was found that both moisture content
fabric are comparable with typically reported properties for plant
fibers and natural fabrics varying between 5 and 17% [15,39,44] and
40e235% [40], respectively. For instance, the moisture content of
Manicaria fabric is less than jute fiber (12.6%), one of the most
popular natural fibers used nowadays as fabric reinforcement in
composites [14]. Additionally, lower moisture content diminishes
the dimensional variation in composites. It can lead to good pro-
cessability and reduce porous products.
On the other hand, the volumetric density of Manicaria fabric
(0.84e1.07 g/cm3) is less in contrast to those of well-established
fibers like sisal, jute, flax, and, hemp (1.4e1.5 g/cm3) [51], and
glass fiber (2.5 g/cm3). Hence, this natural fabric could be used as
reinforcement for manufacture composites with an added advan-
tage of being lightweight, renewable, and biodegradable.
Statistical analysis was carried out for the difference between
the sections. Since the p-value for both moisture content (0.33) and
water absorption (0.18) were higher than 0.01, there is no statisti-
cally significant difference between the mean from one section to
another at the 99.0% confidence level. Thus, the moisture content
and water absorption of the Manicaria fabric is 9.56 ± 1.05% and
72.39 ± 3.87%, respectively. Nevertheless, the p-value for both area
density (5.66  109) and volumetric density (6.59  1011) were
less than 0.01, so there is statistically significant difference between
the mean from one section to another at the 99.0% confidence level.
3.6. Mechanical properties
In terms of mechanical properties, Fig. 6(a) shows the tensile
stressestrain characteristic plot of the fabric for the five locations
studied. The stressestrain curves of all fabric locations present a
similar behavior, which can be described approximately by three
zones. The first zone up to 0.7% strain shows the elastic behavior of
the fabric, which is used to determine the Young's modulus. The
second zone displays a non-linear region until the maximum
strength. The third zone, after the maximum strength is reached,
shows the fracture of the fabric due to progressive breaking of the
interlocked fibers, which is represented as a reduction in the
strength by steps. Moreover, the failure mode of the fabric is
illustrated in Fig. 6(b). It is seen that strands in the fabric begin to
fail from the center of the fabric and propagate width-wise on
either side. Even though the fabric was failed and lost its structural
capacity, the specimen was not separated into two pieces because
some fibers remain interlocked thanks to the weaving design of the
natural fabric.
Manicaria fabric tensile properties such as strength (load per
width), fracture stress, Young's modulus, specific fracture stress,
specific modulus, and failure strain are summarized in Table 3. As
Table 3 shows, the fracture stress and Young's a modulus values of
the fabric differ in each section since the p-value of statistical

Table 3
Physical and mechanical properties of Manicaria fabric at selected sections.

Property S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Moisture content (%) 9.86 ± 1.05 9.77 ± 1.19 9.67 ± 0.91 9.55 ± 0.96 8.95 ± 1.05
Water absorption (%) 70.27 ± 3.92 71.44 ± 3.68 72.99 ± 4.77 73.08 ± 3.30 74.17 ± 2.93
Area density (g/m2) 583.30 ± 138.21 472.38 ± 89.57 401.20 ± 71.52 371.79 ± 105.20 366.31 ± 127.51
Volumetric density (g/cm3) 1.07 ± 0.05 1.04 ± 0.05 0.99 ± 0.08 0.95 ± 0.09 0.84 ± 0.12
Strength e Load per width (cN/m) 391.08 ± 133.40 381.82 ± 136.96 315.86 ± 116.99 287.77 ± 141.65 254.88 ± 139.06
Fracture stress (MPa) 70.85 ± 14.50 81.67 ± 16.27 75.58 ± 15.71 69.59 ± 15.26 54.98 ± 11.79
Young's modulus (GPa) 2.20 ± 0.53 2.42 ± 0.44 2.29 ± 0.36 2.05 ± 0.44 1.81 ± 0.36
Specific fracture stress (MPa/g$cm3) 65.97 ± 13.50 78.66 ± 15.67 76.46 ± 15.90 73.60 ± 16.14 65.75 ± 14.10
Specific modulus (GPa/g$cm3) 2.05 ± 0.49 2.33 ± 0.43 2.31 ± 0.37 2.17 ± 0.47 2.16 ± 0.43
Failure strain (%) 4.97 ± 1.39 5.39 ± 2.14 5.24 ± 0.98 5.30 ± 1.36 5.42 ± 1.70
72 A. Porras et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73
Fig. 6. a) Typical stressestrain curves of Manicaria fabric at selected sections. b) Failure
mode of Manicaria fabric under tensile load.
analysis for both fracture stress (3.44  106) and Young's a
modulus (2.71  104) were less than 0.01, so there is a statistically
significant difference between the mean from one section to
another at the 99.0% confidence level. Nevertheless, when both
properties are normalized using the density of the fabric, there is no
significant difference between the mean from one section to
another; the statistical analysis reported p-values higher than 0.01
for both the specific fractures stress (0.02) and specific modulus
(0.23). Moreover, the differences in failure strain mean from one
section to another are statistically not significant because the p-
value was around of 0.90. In brief, the Manicaria bract can be
assumed as homogeneous in terms of its specific properties. Then,
the specific fracture stress and specific modulus of the fabric is
72.09 ± 15.73 MPa and 2.20 ± 0.44 GPa, respectively.
In addition, Manicaria fabric displays a strength, the load per
width, value (254.88e391.08 cN/m) as good as some synthetic
fabrics, such as fiber glass fabrics [52], used in a wide range of in-
dustrial applications as reinforcement for polymers. Some of the
commonly fiber glass fabrics are: 108 style (140.1 cN/m), 112 style
(210.1 cN/m), 116 style (280.2 cN/m) plain fabrics and 220 style
satin fabric (350.2 cN/m). On the other hand, the properties of
others new natural cellulose fabrics have been reported in the
literature. For example, Jayaramudu et al. have identified new
natural cellulose fabrics such as Sterculia urens [53], Grewia tilifolia
[44], and Cordia dichotoma [45], finding a maximum stress of
10.0 MPa, 65.2 MPa, and 16.9 MPa, respectively, as well as a young
modulus of 0.6 GPa, 4.5 GPa, and 2.2 GPa, respectively. Although
they calculated the tensile properties of these fabrics taken into
account void regions, Manicaria fabric shows competitive me-
chanical properties, a fracture stress of 55.0e81.7 MPa and Young's
modulus of 1.8e2.4 GPa. Furthermore, Chabba et al. [54] reported
for flax fabric, a longitudinal fracture stress of around 41.2 MPa and
Young's Modulus 1.0 GPa. Thus, in the design and development of
novel bio-composites, this natural fabric could be a suitable
candidate as reinforcement material.
4. Conclusions
An investigation on the chemical composition, morphology
structure, thermal, physical and mechanical properties of Manicaria
saccifera fabric was presented to evaluate its possibilities for being
used as reinforcement in polymeric composite materials.
In general, the chemical composition and spectral analysis
showed that cellulose and lignin are the main constituents of the
fabric. In addition, a high amount of lignin, waxes, fats and surface
resins was found especially in the outer longitudinal surface view of
the fabric. Thus, for their use in composites a chemical surface
modification treatment is suggested to remove these substances.
The thermal analysis results indicate that Manicaria fabric is
stable until around 220
C; therefore, the composite processing
temperature is restricted to temperatures below this value to avoid
thermal degradation of the natural fabric.
The overall physical characterization shows that the moisture
content and the density of the fabric is significantly less in contrast
to well-established natural and synthetic fibers which represent an
advantage. Therefore, Manicaria fabric could be used as reinforce-
ment in composites because it has the added advantage of being
lightweight, renewable, and biodegradable.
In terms of the mechanical properties, the fabric displayed
competitive tensile properties as good as most of natural cellulose
fabrics and some synthetic fabrics such as fiber glass fabrics.
Additionally, the protrusion of silicon observed in the fiber could
help the mechanical interlock with the resins when used as rein-
forcement in polymeric matrix composites.
Finally, this study shows that Manicaria saccifera fabric is a suit-
able and promising candidate as reinforcement of bio-composites.
References
[1] Mohanty A, Misra M, Drzal L. Sustainable bio-composites from renewable
resources: opportunities and challenges in the green materials world. J Polym
Environ 2002;10(1e2):19e26.
[2] Mohanty AK, Misra M, Drzal LT. Natural fibers, biopolymers, and bio-
composites. CRC Press; 2005.
[3] Saheb DN, Jog J. Natural fiber polymer composites: a review. Adv Polym
Technol 1999;18(4):351e63.
[4] Holbery J, Houston D. Natural-fiber-reinforced polymer composites in auto-
motive applications. Jom 2006;58(11):80e6.
[5] Mohanty A, Misra M, Drzal L. Surface modifications of natural fibers and
performance of the resulting biocomposites: an overview. Compos Interfaces
2001;8(5):313e43.
[6] Bledzki A, Gassan J. Composites reinforced with cellulose based fibres. Prog
Polym Sci 1999;24(2):221e74.
[7] Faruk O, Bledzki AK, Fink H-P, Sain M. Biocomposites reinforced with natural
fibers: 2000e2010. Prog Polym Sci 2012;37(11):1552e96.
[8] Hornsby P, Hinrichsen E, Tarverdi K. Preparation and properties of poly-
propylene composites reinforced with wheat and flax straw fibres: part I fibre
characterization. J Mater Sci 1997;32(2):443e9.
[9] Goutianos S, Peijs T, Nystrom B, Skrifvars M. Development of flax fibre based
textile reinforcements for composite applications. Appl Compos Mater
2006;13(4):199e215.
[10] Zhu J, Zhu H, Njuguna J, Abhyankar H. Recent development of flax fibres and
their reinforced composites based on different polymeric matrices. Materials
2013;6(11):5171e98.
[11] Yan L, Chouw N, Jayaraman K. Flax fibre and its composites e a review.
Compos Part B Eng 2014;56:296e317.
[12] Mohanty A, Misra M. Studies on jute compositesa literature review. Polym
Plastics Technol Eng 1995;34(5):729e92.
[13] Ahmed KS, Vijayarangan S. Experimental characterization of woven jute-
fabric-reinforced isothalic polyester composites. J Appl Polym Sci
2007;104(4):2650e62.

an ÜH, Erden S. Surface treatments
[14] Sever K, Sarikanat M, Seki Y, Erkan G, Erdog
of jute fabric: the influence of surface characteristics on jute fabrics and
mechanical properties of jute/polyester composites. Ind Crops Prod
2012;35(1):22e30.
 A. Porras et al. / Composites Part B 74 (2015) 66e73
[15] Madsen B, Hoffmeyer P, Thomsen AB, Lilholt H. Hemp yarn reinforced com-
posites e i. yarn characteristics. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 2007;38(10):
2194e203.
[16] Shahzad A. Hemp fiber and its composites e a review. J Compos Mater
2012;46(8):973e86.
[17] Li Y, Mai Y-W, Ye L. Sisal fibre and its composites: a review of recent de-
velopments. Compos Sci Technol 2000;60(11):2037e55.
[18] Oksman K, Wallstro €m LA, Berglund L, Toledo Filho RD. Morphology and
mechanical properties of unidirectional sisaleepoxy composites. J Appl Polym
Sci 2002;84(13):2358e65.
[19] Jawaid M, Abdul Khalil H. Cellulosic/synthetic fibre reinforced polymer hybrid
composites: a review. Carbohydr Polym 2011;86(1):1e18.
[20] Akil H, Omar M, Mazuki A, Safiee S, Ishak Z, Abu Bakar A. Kenaf fiber rein-
forced composites: a review. Mater Des 2011;32(8):4107e21.
[21] Poletto M, Heitor L, Zattera AJ. Native cellulose: structure, characterization
and thermal properties. Materials 2014;7(9):6105e19.
[22] Abdul Khalil H, Bhat I, Jawaid M, Zaidon A, Hermawan D, Hadi Y. Bamboo fibre
reinforced biocomposites: a review. Mater Des 2012;42:353e68.
[23] Rassiah K, Ahmad M. Bamboo, thermoplastic, thermosets, and their com-
posites: a review. Appl Mech Mater 2013;330:53e61.
[24] Shinoj S, Visvanathan R, Panigrahi S, Kochubabu M. Oil palm fiber (opf) and its
composites: a review. Ind Crops Prod 2011;33(1):7e22.
[25] Dicker MP, Duckworth PF, Baker AB, Francois G, Hazzard MK, Weaver PM.
Green composites: a review of material attributes and complementary ap-
plications. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 2014;56:280e9.
[26] Fiore V, Scalici T, Valenza A. Characterization of a new natural fiber from
arundo donax l. as potential reinforcement of polymer composites. Carbohydr
Polym 2014;106:77e83.
[27] Indran S, Edwin Raj R, Sreenivasan V. Characterization of new natural cellu-
losic fiber from Cissus quadrangularis root. Carbohydr Polym 2014;110:423e9.
[28] De Rosa IM, Kenny JM, Puglia D, Santulli C, Sarasini F. Morphological, thermal
and mechanical characterization of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) fibres as
potential reinforcement in polymer composites. Compos Sci Technol
2010;70(1):116e22.
[29] Seki Y, Sarikanat M, Sever K, Durmuşkahya C. Extraction and properties of
ferula communis/(chakshir) fibers as novel reinforcement for composites
materials. Compos Part B Eng 2013;44(1):517e23.
[30] Fiore V, Valenza A, Di Bella G. Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus L.) fibres as
potential reinforcement of composite structures. Compos Sci Technol
2011;71(8):1138e44.
[31] Sarikanat M, Seki Y, Sever K, Durmuşkahya C. Determination of properties of
Althaea officinalis L. (marshmallow) fibres as a potential plant fibre in poly-
meric composite materials. Compos Part B Eng 2014;57:180e6.
[32] Sathishkumar T, Navaneethakrishnan P, Shankar S, Rajasekar R. Character-
ization of new cellulose Sansevieria ehrenbergii fibers for polymer composites.
Compos Interfaces 2013;20(8):575e93.
[33] Saravanakumar S, Kumaravel A, Nagarajan T, Sudhakar P, Baskaran R. Char-
acterization of a novel natural cellulosic fiber from Prosopis juliflora bark.
Carbohydr Polym 2013;92(2):1928e33.
[34] Jayaramudu J, Reddy DJP, Guduri B, Rajulu AV. Properties of natural fabric
Polyalthia cerasoides. Fibers Polym 2009;10(3):338e42.
[35] Wilbert J. Manicaria saccifera and its cultural significance among the warao
Indians of Venezuela. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University; 1976.
p. 275e335.
[36] de Francisco Rojas, Cristina María. Analisis de la sostenibilidad de la fibra de
cabecinegro: una mirada desde los procesos productivos y culturales de la
73
comunidad indígena waunana de san antonio de togorom . Master's
a, choco
thesis. Universidad Nacional de Colombia; 2011.
[37] Ledezma-Renteria ED. Etnobota nica de las palmas en las tierras bajas del
pacífico colombiano, con e nfasis en la palma cabecinegro (manicaria saccifera
gaertn). Master's thesis. Universidad Nacional de Colombia; 2011.
[38] Oliveira A, d’Almeida J. Description of the mechanical behavior of different
thermoset composites reinforced with manicaria saccifera fibers. J Compos
Mater 2014;48(10):1189e96.
[39] Bogoeva-Gaceva G, Avella M, Malinconico M, Buzarovska A, Grozdanov A,
Gentile G, et al. Natural fiber eco-composites. Polym Compos 2007;28(1):
98e107.
[40] Jústiz-Smith NG, Virgo G, Buchanan VE. Potential of jamaican banana, coconut
coir and bagasse fibres as composite materials. Mater Charact 2008;59(9):
1273e8.
[41] Li X, Tabil LG, Panigrahi S. Chemical treatments of natural fiber for use in
natural fiber-reinforced composites: a review. J Polym Environ 2007;15(1):
25e33.
[42] Kalia S, Kaith B, Kaur I. Pretreatments of natural fibers and their application as
reinforcing material in polymer compositesa review. Polym Eng Sci
2009;49(7):1253e72.
[43] Guimara ~es J, Frollini E, Da Silva C, Wypych F, Satyanarayana K. Character-
ization of banana, sugarcane bagasse and sponge gourd fibers of brazil. Ind
Crops Prod 2009;30(3):407e15.
[44] Jayaramudu J, Guduri B, Varada Rajulu A. Characterization of new natural
cellulosic fabric grewia tilifolia. Carbohydr Polym 2010;79(4):847e51.
[45] Jayaramudu J, Maity A, Sadiku E, Guduri B, Varada Rajulu A, Ramana C, et al.
Structure and properties of new natural cellulose fabrics from cordia dicho-
toma. Carbohydr Polym 2011;86(4):1623e9.
[46] Kabir M, Wang H, Lau K, Cardona F. Chemical treatments on plant-based
natural fibre reinforced polymer composites: an overview. Compos Part B
Eng 2012;43(7):2883e92.
[47] Yan L, Chouw N, Yuan X. Improving the mechanical properties of natural fibre
fabric reinforced epoxy composites by alkali treatment. J Reinf Plastics Com-
pos 2012;31(6):425e37.
[48] Yan L. Effect of alkali treatment on vibration characteristics and mechanical
properties of natural fabric reinforced composites. J Reinf Plastics Compos
2012;31(13):887e96.
[49] dAlmeida J, Aquino R, Monteiro S. Tensile mechanical properties, morpho-
logical aspects and chemical characterization of piassava (attalea funifera)
fibers. Compos Part A Appl Sci Manuf 2006;37(9):1473e9.
[50] Yao F, Wu Q, Lei Y, Guo W, Xu Y. Thermal decomposition kinetics of natural
fibers: activation energy with dynamic thermogravimetric analysis. Polym
Degrad Stab 2008;93(1):90e8.
[51] Rao K, Rao KM. Extraction and tensile properties of natural fibers: vakka, date
and bamboo. Compos Struct 2007;77(3):288e95.
[52] Hexcel.com. Glass fiber reinforcements data sheets. 2014. URL, http://www.
hexcel.com/Resources/Fabrics-DS-Glass.
[53] Jayaramudu J, Guduri B, Varada Rajulu A. Tensile properties of polymethyl
methacrylate coated natural fabric sterculia urens. Mater Lett 2009;63(9):
812e4.
[54] Chabba S, Netravali AN. Green composites part 1: characterization of flax
fabric and glutaraldehyde modified soy protein concentrate composites.
J Mater Sci 2005;40(23):6263e73.
[55] Botanical Garden Lancetilla. Manicaria saccifera gaertn. 2014. URL, http://
jblancetilla.org/manicaria_saccifera_gaertn.htm.