materials
Article
The Effect of Clay on the Shear Strength of Microbially Cured
Sand Particles
Deluan Feng, Haiqin Gao, Zhanlin Li and Shihua Liang *
Citation: Feng, D.; Gao, H.; Li, Z.;
Liang, S. The Effect of Clay on the
Shear Strength of Microbially Cured
Sand Particles. Materials 2022, 15,
3414. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma15103414
Academic Editor: Evangelos J.
Sapountzakis
Received: 25 March 2022
Accepted: 3 May 2022
Published: 10 May 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 3414. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103414
School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China;
wolfluan@126.com (D.F.); a13129386086@163.com (H.G.); 2112109084@mail2.gdut.edu.cn (Z.L.)
* Correspondence: shihua_l@gdut.edu.cn
Abstract: Microbial solidification of sand has obvious effects: energy-saving and environmental
protection. It is a green and sustainable soil consolidation technology with low energy consumption,
which meets the needs of high-quality development of modern economy and society. However,
when clay is doped in sand, clay has an uncertain influence on the effectiveness of the microbial
solidification of sand. Therefore, triaxial consolidation undrained tests before and after microbial
solidification of sands with different clay content are carried out in this paper. The effects of clay
content on the solidification effect of sands are compared and analyzed. The variation laws of shear
strength, unconfined compressive strength, internal friction angle and the cohesion of sands with
different clay content before and after microbial solidification are discussed. The failure modes of
sand samples were studied and the influence mechanism of clay on the microbial solidification of sand
was revealed from a micro perspective. The test results show that the failure strain and unconfined
compressive strength of microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) treated samples
increase first and then decrease with the increase in the clay content. The unconfined compressive
strength is the highest when the clay content is 9%, and the samples with low clay content (3~9%)
can still retain good integrity after being destroyed. As the content of clay in the sand–clay mixture
increases, the internal friction angle of the sample decreases and the cohesion increases. After MICP
treatment, the internal friction angle and cohesion of the sand increase first and then decrease with the
increase in clay content. There are three main contact modes between sand-clay-CaCO3 . When clay
content is low, clay plays a filling role. The contact mode between sand-clay and CaCO3 is mainly
between sand particles and calcium carbonate and between clay particles and calcium carbonate.
When clay content is high, the contact mode between particles is mainly between clay particles and
calcium carbonate. Higher clay content wraps sand particles, prevents contact between calcium
carbonate and sand particles and reduces the strength of sand.
Keywords: viscous particle content; microbial curing; strength characteristics; triaxial consolidation
without drainage test
1. Introduction
Microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation technology has the advantages
of green environmental protection, low cost, an adjustable reaction rate, and simple con-
struction. It is a green and sustainable technology with low energy consumption and low
emission [1,2]. The microbial bacterial solution in this technology has good fluidity during
the construction process, and its own metabolites can induce the formation of calcium
carbonate precipitation with a strong cementation ability. Therefore, it has been widely
used in major geotechnical engineering fields, such as solidification of loose soil, foundation
improvement, repair of concrete cracks, anti-seepage plugging, and anti-corrosion [3,4].
Researchers in the world have carried out a lot of research around this energy-saving
and environment-friendly green geotechnical reinforcement technology, especially in the
reinforcement of sand, and achieved fruitful research results. Given the good improvement
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022, 15, 3414 2 of 15

effect of MICP technology in civil engineering, experts and researchers have begun to
introduce this technology into the research on sand and achieved fruitful results. The un-
confined compressive strength of Ottawa silica sand treated by MICP is similar to that of
the sample treated with 10% cement and much better than that of lime treatment. The sand
particle morphology and bonding mechanism play a key control in MICP grouting and sig-
nificantly affect the cementation structure and overall strength after curing [5,6]. The effect
of MICP curing sand particles with different particle sizes is obviously different. It has been
found that the unconfined compressive strength of artificial silica sand and Ottawa sand
is the largest when the particle size is 25–40 mesh [7]. Other researchers have studied the
stress–strain behavior of MICP solidified sand. After MICP treatment, the shear strength
of sand increases with the increase in MICP cementation, and the increase in cementation
changes the strain hardening of sand into strain softening [8]. In addition, the permeability
of sand after MICP treatment is significantly reduced, and the liquefaction resistance is
significantly improved [9,10].
These research results show that MICP technology has achieved good results in
solidifying sand. However, the sand layers in some areas of China are often rich in clay
particles. Previous studies have found that the existence of clay particles has a serious
impact on the physical and mechanical parameters of sand, especially shear strength,
disintegration, etc., in which clay results in a significant reduction in shear strength of
sand [11,12]. Kaolin can cause significant disintegration of granite residual soil [13,14].
Therefore, the presence of clay significantly weakens the physical and mechanical properties
of sand such as shear strength and water stability, which may have an impact on MICP
solidified sand.
Therefore, large number of researchers have carried out exploratory research on
the effect of clay particles on microbial solidification of sand and obtained considerable
achievements. Sun [15] performed an indoor physical model experimental study on MICP
to improve solidified sand and compared and analyzed the influence of different clay
contents on the solidification effect. The results showed that the existence of clay, such as
kaolin, inhibits the urease activity of bacteria. As a result, the permeability of the sand
column decreases rapidly with the increase in kaolin content. Ma et al. [16] mixed different
concentrations of a bentonite solution into coarse sand and conducted an experimental
study on indoor MICP solidification. The findings revealed that the addition of bentonite
greatly reduces the permeability and strength of coarse sand mainly because the addition of
bentonite blocks the pores of the sample, interrupts the flow path of the bacterial solution,
and leads to the discontinuity of calcium carbonate cement. Yue et al. [17] studied the effect
of mature rice pulp on the MICP and solidification of sediments in the Yellow River Basin
and found that mature rice pulp can improve bacterial activity and promote the formation
of calcium carbonate. Ma et al. [18] found that the main function of kaolin is to assist
nucleation and increase the amount of effective calcium carbonate precipitation, so as to
enhance the effect of curing coarse sand. Jiang et al. [19] studied the internal erosion control
of MICP on seepage induced by sand-clay mixture. The main reason was that the carbonate
precipitation generated reduced the permeability of sand mixture and thus improved the
erosion resistance of sand. The abovementioned researchers have conducted extensive
research on the changes in bacterial urease activity, calcium carbonate production, and sand
column permeability in the process of microbial sand solidification. They found that the
addition of clay greatly influences the solidification effect of MICP.
However, these studies rarely involved the investigation of the influence of clay
content on the strength characteristics of microbial solidified sand. Mixtures of sand and
clay exist widely in South China. Clay significantly reduces the shear strength of sand,
thus affecting the pile quality of microbial sand piles and even leading to the damage of sand
piles [20–22]. In this study, Fujian standard sand is used as the raw material. Clay is added
to the sand to manually prepare a standard sample, and unconfined compressive strength
and consolidated undrained triaxial tests are conducted before and after MICP curing
treatment. The influence mechanism of different clay contents on the microbial curing
 Materials 2022, 15, 3414 3 of 15

effect is analyzed through scanning electron microscopy testing technology. The research
results provide scientific support and an experimental basis for the application of microbial
sand piles in South China.

2. Test Materials and Schemes

2.1. Test Materials
The clay used in this test is from Dayong Town, Nansha District, Guangzhou, and has
a soil depth of about 5 m. The water content is 69.28%, and the liquid and plastic limits
are 52.84% and 38.14%, respectively. The basic physical indexes of the clay particle are
shown in Table 1. The particle size distribution of the clay measured by the laser particle
size analyzer is shown in Figure 1. As shown in Figure 2, the mineral composition of
clay is mainly montmorillonite, illite, kaolinite and quartz. The focus of this paper is
on the effect of clay particles on the strength properties of microbially cured sandy soils.
The initial grouting conditions keep unchanged for each MICP treatment sample. The test
sand is Fujian Xiamen ISO standard sand, which is fine sand with poor particle grading.
The physical characteristic parameters are shown in Table 2, and the particle grading is
shown in Figure 3. According to USCS, the classification of clay and sand are CH and SP,
respectively [23,24].

Table 1. Basic physical indicators of clay.

Moisture Content/% Density/g·cm−3 Void Ratio Liquid Limit/% Plastic Limit/% Liquidity Index Plasticity Index
69.28 1.67 1.74 52.84 38.14 2.12 14.7

Table 2. Physical parameters of Fujian standard sand.

Average Particle Nonuniformity Maximum Minimum

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR Density/g
Parameter PEER REVIEW
·cm−3 Specific Gravity 4 of 15
Size/(mm) Coefficient Void Ratio Void Ratio
Numerical value 1.92 2.653 0.68 1.56 2.00 0.08

Thegrain-size
Figure1.1.The
Figure grain-sizedistribution
distributionofofclay.
clay.

The strain used in the experiment is Pasteurella octopus, which is the most commonly
used strain in the research field of MICP. It is purchased from DSM Company in the Helen,
The Netherlands (number5 DSM33). The strain can rapidly decompose urea, produce a large
1-Montmorillonite
number of carbonate ions, and attach 2-Illite the surface of sand particles, thus providing an
to
attachment point for the formation of calcium carbonate.
3-Kaolinite
Different content of clay is added to the sand to form a sand-clay mixture which is
4-Chlorite
then cured by MICP. The clay content is 0, 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%, 15%, 18% and 21%, respectively.
Intensity/a.u.

5-Quartz
6-Feldspar

5
1 3
2
Materials 2022, 15, 3414 4 of 15

It should be noted that the change of the clay content not only changes the water content
but also the unsaturated behavior of soil samples [25,26]. However, the present work
mainly focuses on the influence of clay content on the solidification effect of MICP treated
sand, and as soil samples with different clay content undergo MICP grouting procedure,
Figure 1.inevitably
which The grain-size distribution
causes changes ofto clay.
the water content and unsaturated behavior of soil
Figure 1. The
samples, grain-size
therefore, the distribution
unsaturatedofwasclay.
not considered.

5
5 1-Montmorillonite
1-Montmorillonite
2-Illite
2-Illite
3-Kaolinite
3-Kaolinite
4-Chlorite
4-Chlorite
Intensity/a.u.

5-Quartz
Intensity/a.u.

5-Quartz
6-Feldspar
6-Feldspar
2
2
5
1 3
2 5
1 3 5
2 4 4 6 5
5 11 5 5 5 5
5 5
4 4 6
11 5 5 5 5 5

2θ/(° )
2θ/(° )
Figure 2. X-ray diffraction pattern of clay.
Figure 2. X-ray
Figure 2. X-raydiffraction
diffractionpattern
patternofof clay.
clay.

Figure3.
Figure Gradation curve
3. Gradation curve of
of Fujian
Fujianstandard
standardsand.
sand.
Figure 3. Gradation curve of Fujian standard sand.
2.2. Test Scheme
The test scheme is shown in Table 3. In the table, NL0 to NL21 refer to three parallel
samples in each group for the consolidated undrained (CU) test. NLC0 to NLC21 refer to
six parallel samples in each group, namely, three for the unconfined compressive strength
test and three for the CU test. The loading rate during the shear process is 0.9 mm/min,
and the termination test strain is 20%. Each group of tests is conducted according to the
relevant soil test specification [27].
 relevant soil test specification [27].

Table 3. Different clay content test schemes.

Clay Whether Processed Unconfined Compressive

Number Consolidated Undrained Test
Content by MICP or Not
Materials 2022, 15, 3414
Strength5Test
of 15

NL0 0% No Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa No

NL3 3% No Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa
Table 3. Different clay content test schemes.
No
NL6 6% No Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa No
NL9
Number 9% Content
Clay No
Whether ProcessedConfining Consolidated
pressures are 100, 200,
Undrained and 300 kPa
Test
Unconfined No
Compressive
NL12 12% No
by MICP or Not
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa No
Strength Test

NL15NL0 15% 0% No No Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa No No
NL3 3% No Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa No
NL18NL6 18% 6% No No Confining pressures
Confining pressures are 100,200,
are 100, 200,andand
300 300
kPa kPa No No
NL21NL9 21% 9% No No Confining pressures
Confining pressures are 100,200,
are 100, 200,andand
300 300
kPa kPa No No
NLC0
NL12
0% 12%
Yes No
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa No
Yes
NL15 15% No Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 300 kPa No
NLC3
NL18 3% 18% Yes No Confining pressures
Confining pressures are 100,200,
are 100, 200,andand
300 400
kPa kPa No Yes
NLC6
NL21 6% 21% Yes No Confining pressures
Confining pressures are 100,200,
are 100, 200,andand
300 400
kPa kPa No Yes
NLC0 0% Yes Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa Yes
NLC9
NLC3
9% 3% Yes Yes Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa Yes
Yes
NLC12
NLC6 12% 6% Yes Yes Confining pressures
Confining pressures are 100,200,
are 100, 200,andand
400 400
kPa kPa Yes Yes
NLC15
NLC9 15% 9% Yes Yes Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa Yes Yes
NLC12 12% Yes Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa Yes
NLC18
NLC15
18% 15%
Yes Yes
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400
Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa
kPa Yes
Yes
NLC21
NLC18 21%18% Yes Yes Confining pressures
Confining pressures are 100,200,
are 100, 200,andand
400 400
kPa kPa Yes Yes
NLC21 21% Yes Confining pressures are 100, 200, and 400 kPa Yes
3. Analysis of Test Results
3.1. The Influence
3. Analysis of TestofResults
Clay Content on the Stress–Strain Curve
3.1. The Influence of Clay Content on the Stress–Strain Curve
Figure 4 shows the stress–strain curves of sand–clay mixed soil with different clay
Figure 4 shows the stress–strain curves of sand–clay mixed soil with different clay
contents after MICP treatment. When the sand column is subjected to axial pressure, its
contents after MICP treatment. When the sand column is subjected to axial pressure,
axial stress
its axial increases
stress slowly.
increases When
slowly. thethe
When strain reaches
strain thethe
reaches failure value,
failure thethe
value, stress decreases
stress
sharply
decreases sharply then tends to stabilize. The stress–strain curves of the different clay differ
then tends to stabilize. The stress–strain curves of the different clay contents
but can be
contents divided
differ into
but can four stages.
be divided into four stages.

4.Stress-strain
Figure 4.
Figure Stress-straincurves of MICP
curves treated
of MICP sandsand
treated with with
different clay content.
different clay content.
Stage 1: A small range of strain variation and sharp increase in stress. The interaction
between calcium carbonate and sand particles connects the sand column to the whole
through the “connecting bond” between calcium carbonate and sand particles to bear the
pressure together. At this stage, the variation range of the strain is small, and the stress
increases greatly;
Stage 2: A large strain range and slow increase in stress. At this time, the sample
is subjected to a large bearing capacity, and some “connecting keys” between calcium
carbonate and sand particles begin to break, but they can continue to bear the great pressure
until the “connecting keys” inside the sand column break and reach the peak stress. At this
 Materials 2022, 15, 3414 6 of 15

stage, the main representations are as follows: the variation range of strain is large, and the
increase range of stress is small;
Stage 3: A small strain range and sharp decrease in stress. At this time, the “connecting
key” in the sand column is broken, so the column can no longer bear the peak stress and
brittle failure. At this stage, the variation range of the strain is small, and the stress
decreases greatly;
Stage 4: A large strain range and gentle reduction in stress. At this time, due to the
bearing capacity of the sand column, the sand column is compacted, and the pores in it
are filled tightly, resulting in the flattening of the stress curve. At this stage, the main
representations are as follows: the variation range of strain is large, and the reduction range
of stress is small.
Figure 4 shows that the strain of the sand columns with different clay contents differs
obviously during failure. The failure strain increases initially then decreases with the
increase in clay content. The failure strain of the sand column is the largest when the clay
content is 9% and the smallest when the clay content is 21%. This result shows that the
sample of the NLC9 group has the largest plasticity, better deformation ability, and better
resistance to the deformation caused by external forces compared with the samples in the
other groups. When the clay content increases from 12% to 21%, the brittle failure of the
sample becomes increasingly obvious, and the ability to resist deformation is getting worse
and worse. The stress decreases sharply after reaching the peak value, the sample begins to
crack, and the crack develops rapidly. This condition is unfavorable to actual projects and
should be avoided.

3.2. The Effect of Different Clay Contents on Unconfined Compressive Strength

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW An unconfined compressive strength test is conducted on the NCL0–NCL21 groups of 7 of 15
samples (three samples in each group). The unconfined compressive strength and failure
strain corresponding to different clay contents are obtained and shown in Figure 5.

Unconfined compressive Strength Failure stress

Unconfined compressive Strength（kPa)

Clay content(%)
Figure 5. UCS
Figure 5. UCSand
andfailure
failure strain
strain with
with different
different clay clay contents
contents (MICP-Treat).
(MICP-Treat).

3.3. The Effect

With the of Different
increase Clay content,
in clay Contentsthe
on unconfined
the Failure Mode of the Sample
compressive strength increases
initially then decreases. The unconfined compressive strength of NLC3, NLC6, NLC9,
The sample
and NLC12 groups after the 1.55,
was 1.28, unconfined compressive
1.90, and 1.46 strength
times higher than thattest is NLC0
of the examined,
group,and its
damaged shape is shown in Figure 6.
respectively. The unconfined compressive strength of NLC15, NLC18, and NLC21 groups
is lower than that of NLC0, indicating that when the clay content is greater than 15%,
excessive clay exerts an adverse impact on the curing effect of microorganisms. The failure
 Failure stress

Unconfined compressive Strength（kPa

Materials 2022, 15, 3414 7 of 15

strains of NLC0, NLC3, NLC6, NLC9, NLC12, NLC15, NLC18, and NLC21 are 2.24%,
2.42%, 3.17%, 3.54%, 2.24%, 1.86%, 1.12%, and 0.99%, respectively, and present a trend
of increasing initially then decreasing. When subjected to external load, the compressive
strength of the dense sand sample is high because the movement and deformation between
particles in the dense sand sample are limited, which improves the strength and failure
strain of the sample. The results on unconfined compressive strength and failure strain
show that in the experiment on the effect of clay content on the curing process of MICP,
the unconfined compressive strength is the highest when the clay content is 9%. The curing
effect and strength of the specimens cancontent(%)
Clay be improved by 3~12% viscous content compared
with those without viscous particles. Higher clay content is detrimental to the curing
Figure 5.
process UCS
and and failure
reduces strain with
the strength of thedifferent
sand. clay contents (MICP-Treat).

3.3.The
3.3. TheEffect
Effectof of Different
Different ClayClay Contents
Contents on theonFailure
the Failure Mode
Mode of of the Sample
the Sample
Thesample
The sample after
after the unconfined
the unconfined compressive
compressive strength
strength test test isand
is examined, examined,
its dam- and it
damaged shape is shown in Figure 6.
aged shape is shown in Figure 6.

NLC0 NLC3 NLC6 NLC9

NLC12 NLC15 NLC18 NLC21

Figure6.6.Destruction
Figure Destruction pattern
pattern withwith different
different clay contents
clay contents (MICP-Treat).
(MICP-Treat).

Figure 6 indicates that when the clay content is 0%, the sand particles are peeled off
Figure 6 indicates that when the clay content is 0%, the sand particles are peeled of
after the sample is damaged and become loose after damage. When the clay content is
after the sample is damaged and become loose after damage. When the clay content is 3%
3%, 6%, and 9%, the sample can still maintain good integrity after damage, and when the
6%, content
clay and 9%,isthe 9%,sample can still
its integrity maintain
is better than good integrity
that when after
the clay damage,
content is 3%andandwhen
6%. the cla
content
When theis 9%,
clay its integrity
content is better
is 12%, 15%, than after
and 18%, that the
when the is
sample clay contentthe
damaged, is sample
3% andcan 6%. When
the
be clay content
divided is 12%,
into several parts,15%, andintegrity
and the 18%, after theThe
is poor. sample
cracksisincrease
damaged, the sample
and widen with can b
divided
the increaseinto several
in clay parts,
content. Whenandthe theclay
integrity
contentisis poor.
21%, theThe cracks of
integrity increase
the sampleandafter
widen with
the increase
damage in clay
is strong content.
according When
to the the clay
apparent content
diagram of is
the21%, the integrity
sample. However,of the sample afte
a fracture
damage
begins is strong
to appear according
in the middle oftothe thesample
apparent diagram
because of the of
highthecontent
sample. However,
of clay a fractur
particles.
Excessive clay particles are deposited at the bottom of the sample with the flow of bacterial
begins to appear in the middle of the sample because of the high content of clay particles
and nutrient solutions to inhibit the solidification effect of microorganisms. The content
Excessive clay particles are deposited at the bottom of the sample with the flow of bacteria
of effective calcium carbonate generated at the bottom of the sample is small. When the
and nutrient
sample is loaded,solutions
a slidingtofailure
inhibit the solidification
occurs quickly between effect
sandofandmicroorganisms.
clay particles at The
the conten
of effective
bottom, calcium
resulting carbonate
in a reduction in generated
unconfined at the bottom
compressive of the sample is small. When th
strength.
The calcium carbonate induced by microorganisms plays a connecting role when the
sample is subjected to external load. When abundant calcium carbonate is present, the sam-
ple can be connected as a whole and can still maintain good integrity when damaged.
 The calcium carbonate induced by microorganisms plays a connecting role when t
sample is subjected to external load. When abundant calcium carbonate is present, t
sample can be connected as a whole and can still maintain good integrity when damage

Materials 2022, 15, 3414 3.4. The Effects of Different Clay Contents on Cohesion and Internal Friction Angle
8 ofunder
15 the
Consolidated Undrained Test
Figure 7 shows the principal stress difference of the different clay contents obtain
3.4. The Effects of Different Clay Contents on Cohesion and Internal Friction Angle under the
from the consolidated
Consolidated Undrained Testundrained test on NL0–NL21 groups of samples (σ1–σ3 maximu
failureFigure
point7strength
shows thecurve). When
principal stressthe clay content
difference is the same,
of the different the greater
clay contents the confini
obtained
pressure
from the is, the greater
consolidated the peak
undrained testfailure point strength
on NL0–NL21 groups ofof the sample
samples (σ1–σ3 is. Under the sam
maximum
confining pressure,
failure point strengthwith theWhen
curve). increase in clay
the clay content,
content is the the peak
same, strength
the greater theof sand–clay mix
confining
soil gradually decreases, indicating that the increase in clay content reduces
pressure is, the greater the peak failure point strength of the sample is. Under the same con- its she
fining pressure, with the increase in clay content, the peak strength of sand–clay mixed soil
strength.
gradually decreases, indicating that the increase in clay content reduces its shear strength.
Peak failure strength（kPa)

Clay content(%)

Figure
Figure7.7.Peak breakingpoint
Peak breaking point strength
strength curve
curve with with different
different viscousviscous particle contents.
particle contents.

Figure 8 shows the variation curve of the cohesion and internal friction angle of
Figure 8 shows the variation curve of the cohesion and internal friction angle of NL
NL0–NL21 samples with the increase in clay content. The internal friction angle of sand–
NL21 samples
clay mixed soilwith the increase
(ϕ’) decreases with intheclay content.
increase The
in clay internal
content, and friction angle
the cohesion of sand–cl
value
mixed
(c’) increases with the increase in clay content. When the clay content increases from 0 to value (
soil (φ’) decreases with the increase in clay content, and the cohesion
increases with theincreases
21%, the cohesion increasefrom
in clay content.
2.5 kPa to 12.1 When the claybycontent
kPa, increasing increases
384%, while from 0 to 21
the internal
◦ to 24.18◦ . The higher the clay content is, the gentler the
the cohesion increases from 2.5 kPa to 12.1 kPa, increasing by 384%, while the intern
friction angle decreases from 36.5
rising trend of cohesion is. Figures 7 and 8 show that the change trend of the peak failure
friction
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW angle decreases from 36.5° to 24.18°. The higher the clay content is, the gentler t
strength of the sample is similar to that of the internal friction angle, indicating that the
rising
sheartrend of of
strength cohesion
sand–clayis.mixed
Figuressoil 7isand 8 show
mainly that the
determined change
by the trend
internal of the
friction peak failu
angle
strength of the sample is similar to that of the internal friction angle, indicating that t
at this time.
shear strength of sand–clay mixed soil is mainly determined by the internal friction ang
at this time. Cohesion Internal friction angle
Internal friction angle(°)
Cohesion(kPa)

Clay content(%)

Figure 8.Cohesion
Figure 8. Cohesionandand internal
internal friction
friction angle
angle with with clay
different different clay contents.
contents.

The Cu test is also performed on the NLC0–NLC21 groups of samples (the rem
three samples in each group) to obtain the cohesion and internal friction angle
different clay contents and compare them with those of the sample without
 Materials 2022, 15, 3414 9 of 15

The Cu test is also performed on the NLC0–NLC21 groups of samples (the remaining
three samples in each group) to obtain the cohesion and internal friction angle under
different clay contents and compare them with those of the sample without MICP treatment.
Analysis of Figure 9 reveals that internal friction angle ϕ’ and cohesion C’ increase
initially then decrease with the increase in clay content. They reach the maximum when
the clay content is 9%. Comparing with Figures 8 and 9, when the clay content is the same,
the internal friction angle after MICP treatment is not much higher, but the cohesion is sig-
nificantly increased. When the clay content is less than 9%, the increase in internal friction
angle after MICP treatment is less than 30%. When the clay content exceeds 9%, the maxi-
mum increase is 44.22%. When the clay content is 9%, the internal friction angle increases
by more than 50–50.18%. Moreover, when the clay content is 21%, the increment in cohesion
after MICP treatment is the smallest (from 12.1–129 kPa), and the maximum increment
reaches 257.5 kPa at 9% clay content, indicating an increase of 34.33 times. A significant
relationship is observed between the increase in internal friction angle and the contact form
between particles. At the beginning, the contact between the particles of the specimens that
are not treated and treated by MICP is mainly the contact between sand particles. With the
increase in clay content, the contact form of the former becomes the contact between sand
and clay particles, whereas that of the latter becomes the contact between sand particles
and calcium carbonate. Among the three contact types, the friction resistance between sand
particles and calcium carbonate is the highest. The friction resistance of sand particles in
contact with sand particles ranks in the middle. Sand particles have the smallest contact
with clay particles, but the difference between them is small. Therefore, the increase in the
internal friction angle after MICP treatment is not obvious. However, after MICP treatment,
als 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the mechanical biting force between the particles of the sample is significantly increased,
and the cohesion is greatly improved. The specimens can then withstand high external
forces before shear failure occurs. Therefore, the shear strength of the specimens without
MICP treatment is significantly improved.

Figure 9. Cohesion and internal friction angle with different clay contents (MICP-Treat).
Figure 9. Cohesion and internal friction angle with different clay contents

4. Mechanism Analysis of the Influence of Clay Content on Mic

4.1. Mechanism Analysis of the Influence of Different Clay Contents on
Strength
Obvious differences in unconfined compressive strength
observed at different clay contents. After MICP treatment, three m
 4. Mechanism Analysis of the Influence of Clay Content on Microbial Curing
4.1. Mechanism Analysis of the Influence of Different Clay Contents on Unconfined Compress
Strength
Materials 2022, 15, 3414 Obvious differences in unconfined compressive strength and failure 10 of 15 strain

observed at different clay contents. After MICP treatment, three main contact modes
observed among sand, clay, and calcium carbonate: clay and calcium carbonate (cont
4. Mechanism Analysis of the Influence of Clay Content on Microbial Curing
point 1 in Figure 10), sand and calcium carbonate (contact point 2 of Figure 10), and c
4.1. Mechanism Analysis of the Influence of Different Clay Contents on Unconfined Compressive Strength
and sand (contact point 3 of Figure 10). When the clay content is low, the clay is mai
Obvious differences in unconfined compressive strength and failure strain are ob-
usedserved
for fill, and theclay
at different contact mode
contents. among
After sand, clay,
MICP treatment, and
three calcium
main contactcarbonate
modes are is mai
contact points
observed 1 andsand,
among 2. When thecalcium
clay, and clay content is high,
carbonate: thecalcium
clay and contactcarbonate
mode among(contactsand, cl
and calcium carbonate is mainly contact points 1 and 3.
point 1 in Figure 10), sand and calcium carbonate (contact point 2 of Figure 10), and clay
A low
and sandclay content
(contact pointcan3 ofimprove
Figure 10).the
Whenstrength
the clayofcontent
sand for thethe
is low, following reasons:
clay is mainly
used for fill, and the contact mode among sand, clay, and calcium carbonate is mainly
(1) contact
Clay particles
points 1 and are evenly
2. When distributed
the clay content is in
high,the
thepores
contact of
mode theamong
sandsand,
column,
clay, there
increasing the specific surface area of
and calcium carbonate is mainly contact points 1 and 3.the sand particles and providing good “nucl
sites” andclay
A low good
contentliving space the
can improve forstrength
bacteria to produce
of sand abundant
for the following effective calci
reasons:
carbonate;
(1) Clay particles are evenly distributed in the pores of the sand column, thereby increas-
(2) Bacteria
ing theare negatively
specific surface charged,
area of the whereas clayand
sand particles particles
providing aregood
positively
“nuclearcharged
sites” so t
they can better adsorb bacteria. The injected bacteria are retained in the sand colu
and good living space for bacteria to produce abundant effective calcium carbonate;
(2) Bacteria are negatively charged, whereas clay particles are positively charged so that
to avoid bacterial loss and generate abundant effective calcium carbonate to impro
they can better adsorb bacteria. The injected bacteria are retained in the sand column
the strength of the sand
to avoid bacterial loss and column;
generate abundant effective calcium carbonate to improve
(3) The thecontact mode
strength of theamong sand, clay, and calcium carbonate is mainly contact poi
sand column;
1 and
(3) The2.contact
Whenmode subjected
among sand,to load,
clay, contact
and calciumpoints 1 and
carbonate 2 can contact
is mainly provide good frict
points
1 and 2. When subjected to load, contact points 1 and 2 can provide good friction
resistance to prevent sample failure and improve sample strength. Meanwh
resistance to prevent sample failure and improve sample strength. Meanwhile, cal-
calcium
cium carbonate
carbonate can can limit
limit the movement
the movement and deformation
and deformation between sand between
particlessand
and partic
and improve
improve thethe unconfined
unconfined compressive
compressive strengthstrength
and failureand failure
strain of the strain
sample.of the sampl

Contact point 2 Sliding failure

Contact point 2

Sand Sand Sand

Stress failure
Sand

Contact point 3 Contact point 3

Contact point 1
Clay CaCO3 CaCO3 Contact point 1
Clay

Figure 10. Diagram

Figure ofofsand-clay-CaCO
10. Diagram 3 contact.
sand-clay-CaCO3 contact.

4.2. Analysis of the Influence Mechanism of Different Clay Contents on Cohesion and Internal
Friction Angle
For the NL0–NL21 group samples (without MICP treatment), the influence of clay on
mixed soil is mainly related to the formation of the soil matrix membrane. After clay and
sand particles are mixed, three forms of contact exist between particles: contact between
sand particles, contact between sand and clay particles, and contact between clay particles.
The contact between sand and clay particles forms a matrix that wraps sand particles with
a certain thickness, which then becomes a “soil matrix film”, as shown in Figure 11.
When the clay content in the mixed soil is low (3–9%), the clay fills the pores between
sand particles. At this time, the contact form is mainly the contact between sand particles.
The internal friction angle of the mixed soil is large, the cohesion is low, and the shear
strength is high. With the increase in clay content, the pores between sand particles are filled,
and a soil matrix film that wraps the sand particles is gradually formed. The contact form
between particles changes from the contact between sand particles to the contact between
sand and clay particles. The internal friction angle decreases, the cohesion increases, and the
shear strength decreases gradually. At this time, the content of clay particles can continue
 Materials 2022, 15, 3414 11 of 15

to increase when these particles are in full contact with the matrix. The internal friction
angle of the mixed soil continues to decrease, the cohesion keeps rising, and the strength
decreases.
Clay is positively charged, while bacteria are negatively charged. For group NLC0~NLC21
samples treated by MICP, when the clay content is low, the amount of positive charge is
small, only a small number of bacteria can be absorbed, and less calcium carbonate can be
generated. The contact between the particles is mainly sand particles and sand particles.
At this time, the clay fills the pore between the sand particles but fails to fill, so it can be seen
that the cohesion and internal friction angle both increase when the clay content is less than
9%. As the clay content gradually increases, the positive charge of the sample increases and
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the number of bacteria adsorbed increases, which leads to the increase in calcium carbonate
production, the pore between the sand particles is filled gradually. The main contact form
between the sand particles and calcium carbonate is the contact between the sand particles
and the internal friction angle increases accordingly. The clay content continues to increase
4.2. Analysis
(over 9%) and whenof thethe
Influence Mechanism
pores between the sand of Different
particles Claythe
are filled, Contents on Cohesion
sand particles are an
Friction Angle
encapsulated, and the calcium carbonate generated begins to decrease (Figure 12). Because
the bacterial solution and nutrient solution will bring excessive clay to the bottom of the
sampleFor thethe
(inject NL0–NL21
liquid from topgroup samples
to bottom), (without
the clay MICP
content at the bottomtreatment),
is too high and the influ
on mixed soil is mainly related to the formation of the soil matrix membran
the pore is reduced, which is not conducive to the survival of bacteria. Moreover, due to the
barrier function of clay particles, the sand particles do not contact with calcium carbonate
and
very sand
well. Withparticles are of
the increase mixed, threetheforms
clay content, barrier of contact
effect becomesexist between
more and more parti
between
obvious, andsand the particles,
contact betweencontact between
sand particles andsand
calciumand clay particles,
carbonate becomes more andandcontact
particles.
more difficult.TheAtcontact
this time,between
the contact sand and clay
form becomes particles
the contact forms
between a matrix that
clay particles
and calcium carbonate. Sliding failure of the specimens occurs when subjected to certain
particles with(Figure
external loads a certain thickness,
13), which indicateswhich
that the then
cohesionbecomes a “soil
and internal frictionmatrix
angle film”,
Figure
gradually11.decrease with the increase in the clay content.

Contact between clay

Sand
Sand
Clay

Clay particles in Sand

contact with sand
particles
Sand

Contact between sand particles

Figure 11.Diagram
Figure 11. Diagram of sand-clay
of sand-clay contact. contact.

When the clay content in the mixed soil is low (3–9%), the clay fills the po
sand particles. At this time, the contact form is mainly the contact between sa
The internal friction angle of the mixed soil is large, the cohesion is low, a
strength is high. With the increase in clay content, the pores between sand
filled, and a soil matrix film that wraps the sand particles is gradually formed
 contact of
increase between sand particles
clay content, andeffect
the barrier calcium carbonate
becomes becomes
more and more more andand
obvious, morethedi
At thisbetween
contact time, thesandcontact form
particles andbecomes the contact
calcium carbonate between
becomes moreclay
and particles and c
more difficult.
carbonate.
At this time,Sliding failure
the contact formof the specimens
becomes occursbetween
the contact when subjected to certain
clay particles externa
and calcium
carbonate.
(Figure 13),Sliding failure
which of the specimens
indicates that theoccurs when subjected
cohesion to certain
and internal external
friction angleloads
gra
Materials 2022, 15, 3414 (Figure 13), which indicates that the cohesion
decrease with the increase in the clay content. and internal friction angle gradually
12 of 15

decrease with the increase in the clay content.

CaCO3 content
CaCO3 content

3 content(%)
CaCO3 content(%)
CaCO

Clay content(%)
Clay content(%)
Figure 12. Average calcium carbonate content with different clay contents (MICP-Treat).
Figure 12. Average calcium carbonate content with different clay contents (MICP-Treat).
Figure 12. Average calcium carbonate content with different clay contents (MICP-Treat).
Sliding failure
Sliding failure

Sand
Sand Sand Sand
Sand Stress failure
Sand Sand Sand
Stress failure
CaCO3 CaCO3
Clay Clay
CaCO3 CaCO3
Clay Figure
Figure13.
13.Sand-clay-CaCO contactdiagram.
Sand-clay-CaCO33 contact diagram. Clay

FigureFor further microscopic analysis, diagram.

the cured columns with different clay contents are
For13. Sand-clay-CaCO
further microscopic3 contact
analysis, the cured columns with different clay contents are
magnified 100 times, as shown in Figure 14. The amount of calcium carbonate produced at
magnified 100clay
the different times, as shown
contents differs.inThe
Figure
amount 14. of
The amount
calcium of calcium
carbonate carbonate
produced by NLC21produced
theFor
atgroups isfurther
different
small, claymicroscopic
and contents
the analysis,
particlediffers.
image Thethe
looks cured
amount
smooth columns
of calcium
(compared with
with different
carbonate
that clay conte
of theproduced
NLC0 by
NLC21
magnifiedgroups
group). This100 is small,
times,
result is due and the
astoshown particle image
in Figure
the excessive amount looks
14.ofThe smooth
clayamount (compared
of calcium
that surrounds with that
carbonate
the surface of of the
pro
NLC0 group). This result is due to the excessive amount
at the different clay contents differs. The amount of calcium carbonate produ
the sand particles, resulting in a smooth SEM image. MICP of clay
curing that
causessurrounds
the the
continuous surface
of the sand
NLC21 groups
accumulation particles,
of calciumresulting
is small, carbonate.in a smooth
and theInitially,
particle imageSEMlooks
the distribution image. MICPcarbonate
smooth
of calcium curing in
(compared causes
withthe
the
that
continuous
sand
NLC0
column
group).accumulation
is disordered.
This result of
As calcium
the
is due
reaction carbonate.
progresses,
to theFor excessive Initially,
the calcium
amount the distribution
carbonate
ofgroups
clay that of
accumulates
surrounds calciumthe s
constantly,
carbonate inthus
theforming particle
sand column clusters.
is disordered. the NLC3
As theand NLC9
reaction in the
progresses, image,
the calcium
of thethesand
when particles,
clay content is 3% resulting
and 9%, thein a smooth
calcium carbonate SEM image. MICP
can accumulate curing caus
continuously
carbonate accumulates constantly, thus forming particle clusters. For the NLC3 and NLC9
continuous
to form particle accumulation
clusters. Whenofthecalcium clay contentcarbonate.
is 21%, theInitially,
distributiontheof distribution
the calcium of c
groups in the image, when thea clay content is can
3% provide
and 9%,anthe calciumpointcarbonate can
carbonate continuously
carbonate
accumulate
isin the sand to
disordered column
because
form
lowis disordered.
clay
particle
content As thethereaction
attachment progresses,
is 21%,the
and
the c
survival space for bacteria and can combine withclusters. When
calcium ions clay to
continuously content
form calcium
carbonate
distribution accumulates
of the can
carbonate, which calcium constantly,
generatecarbonate thus
particleisclusters.
forming
disordered particle
because
However,
clusters.
a low
when theclay
For the
claycontent
content can
NLC3
is tooprovide and
groups
anhigh, in
attachment the
the pores pointimage, when
and survival
are reduced, the clay
the livingspace
space forcontent
bacteria
of bacteria is 3% and
and can combine
is destroyed, 9%, the calcium
with
and calcium carbona
calcium ions
carbonate
accumulate continuously to form particle clusters. When
continuously to form calcium carbonate, which can generate particle clusters. However,
cannot aggregate into clusters, resulting in minimal generation of the
calciumclay content
carbonate, is 21
distribution
which reduces ofthe
theshear
calcium carbonate
strength of sand is disordered
samples. because
In addition, theasand
low particles
clay content
are can p
encapsulated by excessive clay particles, and when the sample is subjected to external
an attachment point and survival space for bacteria and can combine with calciu
loads, the sliding failure of the sand and clay particles also reduces the strength of the
continuously
sand sample. to form calcium carbonate, which can generate particle clusters. Ho
 when the clay content is too high, the pores are reduced, the living space of bacteria is
destroyed, and calcium carbonate cannot aggregate into clusters, resulting in minimal
generation of calcium carbonate, which reduces the shear strength of sand samples. In
addition, the sand particles are encapsulated by excessive clay particles, and when the
Materials 2022, 15, 3414 sample is subjected to external loads, the sliding failure of the sand and clay particles
13 also
of 15
reduces the strength of the sand sample.

NLC0 NLC3

NLC9 NLC21

Figure 14.
Figure 14. SEM
SEM image
image with
with different
different clay
clay contents
contents (100
(100×).
×).

5.
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
(1) The failure
(1) The failure strain
strain and
and unconfined
unconfined compressive strength of
compressive strength of the
the MICP-treated
MICP-treated sandsand
column increase initially and then decrease with the increase in clay content and reach
column increase initially and then decrease with the increase in clay content and
the maximum when the clay content is 9%. A low clay content is beneficial to the
reach the maximum when the clay content is 9%. A low clay content is beneficial to
microbial curing effect, the failure strain and unconfined compressive strength of the
the microbial curing effect, the failure strain and unconfined compressive strength of
sample are significantly improved, and the integrity of the sample remains good after
the sample are significantly improved, and the integrity of the sample remains good
damage. A high clay content is not conducive to MICP sand curing, and brittle failure
after damage. A high clay content is not conducive to MICP sand curing, and brittle
occurs in the sample;
failure occurs in the sample;
(2) With the increase in clay content in the sand–clay mixed soil, the peak strength of the
(2) With the increase in clay content in the sand–clay mixed soil, the peak strength of the
sample under the same confining pressure gradually decreases, the internal friction
sample under the same confining pressure gradually decreases, the internal friction
angle of the mixed soil gradually decreases, and the cohesion gradually increases.
angle of the mixed soil gradually decreases, and the cohesion gradually increases.
After MICP treatment, the internal friction angle and cohesion of sand increase initially
After MICP treatment, the internal friction angle and cohesion of sand increase
and then decrease with the increase in clay content, and the shear strength reaches the
initially
maximum and thenthe
when decrease with the
clay content increase
is 9%. in clay
The main content,
reason is thatand theclay
a low shear strength
content can
reaches the maximum when the clay content is 9%. The main reason
promote the formation of calcium carbonate, enhance the mechanical biting is that a low clay
action
between particles, and increase the strength of samples;
(3) When the clay content exceeds 9%, excessive clay will flow with the bacterial liquid
and nutrient liquid, then accumulate at the bottom of the sand sample, which is
not conducive to the growth of bacteria and the formation of calcium carbonate.
At last, less calcium carbonate will be produced, and the content of available calcium
carbonate will be low, finally resulting in low strength;
Materials 2022, 15, 3414 14 of 15

(4) The influence of clay on mixed soil is mainly related to the soil matrix film. When clay
and sand particles are mixed, the clay particles wrap around the sand particles to form a
soil matrix film with a certain thickness, and this changes the contact form between sand
particles, thus affecting the internal friction angle, cohesion, and strength of samples.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.F.; writing, S.L.; formal analysis, S.L.; data curation,
H.G.; supervision, Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (Grant
No. 2022A1515011047).
Data Availability Statement: The data used to support the findings of this study are included within
the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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