AGRICOLA

[1.1] Clārōrum virōrum facta mōrēsque posterīs trādere, 1 antīquitus ūsitātum, nē nostrīs
Of-famous men deeds and-character to-posterity to-hand-down in-ancient-times customary not in-our

quidem temporibus quamquam incūriōsa suōrum aetās omīsit, quotiēns magna aliqua ac
even times although heedless of-own-affairs the-age has-neglected whenever great some and

nōbilis virtūs vīcit ac supergressa est vītium parvīs magnīsque cīvitātibus commūne,
noble virtue has-defeated and overcome has fault to-small and-great states common

ignōrantiam rēctī et invidiam. [1.2] Sed apud priōrēs ut agere digna memorātū
ignorance of-righteousness and envy but among earlier[generations] as to-do things-worthy of-relating

prōnum magisque in apertō2 erat, ita celeberrimus quisque ingeniō ad prōdendam virtūtis
easy and-more in the-open was thus most-famous each-person for-talent to publicising of-virtue

memoriam sine grātiā aut ambitiōne bonae tantum cōnscientiae3 pretiō dūcēbātur.4 [1.3]
memory without partiality or self-seeking of-good only awareness by-reward was-led

Ac plērīque suam ipsī5 vītam nārrāre fīdūciam potius mōrum quam adrogantiam arbitrātī
And many own themselves life to-relate confidence rather in-their-character than arrogance considered

sunt, nec id Rutiliō et Scaurō6 citrā fidem aut obtrectātiōnī fuit: adeō7 virtūtēs īsdem
_ nor this to-Rutilius and Scaurus short-of credibility or matter-of-reproach was so-much virtuous-deeds in-same

temporibus optimē aestimantur, quibus facillimē gignuntur. [1.4] At nunc nārrātūrō mihi
times best are-thought-of in-which most-easily they-are-produced but now about-to-narrate to-me vītam
dēfūnctī hominis veniā opus8 fuit, quam nōn petīssem incūsātūrus: tam saeva et
life of-dead person of-pardon need was which not I-would-have-sought [if]going-to-denigrate so savage

īnfēsta virtūtibus tempora

and hostile to-virtues [are]the-times.

1
This infinitive phrase is the object of the verb omīsit.
2
`had full scope’ (metaphor from an open field without obstacles). prōnum is literally `downhill’.
3
`awareness of having done a good deed’. The Latin word conscientia only acquired the precise
meaning of its English derivative conscience later on.
4
As the Dickinson College Commentary points out, Tacitus was thinking of biographers of the
Republican period such as the pre-eminent scholar Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 B.C.), whose
Imagines (accounts of famous individuals) have not survived, and Cornelius Nepos, extracts from
whose De Viris Illustribus are included in Wheelock’s’ `Loci Immutati’ section. Despite the claim that
such writers were always objective, Nepos’ biography of Cicero’s friend Atticus has been criticised as
too favourable (Sleeman, p.58). See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos for further details.
5
As subject of nārrāre, this should be ipsōs but is put in agreement with the subject of arbitrātī sunt.
6
Referring to the autobiographies of political rivals Publius Rutilius Rufus, consul in 105 B.C. and
Marcus Aemilius Scaurus, consul in 115 and 107 B.C. Whilst on the staff of the governor of Asia in
98.B.C. Rufus tried to check the rapacity of the Equestrian tax collectors. In revenge, he was himself
convicted of extortion in 92 B.C. by an Equestrian jury but demonstrated his innocence by choosing to
spend his exile in the same province he had been accused of plundering. Scaurus, in contrast was
believed by some to have taken bribes from Jugurtha, king of Numidia but Cicero admired both men.
He described Scaurus’s autobiography as `useful but read by nobody’ (Brutus, 112);
7
`so true it is that’
8
Opus est (literally `there is work’) is frequently used in the sense of `there is a need’ with the ablative
of the thing required and dative of the person requiring it.
Quaestor reading the death sentence otThrasea Paetus (Fyodor Bronnikov, before 1873)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Clodius_Thrasea_Paetus#/media/File:Bronnikov_Thrasea_Paetus.jpg

[2.1] Legimus, cum Arulēnō Rūsticō Paetus Thrasea, Hērenniō Seneciōnī Prīscus Helvidius 9
We-read when by-Arulenus Rusticus Paetus Thrasea by-Herennius Senecio Priscus Helvidius

laudātī essent, capitāle fuisse, neque in ipsōs modo auctōrēs, sed in librōs quoque eōrum
praised had-been capital-offence to-have-been nor in themselves only authors but on books also of-them

saevītum, dēlēgātō triumvirīs ministeriō ut monumenta clārissimōrum ingeniōrum in

10 11

savagery- inflicted assigned to-triumvirs task that monuments of-most-illustrious talents in

comitiō ac forō ūrerentur. [2.2] Scīlicet illō igne vōcem populī Rōmānī et lībertātem senātūs
12

9
L. Junius Rusticus Arulenus was executed under Domitian in 93 A.D. for describing as sanctissimī
virī both Paetus Thrasea, an opponent of Nero executed in 66 A.D, and also Helvidius Priscus, Paetus’s
son-in-law, who was put to death in 73 for disrespect towards the emperor Vespasian. Herennius
Senecio, was executed at the same time as Rusticus because of his biography of Helvidius and because
his failure to ask the emperor for an official appointment was regarded as evidence of disloyalty.
Tacitus here used the dative case for the agents of the verb laudātī essent instead of ā or ab with the
ablative which Cicero would have preferred. The oppositional stance of all four was grounded in their
Stoic philosophy. For further information see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arulenus_Rusticus,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Clodius_Thrasea_Paetus,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herennius_Senecio and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvidius_Priscus
Tacitus frequently inverts the normal order of Roman names, putting the cognomen (family surname)
first,.
10
The triumvirī or tresvirī capitālēs, responsible for the supervision of prisons and executions.
11
Ablative absolute: `having been assigned to the triumvirs the task that…
12
The comitium was an area at the northern end of the forum, near the Curia (senate house) and had
been the meeting place for the Comitia Curiats (`Curiate Assembly’), which had retained certain
ceremonial functions during the Republican era. Despite the attempted suppressikon of the work, a
copy of Herennius’s biography of Helvidius was preserved by Fannia, Helvidius’s wife and Paetus’
daughter, at whose request the biography had originally been written.
comitium and forum should-be-burned of-course with-that fire voice of-people Roman and liberty of-senate

et cōnscientiam generis hūmānī abolērī arbitrābantur, expulsīs īnsuper sapientiae

and awareness of-race human to-be-erased they-considered having-been-expelled in-addition of-philosophy

professōribus13 atque omnī bonā arte in exilium āctā, nē quid usquam honestum occurreret.
Professors and every good art into exile driven lest any anywhere honest-action should-occur

[2.3] Dedimus profectō grande patientiae documentum; et sīcut vetus aetās vīdit quid ultimum
We-have-given undoubtedly great of-patience proof and just-as old era saw what the-extreme

in lībertāte esset,14 ita nōs quid in servitūte,15 adēmptō per inquīsītiōnēs etiam loquendī
in-liberty was so we what in servitude having-been-removed through espionage also of-speaking

audiendīque commerciō.16 Memoriam quoque ipsam cum vōce perdidissēmus, sī tam in

and-listening interaction memory also itself with voice we-would-have-lost it as-much in

nostrā potestāte esset oblīvīscī quam tacēre.

our power it-was to-forget as to-be-silent

Statue of the Emperor Nerva in the Forum Romanum

13
Domitian expelled philosophers from Rome in 93 and possibly also in 89.
14
Referring to the final decades of the Republic, marked by frequent civil strife.
15
Supply ultimum esset after servitūte
16
The encouragement by Tiberius, Nero and Domitian of the system of informers made it difficult to
know who one could speak freely to.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerva#/media/File:Nerva_Forum_Romanum.png

3.1] Nunc dēmum redit animus; et quamquam prīmō statim beātissimī saeculī ortū Nerva
Now finally has-returned [our] spirit and although at-first at-once of-a-most-blessed era start Nerva

Caesar17 rēs ōlim dissociābilēs miscuerit, prīncipātum ac lībertātem, augeatque cotīdiē

Caesar things once incompatible combined the-principate and freedom and-increases daily

fēlīcitātem temporum Nerva Traiānus,18 nec spem modo ac vōtum sēcūritās pūblica,19sed
the-hasppiness of-the-times Nerva Trajan and-not hope merely and prayer security public but of-actual

ipsīus vōtī fīdūciam ac rōbur adsumpserit, nātūrā tamen īnfirmitātis hūmānae tardiōra sunt
of-actual prayer confidence and strength has-taken-up by-nature however of-weakness human slower[-working] are

remedia quam mala; et ut corpora nostra lentē augēscunt, cito extinguuntur, sīc ingenia
remedies than evils and as bodies our slowly grow quickly perish thus talent studiaque20oppresserīs
facilius quam revocāverīs: subit quippe etiam ipsīus inertiae dulcēdō,
and- enthusiasms you-can-suppress more-easily than you-can-revive creeps-up since also itself of-idleness pleasure

et invīsa prīmō dēsidia postrēmō amātur. [3.2] Quid, 21 sī per quīndecim annōs,22 grande
and hated at-first inactivity later is-loved what if throughout fifteen years large

mortālis aevī spatium, multī fortuitīs cāsibus, prōmptissimus quisque 23 saevitiā

of-mortal life stretch many through-accidental misfortunes most-active each through-cruelty

prīncipis intercidērunt, paucī et, ut ita dīxerim, 24 nōn modo aliōrum sed etiam nostrī
of-emperor perished [we]few also that this I-may-say not only of-others but also of-ourselves

superstitēs sumus, exēmptīs ē mediā vītā tot annīs, quibus iuvenēs ad senectūtem,
survivors are having-been taken-away from middle-of of-life so-many years in-which young men to old-age

senēs prope ad ipsōs exāctae aetātis terminōs per silentium vēnimus? [3.3] Nōn tamen
old-men near to actual of-completed lifespan end in silence we-have-come not however

pigēbit vel inconditā ac rudī vōce memoriam priōris servitūtis ac

it-will-be-a-matter-of-regret even in-an-unpolished and crude style record of--previous servitude and

testimōnium praesentium bonōrum composuisse.25 Hic interim liber honōrī Agricolae

17
The elderly Marcus Cocceius Nerva (reigned 96-98 A.D.), although he had been at one time a firm
supporter of Nero and later of the Flavian dynasty (i.e. Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian) was
also respected by the senators and chosen by them to replace Domitian after his assassination in 96
A.D.
18
Marcus Ulpius Traianus (reigned 98-117 A.D.), born in Spain and popular with the army, was
adopted by Nerva in 97 to ensure they loyalty of the troops, who were becoming discontented with
him. He was made a partner in government and became sole emperor when Nerva died early in 98
19
sēcūritās pūblica, a phrase often found on coins, is an abstraction that is here personified. The verb
adsumpserit governs both spem … ac vōtum and also vōtī fīdūciam ac rōbur but has to be
understood in different sense with the two objects: `public security has not only allowed itself to
entertain hope and prayer but also attained confidence and strength in its prayer.’ Woodman amends
adsumpserit (literally `taken to itself’) to aetās suāsit (`the age urged’)..
20
`genius and its pursuits’ is the elegant translation of this phrase suggested by two modern editors.
21
Equivalent to `what must be the case if..’ (Sleeman, p.63)
22
Referring to the fifteen years of Domitian’s reign (81 to 96 A.D.)
23
i.e. all those who were most energetic
24
`in a manner of speaking’
25
At the time of composition of Agricola (98 A.D.?), Tacitus was evidently intending to write an
testimony of-present good-fortune to-have-composed this in-meantime book in-honour of-Agricola

socerī meī dēstinātus, professiōne pietātis aut laudātus erit aut excūsātus.
father-in-law my designed as-expression of-duty either praised will-have-been or-{at-least}excused

Location of Forum Iulii (Fréjus). Agricola’s birthplace

[4.1] Gnaeus Iūlius Agricola, vetere et inlūstrī Foroiuliēnsium colōniā ortus, 26 utrumque
Gnaeus Julius Agricola from-old and famous of-Forum-Julii colony originating as each

avum prōcūrātōrem27 Caesarum habuit, quae equestris nōbilitās est.28 Pater illī29 Iūlius
grandfather procurator of-emperors had which equestrian nobility is father to-him Julius

account both of Domitian and of Nerva’s reign. His Histories, published between 104 and 109, actually
covered events from the death of Galba in 69 to that of Domitian in 96 A.D. He seems later to have
planned eventually to write also on the reign of Trajan but never did this, instead producing his
Annales, which dealt with the period from the death of Agustus (14 A.D.) to 69.
26
Forum Julii (modern Fréjus), situated on the Mediterranean coast SW of Nice, was founded by Julius
Caesar, probably in 49 B.C. and became an important naval base under Augustus; for details, see
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9jus) , It should be distinguished from two other towns of the
same name, modern Friuli in NE Italy and Voghera in the NW. Foriuliēnsēs refers to the town’s
inhabitants.
27
Procurators were normally financial officials responsible to the emperor with the usual title of
prōcūrātor Augustī rather than prōcūrātor Caesaris. They served under governors of senatorial rank
in the more important imperial provinces and could themselves be governors of less important ones.
28
The antecedent of quae is presumably prōcurātiō (procuratorship), understood from the noun
prōcūrātōrem. Holders of such positions ranked as the elite amongst the equestrian order and were
known as equitēs illustrēs or splendidī
29
With Tacitus’ typical brevity, the verb fuit is left for the reader to supply.
Graecīnus30 senātōriī ōrdinis, studiō ēloquentiae31 sapientiaeque nōtus, iīsque ipsīs virtūtibus
Graecinus of-senatorial rank for-enthusiasm for-literature and-philosophy known and-by-those very virtues

īram Gāī Caesaris meritus: namque Mārcum Sīlānum 32 accūsāre iussus et, quia abnuerat,
anger f-Gaius Caesar having-earned for Marcus Silanus to-accuse ordered and because he-had-refused

interfectus est.33 [4.2] Māter Iūlia Procilla fuit, rārae castitātis. In huius sinū indulgentiāque 34
killed was mother Julia Procilla was of-rare chastity in her lap and-kindness

ēducātus per omnem honestārum artium cultum pueritiam adulēscentiamque trānsēgit.

brought-up through all of-respectable arts cultivation childhood and-adolescence he-passed

Remains of a tower forming part of Forum Iulii’s fortifications

http://roamintheempire.com/index.php/2020/02/12/forum-julii/

Arcēbat eum ab inlecebrīs peccantium praeter ipsīus bonam integramque nātūram, quod
Was-keeping him from temptations of-bad-persons as-wella-as own good and-stainless nature fact-that

statim parvulus sēdem ac magistram studiōrum Massiliam habuit, locum Graecā cōmitāte et
at-once as-youngster scene and guide of-studies Massilia he-had place with-Greek refinement and

prōvinciālī parsimōniā mixtum ac bene compositum. 35 [4.3] Memoriā teneō solitum ipsum

30
Lucius Julius Graecinus, known from the inscription on the tomb set up by his brother to have served
as praetor. He probably joined the senate in 40 A.D.
31
Less probably, eloquentia here refers only to public speaking
32
Either Marcus Junius Silanus, father-in-law of the emperor Gaius (Caligula) and consul in 15 A.D.,
who was ordered to commit suicide by Caligula in 38 B.C., or the man with the same name who was
consul in 18.
33
Woodman points out that, since Agricola was not given the name `Postumus’, Graecinus was
probably still alive when his son was born in June 40. He therefore died between then and Caligula’s
own assassination on 24 January 41,
34
The phrase sinū indulgentiā is a hendiadys, equivalent to `tender care’.
35
i.e. a place which happily blended Greek refinement with provincial frugality. Massilia, modern
provincial frugality mixed and well blended in-memory I-hold accustomed he-himself

nārrāre sē prīmā in iuventā studium philosophiae ācrius, ultrā quam concessum Rōmānō ac
to-relate himself early in youth enthusiasm for-philosophy keener more than permitted to-a-Roman and

senātōrī, hausisse,36 nī prūdentia mātris incēnsum ac flagrantem animum coercuisset.

a-senator to-have-imbibed if-not good-sense of-mother on-fire and burning mind had-checked

Scīlicet sublīme et ērēctum ingenium pulchritūdinem ac speciem magnae excelsaeque

of-course a-lofty and upright character beauty and the-appearance of-great and-high glory

glōriae37 vehementius quam cautē adpetēbat. Mox mītigāvit ratiō et aetās, 38 retinuitque,
more-vehemently than cautiously sought-after soon made-less-intense reason and age and-he-retained which is

quod est difficillimum, ex sapientiā modum.39

which is most-difficult from philosophy moderation

Marseilles, founded by Greek colonists from Phocaea in Asia Minor in around 600 B.C. had a
reputation for both learning and decorum. The Greek geographer Strabo (4.1.5), writing in about 20
A.D., claimed that Romans of his time preferred it even to Athens as a place to study abroad.
36
The normal Latin for `would have imbibed’ in reported speech is haustūrum fuisse (ie, future
participle with perfect infinitive of esse). The use of hausisse (literally `that he had imbibed’)
emphasises how far his obsession had gone - `he had imbibed and would have continued to imbibe.’
37
i.e. the glory which philosophy itself seemed to promise
38
The phrase could be idiomatically translated as `the discretion of mature years’ (Sleeman).
39
Both enthusiasm for philosophy and suspicion of it characterised the Roman elite. There was concern
that `quietist’ ideas such as those of Epicurus might undermine the strength of the Roman state and
also, particularly for emperors and their loyal followers, alarm at the republican attitudes that often
accompanied devotion to Stoicism.
 Calanque National Park on the Mediterranean coast south of Marseilles
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Calanque_en.JPG
[5.1] Prīma castrōrum rudīmenta in Britanniā Suētōniō Paulīnō, dīligentī ac moderātō dūcī,
First of-military-life steps in Britannia from-Suetonius Paulinus careful and self-restrained leader

adprobāvit, ēlēctus quem contuberniō aestimāret. 40 Nec Agricola licenter, mōre iuvenum quī
he-won-approval-for chosen who by-staff-appointment he-might-evaluate neither Agricola licentiously in-manner of-youths who

mīlitiam in lascīviam vertunt, neque sēgniter ad voluptātēs et commeātūs titulum tribūnātūs et

military-life into wantonness turn nor lazily for pleasures and going-off-on-leave rank of-tribune and

īnscītiam rettulit:41 sed nōscere prōvinciam, nōscī exercituī, discere ā perītīs, sequī

40
Suētōniō Paulīnō is dative of personal involvement – Agricola won approval for (adprobāvit) his
first steps and Paulinus was the person giving this. The perfect participle ēlectus probably does not
here refer to an action before that of the main verb but is equivalent to et ēlectus est. The subjunctive
clause quem contuberniō aestimāret is most likely one of purpose (i.e. Paulinus selected Agricola for
evaluation as a staff officer) but could also be a relative clause of characteristic (i.e the general
recognised Agricola as the kind of man worthy of a staff appointment). contubernium is literally
`tenting together’ but is used also of a junior officer’s attendance on a senior one.. Gaius Suetonius
Paulinus, praetor in 40 A.D. had served as governor of Mauretania in North Africa in 41-42 A.D. and
in the latter year put down a revolt as well as possibly serving as suffect consul. He was governor of
Britain in 59-61 and either he or his son (also named Gaius) was consul in 66. He fought for Otho in
the civil wars of 69 but was pardoned by Vitellius after Otho’s defeat and death. See the Dickinson
commentary and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Suetonius_Paulinus
41
The commander of a Roman legion at this time was assisted by six tribūnī mīlitum (military
tribunes), young men at the beginning of their official careers. One of these, the tribūnus lāticlāvus
(`broadstriped’) was of senatorial rank and technically the legion’s second-in-command and the other
five tribūnī angusticlāvī (`narrow-striped’) from the equestrian order and seemingly with little real
lack-of-skill exploited but was-learning-about province was-getting-known to-army was-leaning from experts was-following

optimōs, nihil adpetere in iactātiōnem, nihil ob formīdinem recūsāre, simulque et ānxius

the-best-men nothing was-seeking for boasting nothing because-of fear was-refusing and-at-same-time both cautious

et intentus agere. [5.2] Nōn sānē aliās exercitātior magisque in ambiguō Britannia fuit:
and focussed behaved not of-course at-any-other-time more-disturbed and-more in doubt Britain was

trucīdātī veterānī, incēnsae colōniae, interceptī exercitūs; tum dē salūte, mox dē victōriā
slaughtered veterans burned colonies cut-off armies then for survival soon for victory

certāvēre. [5.3] Quae cūncta etsī cōnsiliīs ductūque alterīus agēbantur, ac summa rērum they-

strove these all-things although under-plans and-leadership of-another were-dealt-with and supreme-command

et recuperātae prōvinciae glōria in ducem cessit, artem et ūsum et stimulōs addidēre iuvenī,
and of-recovered province glory to the-general fell skill and experience and motivation they-added to-the-youngster

intrāvitque animum mīlitāris glōriae cupīdō, ingrāta temporibus quibus sinistra ergā
and-entered [his]mind of-military glory desire unpleasing to-times in-which sinister towards

ēminentēs interpretātiō42 nec minus perīculum ex magnā fāmā quam ex malā.

those-who-excelled interpretation and-not less danger from great reputation than from bad-one

Statue of Suetonius Paulinus erected in 1894 on the terrace of the Roman baths at Bath
in SW England
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Suetonius_Paulinus#/media/File:Roman_baths_suetonius_paulinus_02.JPG

authority. As the son of a senator, Agricola was probably a lāticlāvus, though it is assumed at
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_tribune# that he was angusticlāvus, and the lesser position
would have given more scope for the irresponsible behaviour Tacitus suggested typical of many
tribunes. It is not known which legion Agricola had originally been assigned to but it may have been
Legio II Augusta, whose commander committed suicide after he had denied his men a share in
Suetonius’ victory against Boudicca by disobeying the order to join him before the battle.
42
erat has to be understood with this phrase: those in power put a sinister construction on the deeds of
outstanding men because they suspected possible rivalry.
[6.1] Hinc ad capessendōs magistrātūs in urbem dēgressus Domitiam Decidiānam, 43
Then for being-obtained magistracies to city having-returned Domitia Decidiana

splendidīs nātālibus ortam, sibi iūnxit; idque mātrimōnium ad maiōra nītentī decus ac rōbur
from-splendid ancestry sprung to-self he-joined and-this marriage for greater-things striving prestige and strength

fuit. vīxēruntque mīrā concordiā, per mūtuam cāritātem et in vicem sē antepōnendō, nisi
was and-they-lived in-extraordinary harmony through mutual affection and in-turn to-each-other giving-precedence except

quod in bonā uxōre tantō maior laus, quantō in mālā plūs culpae est. 44 [6.2] Sors quaestūrae
that in good wife as-much greater praise as in bad-one more of-blame there-is drawing-lots for-quaestorship

prōvinciam Asiam, prōcōnsulem Salvium Titiānum dedit, quōrum neutrō corruptus est,
province Asia proconsul Salvius Titianus gave of-which by-neither corrupted he-was

quamquam et prōvincia dīves ac parāta peccantibus, et prōcōnsul in omnem aviditātem prōnus

although both province rich and ripe for-evil-doers and proconsul to all [types-of] greed prone

quantālibet facilitāte redēmptūrus esset mūtuam dissimulātiōnem malī. 45 Auctus est

with-any-amount-of indulgence ready-to-purchase was mutual concealment of-wrong-doing increased [i.e. blessed] he-was

ibi fīliā, in subsidium46 simul ac sōlācium; nam fīlium ante sublātum47 brevī āmīsit. [6.3]
there with-daughter for support at-same-time and consolation for son previously born soon he-lost

Mox inter quaestūram ac tribūnātum plēbis atque ipsum etiam tribūnātūs annum quiēte et ōtiō
Soon between quaestorship and tribunship of-the-plebs and actual also of-tribuneship year in-quiet and leisure

trānsiit, gnārus sub Nerōne temporum, quibus inertia prō sapientiā fuit. 48 [6.4] Idem praetūrae
he-passed aware under Nero of-times in-which inactivity for wisdom was [taken] same of-praetorship

tenor49 et silentium; nec enim iūrisdictiō obvēnerat. Lūdōs et inānia honōris mediō
course and silence not for duty-as-a-judge had-fallen [to-him] games and vain-shows of-office in-middle between

43
The daughter of Domitius Decidius, who was, like Agricola himself, a senator from Gallia
Narbonensis For the increasing importance in Roman society of families from this province and from
Hispania see Peter Burgers, `The Narbonensian Colonial Elite – 1958-1995’, Ancient Society
Vol. 28 (1997), pp. 89-106 ( https://www.jstor.org/stable/44079780).
44
i.e while the pair were matched in affection and consideration for each other, a good wife is more
praiseworthy than a good husband, just as a bad wife gets more blame. Tacitus is apparently implying
that women are less likely than men to reach the extremes of virtue or vice. He must have intended the
remark as a compliment to his mother-in-law who could have still been alive when he wrote.
45
Ten of the twenty quaestors elected each year were assigned by lot to serve in a province under the
proconsul governing it. Agricola probably held the post in 63/64 B.C. assisting both Lucius Salvius
Otho Titianus, brother of the future emperor Otho and consul in 52 and 69, and then his successor as
governor, the morally upright Lucius Antistius Verus (see Dickinson Commentary).
46
subsidium (support) could just mean psychological support, in compensation for the loss of his son,
but it might alternatively refer to the lex Papia Poppaea of 9 A.D. which allowed men with children to
hold magistracies before they reached the usual minimum age.
47
sublātum is literally `lifted up’. A new-born child was placed on the floor for the father to pick up as
proof that he acknowledged the offspring as his own. One estimate is that up to 40% of children born in
Rome at their time died before they reached the age of one.
48
The word annum has to be understood before inter (in the year between quaestorship and
tribuneship and in the actual year of his tribuneship). Agicola was tribune of the plebs in 66 and his
policy of keeping his head down contrasted with the impetuosity of his colleague Arulenus Rusticus,
who had wanted o use his tribune’s veto to block the trial of Thrasea Paetus (see chapter 2 above).
49
This is the usual emendation of the manuscripts’ certior. Another suggestion is that the original
word was torpor.
ratiōnis atque abundantiae dūxit, utī longē ā luxuriā ita fāmae propior. 50 [6.5] Tum ēlēctus
economy and lavishness he-conducted as far from extravagance as to-fame closer then chosen

The province of Asia, where Agricola served as quaestor in 64 A.D.

ā Galbā51 ad dōna templōrum recognōscenda dīligentissimā conquīsītiōne fēcit nē cuius
by Galba for gifts to the-temples being-inventoried most-careful by-investigation he brought-it-about that-not of-any-other

alterīus sacrilegium rēs pūblica quam Nerōnis sēnsisset. 52

other sacrilege state than of-Nero had-felt

50
Probably meaning that Agricola’s avoidance of extravagance enhanced his reputation in the eyes of
discerning people. There were up to 18 praetors each year and, apart from two who carried out the
judicial functions originally attached to the office, the rest were expected to provide entertainment for
the people of Rome as their own expense (Sleeman). As he had fathered two children, the lex Papia
Poppaea (see note 45 above) allowed him to became a praetor in 68, when he was two years below the
normal minimum age.
51
Servius Sulpicius Galba (3 B.C. – 69 A.D.) led a revolt against Nero and became emperor in June 68,
following the latter’s suicide. He was himself assassinated by the praetorian guard in January 69 at the
instigation of his former follower Otho, who became emperor in his place.
52
Agricola was able to restore to the temples treasures which had been appropriated by private
individuals but not the many valuable objects removed by Nero. The pluperfect subjunctive sēnsisset is
used instead of the normal imperfect to emphasise how completely the effects of past misdeeds had
been erased: `Thanks to his effort it was if the state had never suffered any sacrilege...’
 Ventimiglia (Albintimilium, ancient capital of the Intimilii) today
https://www.dejavufooddrink.it/ventimiglia-512/
[7.1] Sequēns annus gravī vulnere animum domumque eius adflīxit. Nam classis Othōniāna
Following year with-heavy wound mind and-home his afflicted for fleet of-Otho

licenter vaga dum Intimiliōs (Liguriae pars est) hostīliter populātur,53 mātrem Agricolae
without-restraint roaming whilst territory-of Intimilii of-Liguria part is as-enemies were-ravaging mother of-Agricola

in praediīs suīs interfēcit, praediaque ipsa et magnam patrimōniī partem dīripuit, quae causa
on estate her killed and-estate itself and great of-family-wealth part ransacked which cause

caedis fuerat. [7.2] Igitur ad sollemnia pietātis profectus Agricola, nūntiō adfectātī ā
of-murder had-been therefore to rituals of-family-duty having-set-out Agricola by-news of-claimed by

Vespasiānō imperiī dēprehēnsus ac statim in partēs trānsgressus est. 54 Initia prīncipātūs ac

Vespasianus empire surprised [was] and at-once to [his]side went-over beginning of-reign and

statum urbis Mūciānus regēbat, iuvene admodum Domitiānō et ex paternā fortūnā tantum
condition of-city Mucianus was controlling with-young quite Domitian and from pather’s imperial-rank only

licentiam ūsūrpante. [7.3] Is55 missum ad dīlēctūs agendōs56 Agricolam integrēque ac strēnuē
licence taking he sent for levies being-raised Agricola both honestly and energetically

53
Vitellius had been hailed as emperor by his troops on the Rhine frontier and they were now marching
towards Italy. Otho’s fleet was trying to take control of Gallia Narbonensis and Alpes Maritimae,
which were at this point backing Vitellius. Men from the fleet defeated some mountain tribesmen in
Alpes Maritimae but then, annoyed that they has not managed to capture any booty, attacked the
peaceful city of Albintimilium (modern Ventimiglia), capital of the Intimilii tribe, which is on the
Italian side of the modern border. Their raids covered a wide area as Forum Iulii, Agricola’s family
home, lay 65 miles to the west (see map on page 5).
54
Agricola’s mother was probably killed in February or March 69 but Vespasian was not proclaimed
emperor by the troops in Judaea and Syria until July. By October, Forum Julii was under the control of
the governor of Gallia Narbonensis and supporter of Vespasian, Valerius Paulinus, who was from
Agricola’s hometown. Rome itself was captured by Vespasian’s forces in December.
55
Refering to Mucianus, or, less likely, to Domitian. At this time orders were being issued from Rome
under Domitians’s name but Mucianus was making the actual decisions. Marcus Licinius Crassus
Marcianus had become governor of Syria in 67 and, after encouraging Vespasian to bid for power, had
been sent to Italy to take charge on his behalf.
56
Agricola was presumably recruiting soldiers in Italy, either to make up general losses in the civil
wars or specifically to set up a new legion, II Adiutrix, which was sent to Britain in 70 or 71 to replace
XIV Gemina, a unit withdrawn from the province by Nero in the late 60s.
versātum vīcēsimae legiōnī tardē ad sacrāmentum trānsgressae praeposuit, ubi dēcessor
having-operated of-20the legion tardily to oath-of-allegiance having-crossed-over he-put-in-charge where retiring-officer

sēditiōsē agere nārrābātur:57 quippe lēgātīs quoque cōnsulāribus nimia ac formīdolōsa erat,
disloyally to-be-behaving was-reported indeed for-legates even of-consular-rank too much and object-of-fear was-

Roof tile with the emblem of Legio CC Valeria Victrix

nec lēgātus praetōrius ad cohibendum potēns, 58 incertum suō an mīlitum

nor legate praetorian for restraining[it] capable incertain [-it-was-whether] because-of-own or soldiers’

ingeniō. Ita successor simul et ultor ēlēctus rārissimā moderātiōne māluit vidērī invēnisse
character thus successor at-sametime and avenger chosen with-very-rare moderation preferred to-seem to-have-found

bonōs quam fēcisse.

good-men than to-have-made

[8.1] Praeerat tunc Britanniae Vettius Bōlānus, 59 placidius quam ferōcī prōvinciā dignum est.

57
Tacitus neglects to mention that this appointment, probably made in 70, involved Agricola’s return to
Britain, where the Legio XX Valeria Victrix, which had formed part of the original invasion force in 43
A.D. , was stationed right up to the final Roman withdrawal in the early 5th century. The XXth had
supported Vitellius against Vespasian and was reluctant now to transfer its allegiance. The commander
whom Agricola was replacing, Marcus Roscius Coelius, had stirred the legion up against Marcus
Trebellius Maximus early in 69 and was now, either deliberately or because unable to control the men,
failing to get them to accept Vespasian. Coelius served as a suffect consul in 81.
58
The consulārēs referred to are Trebellius Maximus and his successor Vettius Bolanus; Britain, as a
province with more than one legion, had to be governed by ex-consuls. The praetōrius is Coelius, as
the commanders of individual legions were usually ex-praetors (like Agricola himself at this point).
59
Marcus Vettius Bolanus (c.33-76 A.D.) served in the Armenian campaign of 62 A.D. and was suffect
consul at the end of 66. Appointed governor of Britain by Vitellius in 69, he was recalled in 71. He
failed to give adequate support to the Roman client queen Cartimandua and she was replaced at the
head of the Brigantes, a fierce northern tribe, by her ex-husband and political rival, Bolanus may,
however, have regained control of some Brigantian territory later. He served as governor of Asia in
75/76. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Vettius_Bolanus and, for a kinder view of Bolanus
than that of Tacitus, the poem by the poet Statius (c.45 – c.96 A.D.) in praise of the general’s son -
https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/StatiusSilvaeBkV.php#anchor_Toc318276814
Was-in-charge then of-Britain Vettius Bolanus more-mildly than for-warlike province fitting was

Temperāvit Agricola vim suam ārdōremque compescuit, nē incrēsceret, perītus obsequī 60

Kept-under-control Agricola energy his and-enthusiasm restrained so he would-not-be-conspicuous skilled in-compliance

ērudītusque ūtilia honestīs miscēre. Brevī deinde Britannia cōnsulārem Petīlium Ceriālem 61
and-schooled advantageous with honouable to-combine soon then Britain ex-consul Petilius Cerialis

accēpit. [8.2] Habuērunt virtūtēs spatium exemplōrum, sed prīmō Ceriālis labōrēs modo et
received had virtues scope for-exemplary-deeds but first Cerialis hardships only and

discrīmina, mox et glōriam commūnicābat: saepe partī exercitūs in experīmentum, aliquandō

dangers soon also glory was-sharing often of-part of-army as test sometimes

maiōribus cōpiīs ex ēventū praefēcit. [8.3] Nec Agricola umquam in suam fāmam
of-larger forces on-basis-of result he-put-him-in-charge nor Agricola eeves for own reputation

gestīs exultāvit; ad auctōrem ac ducem ut minister fortūnam referēbat. Ita virtūte in

in-achievements gloried to their-author and his-leader as servant good-fortune he-credited thus by-valour in-midst-of

obsequendō, verēcundiā in praedicandō extrā invidiam nec extrā glōriam erat.

compliance by-modesty in proclamations excluded-from envy and-not from glory he-was.

60
The main manuscript of the Agricola has obsequīī (genitive singular of obsequium) but the final `i’
is crossed out to give obsequī which most editors see as an infinitive (from obsequor, obsequī,
obsecūtus sum) in parallel with miscēre, though it could also be a contracted form of the genitive
obsequiī. The basic meaning of the phrase would be the same in either case.
61
Quintus Petillius Cerialis (c.30 – after 83 A.D.) was Vespasian’s son-in-law, though his wife,
Domitilla the Younger, died before Vespasian became emperor. He was commander of Legio IX
Hispana in Britain in 60-61and narrowly survived when the legion was routed by the rebels under
Boudicca. He was held in Rome as a hostage by Vitellius in 69 but escaped in disguise and participated
in the capture of the city for Vespasian. As commander of Legio XIV Germana on the Rhine frontier he
suppressed a tribal revolt started by the Batavi, whose territory roughly corresponded with the modern
Netherlands. He was suffect consul towards the end of 70 and appointed governor of Britain in71,
campaigning against the Brigantes before leaving in 74, when he was again made a suffect consul. For
further details see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Petillius_Cerialis and, for Cerialis’ operations
in the north, https://englandsnortheast.co.uk/north-east-roman-conquest/ The name Cerialis was also
borne by the commander of the Batavian detachment stationed at Vindolanda on the northern frontier
some twenty years later, Flavius Cerialis, whose family had probably been granted citizenship by
Vespasian (hence the nōmen Flavius) and adopted the cognōmen in Petillius Cerialis’ honour (see the
detailed account at https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/vindolanda_01.shtml) .
 Brigantian territory before the Roman invasion of 43 A.D.
https://englandsnortheast.co.uk/north-east-roman-conquest/

[9.1] Revertentem ab lēgātiōne legiōnis dīvus Vespasiānus inter patriciōs 62 adscīvit; ac deinde
[him]returning from appointment of-legion deified Vespasian among patricians enrolled and then

prōvinciae Aquītāniae praeposuit, splendidae inprīmīs dignitātis administrātiōne ac spē

of-province Aquitania put-in-charge splendid in-first-place of-dignity from-administration and hope of-consulship

cōnsulātūs, cui dēstinārat.63 [9.2] Crēdunt plērīque mīlitāribus ingeniīs subtīlitātem dēesse,
consulship for-which he-had-destined-[him] believe many-people from-military talents subtlety to-be-missing

quia castrēnsis iūrisdictiō sēcūra et obtūsior ac plūra manū agēns calliditātem forī nōn

62
The patricians, who formed Rome’s original aristocracy, at one time held a monopoly of political
offices but by the end of the Republic all except some unimportant positions had been opened up to
plebeians. Patrician status nevertheless still conferred some prestige, and Agricola’s enrolment will
have been made after Vespasian’s assumption of the office of censor in April 73.
63
dēstinārat is the contracted form of pluperfect dēstināverat.
because camp jurisdiction uncomplicated and blunt and more-things off-handedly doing skill of-forum not

exerceat: Agricola nātūrālī prūdentiā, quamvīs inter togātōs, facile iūstēque agēbat. [9.3] Iam
it exercises Agricola by-natural good-sense although among civilians easily and-justly kept-acting now

vērō tempora cūrārum remissiōnumque dīvīsa: ubi conventūs 64 ac iūdicia poscerent,65 gravis
indeed times of-cares and-of-respite divided when sessions and trials demanded serious

intentus sevērus et saepius misericors: ubi officiō satis factum, nūlla ultrā potestātis persōna;
focused strict and more-often merciful when for-duty enough done no further of-power character

[ trīstitiam et adrogantiam et avāritiam exuerat. 66] Nec illī, quod est rārissimum, aut
gloominess and arrogance and greed he-had-laid-aside nor in-his-case which is most-rare either

facilitās auctōritātem aut sevēritās amōrem dēminuit.

ease-of-manner authority or strictness compassion diminished

[9.4] Integritātem atque abstinentiam in tantō virō referre iniūria virtūtum fuerit. 67 Nē
Honesty and restraint in so-great a-man to-report injury of -virtues would-be not

fāmam quidem, cui saepe etiam bonī indulgent, ostentandā virtūte aut per artem 68
fame even For-which often even good-men have- -a-weakness by-being-displayed virtue or by intrigue quaesīvit;

procul ab aemulātiōne adversus collēgās, procul ā contentiōne adversus

he-sought far from competition against colleagues far from striving against

prōcūrātōrēs, et vincere inglōrium et atterī sordidum arbitrābātur. [9.5] Minus triennium 69

his-procurators both winning inglorious and being-worsted demeaning he-thought less-than three-years

in eā lēgātiōne dētentus ac statim ad spem cōnsulātūs revocātus est, comitante opīniōne

in this appointment detained and at-once to prospect of-consulship recalled was with-accompanying opinion

Britanniam eī prōvinciam darī,70 nūllīs in hōc ipsīus sermōnibus,71 sed quia pār vidēbātur
Britain to-him as-province would-be-given with-no in this of-himself remarks but because equal[to-the-task] he-seemed

Haud semper errat fāma; aliquandō et ēligit. 72

64
The noun conventus referred both to the judicial districts into which each province was divided and
to the court sessions which the governor of the province held in each district in turn.
65
Earlier authors would generally have used the indicative (probably pluperfect) instead of the
subjunctive in an ubi clause referring to repeated action in the past.
66
The vices listed here are stock ones associated with bad governors and it is inconceivable that Tacitus
would have used them to describe his father-in-law’s behaviour when administering justice. Many
editors therefore assume that this clause is, in Woodman’s phrase, an `ignorant (or perhaps cynical)’
marginal note by a scribe to explain potestātis persōna and this was later accidentally incorporated
into the main text. Those who believe Tacitus did write the sentence argue that a word like iam
(‘already’) has dropped out and that the author meant Agricola had rid himself of such vices long
before he was ever sent to Aquitania
67
i.e merely to say that Agricola was not dishonest or greedy would be damning him with faint praise
68
Possibly a reference to the practice of some governors who privately pressed provincials to address
public vote of thanks to them,
69
Agricola had taken up his appointment in Aquitania in 73 and returned to Rome in 76.
70
The present infinitive is used here either as an alternative to the future passive infinitive datum īrī, a
form which the Romans regarded as inelegant, or alternatively to emphasise that Agricola’s
appointment to Britain was regarded as a complete certainty even before any announcement,
71
i.e Agricola himself never talked about expecting the appointment,
72
This seems to be suggesting that Vespasian actually chose Agricola because everybody expected him
to do so! The sentence haud ..ēligit is a iambic senarius, the main metre used in comedy, with a basic
not always errs rumour sometimes even it-chooses

[9.6] Cōnsul ēgregiae tum speī fīliam iuvenī mihi dēspondit ac post cōnsulātum collocāvit,
As-consul of-oustanding then prospect daughter to-young-man betrothed and after consulship sent-to-me and

et statim Britanniae praepositus est,73 adiectō pontificātūs sacerdōtiō.74

at-once of-Britain put-in-charge  was having-been-added of-pontiff priesthood

Gallia Aquitania

structure of six iambic feet: ᵒ - ᵒ - ᵒ -ᵒ - ᵒ - ᵒ ᵕ- but any long syllable in the first five, including those in
the anceps (ᵒ) positions, `resolvable’ into two shorts. Tacitus might be quoting from a lost play, or he
composed a line to mark the interruption of biographical material by his sketch of Britain.
73
It is uncertain whether Agricola served as suffect consul in 76 or 77 A.D. and whether his campaigns
in Britain were from 77 to 83 or from 78 to 84. David Mattingly (An Imperial Possession: Britain in
the Roman Empire, London: Penguin Books 2007, p.118) claims a consensus had been reached on the
earlier dates but Gordon’s Smith’s detailed discussion in his 2015 article, `A Chronology for
Agricola, , "Mons Graupius" and Domitian’s Triumph in the Chattan War’( Historia Bd. 64, H.
2, ,available at https://www.jstor.org/stable/24433910) places Agricola’s consulship in November-
December 77, his daughter’s marriage to Tacitus and his departure for Britain in summer 78, and his
return to Rome in early 85.
74
Under the principate, there were probably between fifteen and twenty-five pontificēs (pontiffs),
headed by the emperor himself as pontifex maximus. As the most important priests in the state
religion, the pontiffs had control over both religious observances and the calendar under the Republic
but after 44 B.C. appointment to this body, which was generally only available to leading families, was
probably a matter of prestige rather than a source of additional power. From 440 A.D., the title
pontifex maximus was assumed by the Popes as heads of the Christian church.
 Map of Britain (Atlas of Roman Britain, p.19) reconstructed from Ptolemy’s co-ordinates (c.125
B.C.) The `neck’ of the double-headed axe to which Tacitus compares Britain may have run from
the Solway to the Tyne or from the Severn to the Thames estuary

[10.1] Britanniae situm populōsque multīs scrīptōribus75 memorātōs nōn in comparātiōnem

of-Britain situation and-peoples by-many writers recorded not with-view-to comparison

cūrae ingeniīve referam, sed quia tum prīmum perdomita est. Ita quae priōrēs nōndum
of-care or-of-talent I-will-report but because then for-first-time conquered it-was thus things-which predecessors not-yet

comperta ēloquentiā percoluēre, rērum fidē trādentur. [10.2] Britannia, īnsulārum quās
[fully]ascertained with-eloquence embellished of-truth with-guarantee will-be-related Britain of-islands which

Rōmāna nōtitia complectitur maxima, spatiō ac caelō in orientem Germāniae, in occidentem

Roman knowledge embraces largest in-extent and location to east towards-Germany to west

Hispāniae obtenditur, Gallīs in merīdiem etiam īnspicitur; septentriōnālia eius, nūllīs contrā
75
Roman writers on Britain included Julius Caesar, Pomponius Mela (fl.43 A.D.), who gives a brief
description his Chorographia (at https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/pomponius3.html), Pliny the Elder
(in his Naturalis Historia), Livy and Fabricius Rusticus, a friend of Seneca the Younger. Livy
presumably gave an account of the island in the lost Book CV, which covered Caesar’s invasions.
None of Fabricius’ work has survived but his account of Nero’s reign was an important source for
Tacitus and presumably dealt with Britain because of Boudicca’s revolt of 60—61 A.D. Descriptions
in Greek include those by Pytheas (4th cent. B.C.) and Posidonius (died 51 B.C.), whose work has been
lost, Diodorus Siculus (c.90 – 60 B.C.) and Strabo (c.64 B.C. – 24 A.D.). Krebs’ 2018 article at
https://classics.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj10936/f/the_worlds_measure_-
_caesars_geographies_of_gallia_and_britannia_in_their_contexts_and_as_evidence_of_his_world_ma
p.pdf includes original texts and translation of both Caesar and Diodorus on the shape of Britain,
whilst there is a translation of Strabo’s account at
https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/strabo/4e*.html. Like Caesar and Strabo, Tacitus
thought that the northern coast of Spain extended further north and west than it actually does, so that at
its extremity it lay west of Britain and Ireland..
towards-Spain faces by-Gauls towards south also is-seen northern-regions of-it with-no opposite

terrīs, vastō atque apertō marī pulsantur. [10.3] Fōrmam 76 tōtīus Britanniae Līvius veterum,
lands by-vast and open sea are-puimmeled shape of-whole-of Britain Livy of-old

Fabius Rūsticus recentium ēloquentissimī auctōrēs oblongō scūtulō vel bipennī adsimulāvēre.
Fabricius Rusticus of-recent most-eloquent authors to-oblong little-shield or double-headed-axe likened

Scutulum carried by Juno Sospita on a coin issued in 80 B.C.

https://www.coinarchives.com/a/results.php?results=100&search=procilius+and+denar

Bipennis depicted on a coin from Thyateira in Lydia issued under Nero in 50-54 A.D.
https://www.coinarchives.com/a/results.php?search=bipennis

Et est ea faciēs citrā Calēdoniam, unde et in ūniversum fāma: sed trānsgressīs inmēnsum et
and it-is this shape uo-to Caledonia whence also on overall [shape] report but for-those-having-crossed immense and

ēnorme spatium prōcurrentium extrēmō iam lītore terrārum velut in cuneum tenuātur.77

76
Most of the early authors described Britain as a triangle but Livy and Fabricius compared it instead to
a scūtulum (`little shield’), a plausible emendation of the manuscripts’ scutula (an elongated dish, a
rhombus or an eye-patch!) ), or to a double-headed axe. Woodman points out that the only use of the
word scūtulum attested before Tacitus is by Cicero, in reference to the shield typically carried by Juno
Sospita (`Saviour’) and this, as seen in the first illustration above, whilst not as narrow-necked as a
double axe, does have the same basic hour-glass shape.
77
The name Calēdonia in the strict sense, referred only to the Highlands region beyond the Clyde-
Forth isthmus. Woodman suggests that for Livy and Fabricius the narrow point of the island was the
Solway-Tyne isthmus (where Hadrian’s Wall was later constructed) and that Tacitus was arguing that
the double head analogy would only work if the island ended at the Clyde-Forth isthmus. If you went
beyond that (trānsgressīs), you entered a long, tapering stretch of land bounded by what was now
(iam) seen to be the furthest shore, in contrast with what had seemed the end point as you neared the
Clyde-Forth line from the south,. However, for Tacitus, the `neck’ of the bipennis might have actually
enormous extent running-out extreme now with-shore of-lands as-if into wedge it-is-tapering

[10.4] Hanc ōram novissimī maris tunc prīmum Rōmāna classis circumvecta īnsulam esse
This shore of-remotest sea then for-first-time Roman fleet having-sailed-round island to-be

Britanniam adfirmāvit, ac simul incognitās ad id tempus īnsulās, quās Orcadas 78 vocant,

Britain confirmed and at-same-time unknown till that time islands which Orkneys they-call

invēnit domuitque. Dispecta est et Thūlē,79 quia hāctenus iussum, et hiems adpetēbat.
he found and-conquered sighted-from-afar was also Thule because [only]so-far ordered and winter was-approaching

Britannia in the 2nd. century A.D. (Hadrian’s wall was not constructed till 120-22)

[10.5] Sed80 mare pigrum81 et grave rēmigantibus perhibent nē ventīs quidem perinde
but sea sluggish and heavy to-those-rowing they-say not by-winds even as-much

been a line from the Severn to the Thames estuary, a better fit with Ptolemy’s map of 125 A.D.(pg.17).
78
The Orkneys had already been mentioned by Pomponius Mela more than fifty years earlier. Tacitus
is therefore wrong to call them incognitās unless he means `relatively unknown;.
79
The 4th century B.C. Greek explorer Pytheas, whose lost work Τὰ περὶ τοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ (`On the
Ocean’) is frequently (and skeptically) quoted by later authors, described Thule (Θούλη) as an island
six days north of Britain on the edge of the Arctic. He might conceivably have been referring to
Iceland, Greenland or Scandinavia but Agricola’s sailors most probably sighted Mainland, the largest
of the Shetland Islands. The name `Thule’, especially in Virgil’s phrase ultima Thūlē, took on an
almost mythical significance as a symbol of mysterious remoteness. See
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thule
80
sed can be used simply to indicate transition to a new subject without contrastive force.
81
The ship might have encountered adverse tides and currents around the Orkneys or, alternatively,
entered `dead water,’ an area where there are layers of water of differing degrees of salinity and a
ship’s progress is slowed because some of its energy is dissipated into the generation of waves at the
boundary between the layers (see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_water . A belief in the
`sluggishness’ of northern waters went back to Pytheas’s assertion that land, sea and air were all mixed
together into something the consistency of jelly-fish, thought which one could neither sail nor walk.
attollī, crēdō quod rāriōrēs terrae montēsque, causa ac māteria tempestātum, et profunda
to-be-lifted-up I-believe because rarer lands and-mountains cause and raw-material of-storms and deep

mōlēs continuī maris tardius impellitur. [10.6] Nātūram Ōceanī atque aestūs neque quaerere
mass of-unbroken sea more-slowly is-pushed-against nature of-Ocean and of-tide neither to-enquire-about

huius operis est, ac multī rettulēre: ūnum addiderim, nusquam lātius dominārī mare,
of-this work is and many have-reported[it] one-thing I-would-add nowhere more-widely to-be-dominant sea

multum flūminum hūc atque illūc ferre, nec lītore tenus adcrēscere aut resorbērī, sed īnfluere
much of-currents hither and thither nor [just-to]shore to-rise or to-ebb but to-flow-inside

penitus atque ambīre, et iugīs etiam ac montibus īnserī velut in suō. 82 
deeply and wind-in-and-out and among-ridges even and mountains to-be-inserted as-if in own[domain]

[11.1] Cēterum Britanniam quī mortālēs initiō coluerint, indigenae an advectī, ut inter
But-to-continue Britain what-people in-beginning inhabited indigenous or immigrants as[is-usual] among

barbarōs, parum compertum. Habitūs corporum variī atque ex eō argūmenta. [11.2] Namque
barbarians little [has-been]found types of-bodies various and from this arguments[are-drawn] for

rutilae Calēdoniam habitantium comae, magnī artūs Germānicam orīginem adsevērant;

reddish Caledonia of-those-inhabiting hair big limbs German origin are-evidence-for

Silūrum83 colōrātī vultūs, tortī plērumque crīnēs et posita contrā Hispānia84 Hibērōs veterēs

of-Silures swarthy faces curly generally hair and positioned opposite Spain Iberians old

trāiēcisse eāsque sēdēs occupāsse fidem faciunt; proximī Gallīs et similēs sunt, seu
to-have-crossed-over and-those regions to-have-occupied confidence give those-nearest to-Gauls also similar are whether

dūrante orīginis vī, seu prōcurrentibus in dīversa terrīs positiō caelī 85 corporibus habitum
lasting of-origin influence or projecting in opposite-ways countries position under-sky to-bodies characteristics

dedit. [11.3] In ūniversum tamen aestimantī Gallōs vīcīnam īnsulam occupāsse crēdibile est.
gave overall however to-one-estimating Gauls neighbouring island to-have-occupied credible it-is

Eōrum sacra dēprehendās <ac> superstitiōnum persuāsiōnem; sermō haud multum dīversus,
Their religious-rituals you-would-meet and in-superstitions belief speech not much different

in dēposcendīs perīculīs eadem audācia et, ubi advēnēre, in dētrectandīs eadem formīdō. 86

82
Referring to the sea lochs or deep inlets along the west coast of Scotland,
83
The Silures were a tribe in SE Wales who provided Isca Augusta, the base of Legio Augusta II at
Caerleon on the outskirts of Newport, with its alternative name of Isca Silurum (see map on pg.. 19).
Tacitus’ suggestion of Spanish origins reflects the mistaken belief that Spain was opposite the west
coast of Britain. It has, however, been claimed that the first people to settle in Britain at the end of the
last Ice Age had migrated from what had been an ice-free `refuge’ in northern Spain (see N. Wade’s
article at http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/06/science/06brits.html?_r=1&th&emc=th&oref=slogin)
84
`Spain’s being positioned opposite’
85
The phrase positiō caelī was frequently used in the sense of `geographical position.’
86
Tacitus rightly highlights the strong cultural and linguistic similarities between the Celts of Britain
and Gaul. There is recent genetic evidence for substantial migration from what is now France into
southern Britain between 1300 and 800 B.C. and this may have brought in at least the Brittonic branch
of Celtic from which Welsh, Cornish and Breton developed. There was some migration also in the Iron
Age but not on the same scale. See https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-59741723 and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Britons
in demanding dangers same boldness and when they-arrive in their-being-avoided same fear

[11.4] Plūs tamen ferōciae Britannī praeferunt, ut quōs nōndum longa pāx ēmollierit. Nam
More however of-ferocity the-Britons display as ones-who not-yet long peace has-made-soft for

Gallōs quoque in bellīs flōruisse accēpimus; mox sēgnitia cum ōtiō intrāvit, āmissā
Gauls also in wars to-have-been-successful we-have-been-told soon sloth with inactivity entered having-been-lost

virtūte pariter ac lībertāte. Quod Britannōrum ōlim victīs ēvenit: cēterī manent quālēs Gallī
courage equally and liberty which of-Britons once to-those-conquered rest remain of-sort Gauls

fuērunt.
were

Celtic war chariot depicted on a Roman coin of 48 B.C.

https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/boudica/chariot.html

[12.1] In pedite rōbur; quaedam nātiōnēs et currū proeliantur. Honestior aurīga, clientēs
in infantry [their]strength certain tribes also from-chariot do-battle higher-class-man charioteer clients

prōpugnant. Ōlim rēgibus87 pārēbant, nunc per prīncipēs factiōnibus et studiīs dīstrahuntur.
fight-in-front once kings they-obeyed now through chieftains by-factions and rivalries they-are-pulled-apart

[12.2] Nec aliud adversus validissimās gentēs prō nōbīs ūtilius quam quod in commūne nōn
Nor anything-else against very-strong peoples for us more-useful than that in common not

cōnsulunt. Rārus duābus tribusve cīvitātibus ad prōpulsandum commūne perīculum

they-consult occasional by-two or-three tribes for warding-off common danger

conventus: ita singulī pugnant, ūniversī vincuntur. [12.3] Caelum crēbrīs imbribus ac
coming-together thus separately they-fight aal-together they-are-defeated climate with-frequent showers and

nebulīs foedum; asperitās frīgōrum abest. Diērum spatia ultrā nostrī 88 orbis mēnsūram; nox
mists foul harshness of-cold is-absent of-days lengths beyond of-our-world duration night

clāra et extrēmā Britanniae parte brevis, ut fīnem atque initium lūcis exiguō discrīmine
87
Caesar described as regēs the four leaders of Cantium (Kent) in 54 B.C. (B.G. V.22)
88
Referring to the region around the Mediterranean.
clear and in-extreme of-Britain part short so-that end and beginning of-day with-small distinction

internōscās.89 [12.4] Quod sī nūbēs nōn officiant, aspicī per noctem sōlis fulgōrem, nec
you-could-distinguish because if clouds not get-in-way to-be-seen through night of-sun brightness and-not

occidere et exsurgere, sed trānsīre adfirmant. Scīlicet extrēma et plāna terrārum humilī umbrā
to-set and to-rise to move-across they-claim of-course extreme and flat [areas] of-world with-low shadow

nōn ērigunt tenebrās, īnfrāque caelum et sīdera nox cadit. 90 [12.5] Solum praeter oleam
not throw-up darkness and-below sky and stars night falls soil except oil

vītemque et cētera calidiōribus terrīs orīrī suēta patiēns frūgum, <segetum> fēcundum: tardē
and-vine and other in-warmer lands to-grow accustomed bearing fruits of-crops fertile slowly

mītēscunt, cito prōveniunt; eademque utriusque reī causa, multus ūmor terrārum caelīque.
they-ripen quickly they-sprout and-the-same of-both thing cause much moisture of-ground and-of-sky

Metals mined in Roman Britain91

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_in_Roman_Britain#/media/File:Roman.Britain.Mining.jpg

[12.6] Fert Britannia aurum et argentum et alia metalla, 92 pretium victōriae. Gignit et

89
The longest day in Britain is approximately seventeen hours and in Italy fifteen.
90
Educated Romans and Greeks were aware that the earth was a globe, and its circumference had been
estimated with amazing accuracy by Eratosthenes, using the method demonstrated in the video at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mw30CgaXiQw Tacitus, however, seems to have viewed it as a
disc with the stars on the inside of a dome above it and to have believed that the conical shadow thrown
up by the edge of the disc only reached the sky above the central regions.
91
The tin in the SW, which was famously ferried to the Mediterranean region by the Phoenicians, was
probably not exploited little if at all in the early Roman period but may have became important again in
the 3rd century (see https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/instrumentum/2405) .
92
Lead was of particular importance both for its own uses and because it was often found in
combination with silver which was extracted from it by smelting. The most important gold deposits
were at Dolaucothi in Wales. The Romans seem, however, to have been slow to appreciate Britian’s
mineral resources as Cicero wrote to his friend Trebatius in Brtianniā nihil esse audiō neque aurī
neque argentī (Ad Familiares, 7.7.1)
 bears Britain gold and silver and other metals reward of-victory produces also

Ōceanus margarīta, sed subfusca ac līventia. Quīdam artem abesse legentibus arbitrantur; nam
Ocean pearls but darkish and lead-coloured certain-people skill to-be-wanting to-collectors think for

in rubrō marī93 vīva ac spīrantia94 saxīs āvellī, in Britanniā, prout expulsa sint,
in red sea living and breathing from-rocks to-be-wrenched-away in Britain as cast-up they-have-been

facilius crēdiderim nātūram margarītīs dēesse quam nōbīs avāritiam. 95

More-easily I-would-believe quality in-pearls to-be-wanting than in-us greed

Remains of Roman lead mines at Charterhouse in Somerset

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_in_Roman_Britain

[13.1] Ipsī Britannī dīlēctum96 ac tribūta et iniūncta imperiī mūnia impigrē obeunt, sī
Themselves the-Britons conscription and tribute-payments and imposed by-authorities duties readily discharge as-long-as

iniūriae absint:97 hās aegrē tolerant, iam domitī ut pāreant, nōndum ut serviant. Igitur 98
abuses are-absent these scarcely they-tolerate already tamed so-that they-obey not-yet so-that they are-slaves therefore

prīmus omnium Rōmānōrum dīvus Iūlius cum exercitū Britanniam ingressus, quamquam
first of-all Romans deified Julius with army Britain having-entered although

prōsperā pugna terruerit incolās ac lītore potītus sit, potest vidērī ostendisse posterīs,
by-successful fighting intimidated inhabitants and shore took-possession-of can be-seen to-have-displayed[-it] to-posterity

nōn trādidisse. [13.2] Mox bella cīvīlia et in rem pūblicam versa prīncipum arma, ac longa
not to-have-bequeathed soon wars civil and against republic turned of-leaders weapons and long

93
The phrase ruber mare appears to refer here not to the Red Sea itself but to the nearby Persian Gulf.
The name was also sometimes extended to the vast extent of the Indian Ocean
94
The breathing was, of course, by the oysters rather than the pearls!
95
i.e. if good-quality pearls were actually available, Roman greed would have found a way to harvest
them.
96
In the first century A.D. there were two cavalry units (ālae) and sixteen auxiliary cohorts in Roman
military service, numbering around 12,000 men. An annual intake of 500-750 was required to maintain
these at full strength after the initial recruitment.
97
A rare use of the present subjunctive for a general conditional, roughly equivalent to `whenever’,
98
The logical connection is that Caesar was unable to subdue the Britons completely in 55 and 54 B.C.
because of their natural resistance to domination, which had still not been entirely overcome 150 years
later.
oblīviō Britanniae etiam in pāce: cōnsilium id dīvus Augustus vocābat, Tiberius praeceptum. 99
Forgetting of-Britain even in peace principle this deified Augustus called Tiberius precedent

Guard room at the Balkerne Gate in the city wall of Camulodunum (Colchester),
constructed around 90 A.D.100
https://www.flickr.com/photos/edk7/28306271419

Agitāsse Gāium Caesarem dē intrandā Britanniā satis cōnstat, nī vēlōx ingeniō

To-have-made-plans Gaius Caesar about invading Britain sufficiently it-is-established if-not speedy with-mind

paenitentiae, et ingentēs adversus Germāniam cōnātūs frūstrā fuissent. 101 [13.3] Dīvus
at-thinking-better[-of-it] and huge against Germany attempts in-vain had-been deified

Claudius auctor iterātī operis, trānsvectīs legiōnibus auxiliīsque 102 et adsūmptō in partem
Claudius initiator of-repeated task having-been-carried-across legions and-auxiliaries and employed for part

rērum Vespasiānō, quod initium ventūrae mox fortūnae fuit: domitae gentēs, captī rēgēs et
of-the-project Vespasian which beginning to-come soon of-fortune was conquered[were] tribes captured kings and

99
i.e. Augustus made it a principle not to expand the empires boundaries further and Tiberius regarded
this as a precedent he must follow.
100
There is a five-minute video tour of the Roman remains in Colchester at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uVXsDeL7qEA&t=11s
101
Gaius, better known as Caligula, emperor from 37 A.D. till his assassination in 41, launched his
invasion – or pretended invasion - of Germany at the end of 39. In 40 he is alleged to have drawn up
his forces on the shore opposite Britain but then simply ordered them to collect seashells! Some have
speculated that Suetonius’ word concha (seashell) may have been used figuratively to refer either to
female genitals or to small boats, and Caligula’s soldiers either have been sent to brothels or captured a
few British vessels! See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caligula#Britannia
102
The Claudian invasion of 43 A.D. is represented as a repeat or resumption of Caesar’s expeditions.
The legions involved were II Augusta, XIV Gemina, XX Valeria Victrix (later to be stationed at
Chester) and IX Hispana and the total force, including auxiliaries, might have numbered around 50,000
Sleeman), The commander of the whole invasion force was Aulus Plautius and Claudius himself took
direct charge for 16 days, and being present at the fall of Camulodunum, the capital of the tribe and for
a short period of Roman Britain.
mōnstrātus fātīs Vespasiānus.103
shown to-fates Vespasian

[14.1] Cōnsulārium prīmus Aulus Plautius104 praepositus ac subinde Ostōrius Scapula,105

of-consular-rank first Aulus Plautius placed-in-charge and then Ostorius Scapulus both

uterque bellō ēgregius: redāctaque paulātim in fōrmam prōvinciae proxima pars Britanniae,
in-war outstanding and-reduced gradually into form of-province nearest part of-Britain

additā  īnsuper veterānōrum colōniā.106 Quaedam cīvitātēs Togidumnō107 rēgī dōnātae

having-been-added also of-veterans colony certain tribes to-Togidumnus king awarded

(is ad nostram usque memoriam108 fīdissimus mānsit), vetere ac iam prīdem receptā populī
He to our up-to memory most-faithful remained with-old and already for-long-time received of-people

Rōmānī cōnsuētūdine, ut habēret īnstrūmenta servitūtis et rēgēs. [14.2] Mox Dīdius Gallus 109
Roman custom that it-had as-instruments of-enslavement kings soon Didius Gallus

parta ā priōribus continuit, paucīs admodum castellīs in ulteriōra prōmōtīs, per quae fāma
that-gained by predecessors retained with-few just fortresses into further-regions moved-forward thru which fame

auctī officiī quaererētur. Dīdium Verānius110 excēpit, isque intrā annum extīnctus est.

103
The future Emperor Vespasian was the commander of II Augusta during the invasion and is said to
have captured twenty towns in the south and south-west of the island. A triumphal arch erected for
Claudius in Rome in 51 claims the defeat of eleven British kings.
104
Aulus Plautius was probably a quaestor in 20 A.D. and, as a member of Tiberius’ personal staff
transcribed the senate’s decree on the trial of Calpurnius Piso (see fn.19 to the interlinear translation of
the Germanicus and Piso passage from the Cambridge Latin Anthology). Plautius was consul in 29
A.D. and in c.41-43 probably governor of Dalmatia and Pannonia, an area including parts of modern
Hungary, Austria and former Yugoslavia. After the invasion, he remained as governor till 47, by when
most of England was under either direct Roman control or British leaders who had accepted the status
of Roman client rulers. After his achievements in Britain, he was granted an ovatio, one step below a
triumphus, in which Claudius himself walked at his side. He remained politically influential till his
death in Nero’s reign. For further details see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus_Plautius
105
Publius Ostorius Scapula was governor from 47 till his death in 52. He put down a revolt by the
Iceni in East Anglia and campaigned against the Deceangli of North Wales and the Silures in the south,
defeating Caratacus, who had been accepted as leader by the Silures after the defeat by Plautius of his
own Catuvellauni tribe. For Caratacus’ later pardoning by Claudius, see the interlinear translation of
Eutropius VII.13 and, for more on Scapula, who may have provoked resistance by an ill-judged attempt
to disarm the tribes, .https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Ostorius_Scapula
106
Founded at Camulodunum (`Fortress of Camulos’, the Celtic god of war) under Scapula in 49. The
official name was Colōnia Victrix, the first three letters surviving in the modern name, `Colchester’.
107
The manuscripts of Agricola give the name as Cogidumnus, but the alternative spelling Togidumnus
was added in the margin of one of them and, as togi- (perhaps meaning `pleasant’), unlike cogi, is a
common element in Celtic personal names, this is probably correct (see Charles Murgia, `The Minor
works of Tacitus; a Study in Textual Criticism’, Classical Philology, 72(4), 1977,p.339’ available at
https://www.jstor.org/stable/267884 ). This Togidumnus will be the client ruler mentioned in the
famous Chichester inscription as `[Tiberius] Claud[ius […]gidubnus’, since –dubnus and –dumnus
are frequent alternatives in Latin transliterations. He is probably not, however, to be identified with
Caratacus’ brother Togodumnus, who Cassius Dio says died soon after the Roman invasion. The
Chichester Togidumnus may have been the heir of Verica, the exiled Atrebatic ruler whose appeal for
help from Claudius against the Catuvellauni had given Rome a pretext for intervention. See
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Claudius_Cogidubnus.
108
i.e. `to within living memory’.
109
Didius Gallus, consul in 29 and governor of Moesia (a region stretching from NE Albania thru parts
of Serbia, Bulagaria and Romania into southern Ukraine) was governor from 52 to 57. His forward
deployments may have including turning an oupost at Viroconium (Wroxeter) into a regular fortress for
Legio XIV Gemina and moving Legio XX Valeria Victrix to Berrium (Usk) in south Wales.
110
Quintus Veranius, consul in 49, was governor from 57 to 58, or, if intrā annum means `within the
of-increased area-in-his-charge could-be-sought Didius Veranius succeeded and-he within year died

The Chichester inscription mentioning King Togidubnus/Cogidubnus, client ruler of the

regnenses and other tribes in southern England

same calendar year’, only in 57. His campaigns against the Silures possibly prepared the way for the
rapid conquest of Wales by Suetonius Paulinus. He had been governor of Lycia and Onasander
dedicated his treatise on generalship to him. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Veranius
Remains of public baths at Viroconium (the modern village of Wroxeter in Shropshire).,
the baths may date from the Hadrianic period but the first establishment of military
bases both here and further north at Chester was probably under Ostorius Scapula
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viroconium_Cornoviorum

[14.3] Suētōnius hinc Paulīnus bienniō prōsperās rēs habuit, subāctīs nātiōnibus firmātīsque
Suetonius then Paulinus for-two-years prosperous situation had with-subdued tribes and-strengthened

praesidiīs; quōrum fīdūciā Monam īnsulam ut vīrēs rebellibus ministrantem adgressus

garrisons from-this with-confidence Mona island on-gounds-that strength to-rebels providing having-attacked

terga occāsiōnī patefēcit.111

back to-chance[of-attack] he laid-open

A Druid directing the tribesmen into battle

https://www.livescience.com/65820-photos-anglesey-island-of-druids.html

[15.1] Namque absentiā lēgātī remōtō metū Britannī agitāre inter sē mala servitūtis, cōnferre
For in- of-governor with-removed fear Britons to-discuss among themselves evils of-servitude to-compare

iniūriās et interpretandō accendere:112 nihil prōficī patientiā nisi ut graviōra tamquam ex

111
On Suetonius Paulinus, governor from 59 to 61, see n. 40 above. The phrase prōsperās rēs probably
refers to the conquest of Wales He attacked Anglesey, still known in Welsh as Môn, as it was a
stronghold of the Druids, whe were encouraging British resistance. The phrase firmātīs praesidīs can
be taken as an ablative absolute, meaning either `with [existing] garrisons strngthened’ or, less likely
`with strong garrisons placed.’ Alternatively, praesidiīs has to be taken as an instrumental ablative and
firmātīs with nātiōnibus: `with the tribes defeated and firmly held with garrisons’.
112
The historic infinitives (agitāre, cōnferre, accendere) are rough equivalents of the imperfect tense
but used particularly of a situation which is evolving. The remainder of the chapter is in indirect
speech, giving the content of the discussion, with sē and suus referring to the Brtions themselves.
wrongs and by-interpretation[put-on]-them to-inflame nothing to-be-gained by-patience except that heavier-things as- from

facilī tolerantibus imperentur. [15.2] Singulōs sibi ōlim rēgēs fuisse, nunc bīnōs impōnī, ē
easily those-tolerating are-demanded one-each to-them once kings to-have-been now two to-be-imposed out-of

quibus lēgātus113 in sanguinem, prōcūrātor in bona saevīret. Aequē discordiam

whom governor against blood procurator against property acted-savagely equally discord

praepositōrum, aequē concordiam subiectīs exitiōsam. 114 Alterīus manūs centuriōnēs, alterīus
of-those-placed-in-charge equally harmony to-their-subjects destructive of-one hands centurions of-the-other

servōs vim et contumēliās miscēre.115 [15.3] Nihil iam cupiditātī, nihil libīdinī exceptum. In
slaves force and insults combine nothing now from-greed nothong from-lust exempt in

proeliō fortiōrem esse quī spoliet: nunc ab ignāvīs plērumque et imbellibus ēripī
battle braver to-be he-who despoils now by cowards generally and unwarlike-peoples to-be-snatched-away

domōs, abstrahī līberōs, iniungī dīlēctūs, tamquam mōrī tantum prō patriā
Homes to-be-dragged-away children to-be-imposed levies as-if to-die only for own-country

nescientibus.116 Quantulum enim trānsīsse mīlitum, sī et sē Britannī numerent? 117

on-those-not-knowing-how what-small-amount for to-have-crossed-over of-soldiers if also themselves Britons were-to-count

Sīc Germāniās excussisse iugum: et flūmine, nōn Ōceanō dēfendī. 118 [15.4] Sibi patriam
thus Germay to-have-shaken-off yoke and by-river not by-Ocean to-be-defended for-themselves fatherland

coniugēs parentēs, illīs avāritiam et luxuriam causās bellī esse. Recessūrōs, ut

wives parents for-them greed and extravagance causes of-war to-be [Romans]to-be-going-to-withdraw as

dīvus Iūlius recessisset,119 modo virtūtem maiōrum suōrum aemulārentur. Nēve proeliī ūnīus
deified Julius had-withdrawn if-only courage of-ancestors their [Brits]-were-to-emulate neither of-battle one

aut alterīus ēventū pavēscerent: plūs impetūs fēlīcibus, maiōrem cōnstantiam penes

113
The governor’s of province directly controlled by the emperor, as opposed to those under the senate,
had the title lēgātus as they were the emperor’s representative. However, the emperor usually had a
second representative, the prōcūrātor, who looked after financial affairs (see also fn. 27 above).
114
The two balanccd halves of this sentence each end with words consisting of a a dactyl and spondee
(- ᵕ ᵕ - - ): praepositōrum, exitiōsam. Such endings are known as heroic clausulae and, although
standard in hexameter verse, they are normally avoided in prose, in the same way that rhymes are
usually avoided in spoken English prose. Cicero does, however, use them occasionally in invective (see
Elizabeth Adams, `Esse videtur: occurrences of heroic clausulae in Cicero’s orations’,
https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/bitstream/handle/1808/11730/Adams_ku_0099M_12789_DATA_1.pdf )
115
The infinitive esse is to be understood. The governor’s instruments were the centurions (the
backbone of the Roman army) and the procurator’s his slaves.
116
iniungī…nescientibus: `levies were imposed on them as if it was only for their own fatherland that
they did not know how to die.’ The participlae nescientibus agrees with the sibi understood with
iniungī and the point is that the Britons accepted the risk of death when drafted into the Roman army
but were not prepared to run the same risk for their own country,
117
There is a contrast here between the Romans’ careful military record keeping and the Britons’ lack
of it: if the Britons simply counted themselves, they would see how few the Romans were,
118
The plural Germāniās is presumably used because Germany was thought of as a patchwork of
different tribal areas. The reference is to the Battle of the Teutoberg Forest in (9 A.D.) which saw the
destruction of three Roman legions and the abandonment by the Romans of any plan to bring the area
behound the lower Rhine under permanent control.
119
Referring to Julius Caesar’s invasions of 55 and 54 B.C. However, Caesar’s expeditions were
exploratory in nature and his withdrawal not the result of defeat. The Britons are portrayed as using the
dīvus title ironically and, in any case, Tacitus was not relying on any records of British discussions but
imagining what they might appropriately have said,
or of-another from-result they-should-panic more dash to-the-fortunate greater persistence in- possession-of

miserōs esse. [15.5] Iam Britannōrum etiam deōs miserērī, quī Rōmānum ducem absentem,
the-wretched there-to-be noe for-Britons even gods to-feel-pity who Roman general absent

quī relēgātum in aliā īnsulā exercitum dētinērent; 120 iam ipsōs, quod difficillimum fuerit,
who exiled on another island army were-detaining now themselves thing-which most-difficult was

dēlīberāre. Porrō in eius modī cōnsiliīs perīculōsius esse dēprehendī quam audēre. 121 
To-be-consulting moreover in of-this kind plans more-dangerous to-be to-be-caught than to-dare

Cuttle Mill in Nothamptonshire, one of several sites suggested for Suetonius Paulinus’ defeat of
the rebels in 61 A.D. The Roman battle line would have stretched about 750 metres from where
the photo was taken to the ridge marked by the round wood near the horizon on the left
http://towcestermuseum.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/The-Defeat-of-Boudiccas-Rebellion.pdf

[16.1] Hīs atque tālibus in vicem īnstīnctī, Boudiccā generis rēgiī fēminā duce (neque enim
By-these and such-like [words] mutually roused with-Boudicca of-family royal woman as-leader for not

sexum in imperiīs discernunt) sūmpsēre ūniversī bellum; 122 ac sparsōs per castella mīlitēs
sex in ruling they-distinguish took-up all the-war amd scattered among fortresses soldiers

120
relegātum ..in aliā īnsulā is an exaggeration: Mona was separated from the mainland by only a
narrow, river-like channel.
121
i.e. it was more dangerous to be caught planning a revolt than actually to launch it.
122
Tacitus’ own spelling was Boudicca but the correct Latin transcription of the Brythonic Boudika
(`Victorious’) was probably Boudīca The main accounts of her rebellion are in Tacitus’ later Annals
(8: 29-39) and a summary of a lost portion of the Roman History of Cassius Dio (c.155-235A.D.). She
was the widow of the the king of the Iceni of East Anglia, a client ruler who bequeathed his kingdom
jointly to his daughters and to Nero. The Romans actually annexed all of it, and on Tacitus’ account,
her daughters were raped and the queen herself flogged. Cassius Dio makes a main cause of the rising
the calling in of Seneca’s loans to the king by Seneca and a demand for repayment of grants. The Iceni
were joined in revolt by the Trinovantes and probably other tribes. After her defeat, Boudica either
took poison (Tacitus) or died of illness (Dio). See also https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudica#
cōnsectātī, expugnātīs praesidiīs ipsam colōniam invāsēre ut sēdem servitūtis, nec ūllum in
hunted-down having-been-overrun garrison itself colony they-invaded as seat of-enslavement nor any in

barbarīs ingeniīs saevitiae genus omīsit īra et victōria. 123 [16.2] Quod nisi Paulīnus
barbarian natures if-savagery kind omitted anger and victory and if-not Paulinus

cognitō prōvinciae mōtū properē subvēnisset, āmissa Britannia foret 124; quam ūnīus
having-become-known of-province rising rapidly had-come-to-helpt lost Britannia would-have-been of-one

proeliī fortūna veterī patientiae restituit, tenentibus arma plērīsque, quōs cōnscientia
battle luch to-old patience restored [though] retaining arms many whom awareness

dēfectiōnis et proprius ex lēgātō timor agitābat, nē quamquam ēgregius cētera

[of-involvement-in] revolt and personal from governor fear was-driving lest although outstanding in-other-things

adroganter in dēditōs et ut suae cuiusque iniūriae ultor dūrius cōnsuleret. 125

arrogantly towards those-who-gave-in and as-if his-own of-each wrong avenge more harshly he-might-decide

Diorama of Suetonius’ battle against Boudica crated by Fero Miráz (the length of the
front lines will have been much greater – see illustration on pg. 29)
http://www.hat.com/Othr9/Mraz04P.html.

[16.3] Missus igitur Petrōnius Turpiliānus126 tamquam exōrābilior et dēlictīs hostium novus
Sent- therefore Petronius Turpilianus as more-placable and to-crimes of-enemy a-stranger

eōque paenitentiae mītior, compositīs priōribus nihil ultrā ausus Trebelliō

123
Tacitus claims up to 90,000 were killed in Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium (St.Albans).
124
foret is an archaic alternative to esset in the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive.
125
They were afraid that his desire for personal revenge would lead to greater punishment for acts of
political rebellion.
126
Publius PetroniusTurpilianus, consul in 61, was a nephew of the first governor, Aulus Plautius, and,
according to the historian Suetonius, was sent to replace Suetonius Paulinus because claims by the
procurator, Julius Classicanus, that his hard-line was counter-productive were supported by Polyclitus,
the freedmam Nero sent to investigate. Turpilianus left Britain in 63 and was executed by Galba in 68
as a supporter of Nero.
and-so [to-those-showing] repentamce more-lenent having-been-settled nothing futher having-dared to-Trebellius Maximō

prōvinciam trādidit. Trebellius sēgnior et nūllīs castrōrum experīmentīs, 127 comitāte

Maximus province handed-over Trebellisu more-inactive and with-no military enterprises wth-affability

quādam cūrandī prōvinciam tenuit. Didicēre iam barbarī quoque ignōscere vitiīs
blandientibus,
a-certain of-management province held learned now barbarians also to-forgive vices engaging

et interventus cīvīlium armōrum praebuit iūstam sēgnitiae excūsātiōnem: sed discordiā

and occurrence of-civil conflict provided reasonable for-inactivity excuse but with-discord

labōrātum, cum adsuētus expedītiōnibus mīles ōtiō lascīvīret. [16.4] Trebellius, fugā ac
there-was-trouble since accustomed to-expeditions army in-pease became-undisciplined Trebellius by-flight and

latebrīs vītātā exercitūs īrā, indecōrus atque humilis precāriō mox praefuit, ac velut
hiding having-been-avoided anger shameful and humble on-sufferance soon held-command and as-if

pactā exercitūs licentiā et ducis salūte, sēditiō sine sanguine stetit. [16.5] Nec Vettius
agreed of-army impunity and of-general impunity mutiny without bloodshed subsided nor Vettius

Bōlānus manentibus adhūc cīvīlibus bellīs, agitāvit Britanniam disciplīnā: eadem inertia ergā
Bolanus continuing still civil wars bothered Britain with-discipline same inertia towards

hostēs, similis petulantia castrōrum, nisi quod innocēns Bōlānus et nūllīs dēlictīs invīsus
enemy similar surliness of-camps except that harmless Bolanus and for-no crimes resented cāritātem parāverat
locō auctōritātis.128 
kndmess had-prepared in-place-of authority

[17.1] Sed ubi cum cēterō orbe Vespasiānus et Britanniam recuperāvit, magnī ducēs, ēgregiī
But when with rest-of world Vespasian also Britain recovered great leaders oustanding

exercitūs, minūta hostium spēs. Et terrōrem statim intulit Petīlius Ceriālis, Brigantum
armies reduced of-enemies hope and terror at-once instilled Petilius Cerialis129 of-Brigantes

cīvitātem, quae numerōsissima prōvinciae tōtīus perhibētur, adgressus. Multa proelia, et

state which most-numerous of-province whole is-considered having-attacked many battles and

aliquandō nōn incruenta; magnamque Brigantum partem aut victōriā amplexus est aut bellō.
Sometimes not unbloody and-great of-Brigantes part either in-victory he –enfolded or in-war

127
Marcus Trebellius Maximus, consul in 56 and governor of Britain in 63-69, was accused by Marcus
Roscius Caelius, commander of Legio XX of failure to maintain discipline, and counter-claimed thatius
was inciting the legion against him (see 7.5 above). The compromise referred to in this chapter appears
to have been temporary as, according to Tacitus’ own later account (Histories, 1.60), in 69 Trebellius
fled to join Vitellius on the continent. The phrase nūllīs castrōrum experimentīs has often been
translated as `with no military experience’ but, since the governor is now believed to have been the
M.Trebellius who Tacitus describes (Annals 6.41.1) as fighting successfully in 36 in the Taurus
mountains of Asia Minor, the meaning must be that he attempted no military action in Britain
(Woodman, p.175-6).
128
For Vettius Bolanus’ career see fn. 59 on chapter 8 above.
129
For Petilius Cerialis (governor from 71 to 74) see fn. 61 above. During his campaign against the
Brigantes, he probably moved the Legio IX from Lincoln to a new base at Eboracum (York) and
constructed a fort at Luguvalium (Carlisle). He may also have established the first oupost at Isurium,
now the village of Aldborough in Yorksire, which later became the Brigantes’ new capital.
[17.2] Et Ceriālis quidem alterīus successōris cūram fāmamque obruisset: subiit
And Cerialis indeed of-another successor administration and-reputation would-have-overshadowed succeeded-to

sustinuitque mōlem Iūlius Frontīnus,130 vir magnus, quantum licēbat,131 validamque et

and-sustained the-responsibility Iulius Frontinus man great as-far-as was-allowed and-strong and

pugnācem Silurum gentem armīs subēgit, super virtūtem hostium locōrum quoque
war-like of-Silures tribe with-arme subdues over courage of-enemy of-places also

difficultātēs ēluctātus. 
difficulties having-stuggled[for-victory]

https://www.jstor.org/stable/43608132
Gallia

Vol. 67, No. 2 (2010), pp. 99-124

Entre Narbonnaise et Italie : le territoire de la province des Alpes Maritimae pendant

l'Antiquité romaine (I er S. av. J.-C.-V e S. apr. J.-C.)
Stéphane Morabito

Aulus Plautius: wife accused 9and acquitted) of following `foreign superstuition – chritianity?

Veranius had served as governor of new province of Lycia and put down a rebellion.
Boasted in qwil that, if he’s lived, woyuld have conquered the whole island. Dedicatee of
Onasander Στρατηγικός (on duties of a general)

130
 Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40-103) was probably, like Agricola, born in Gallia Narbonensis and
from an equestrian background. He helped put down a revolt in the Rhineland in 70 and was suffect
consul in 74, then serving as governor in Britain till 77 or 78 (see fn.73 for the uncertainty on when
Agricola succeeded him) and proconsul of Asia in 86. He served as superintendent of Rome’s water
supply in 97, and then was suffect in 98 and full consul in 100, with Trajan as his colleague each time.
He is best remembered forStrategemata, a collection of anecdotes on generalship, and for the very
valuable de aquis urbis Romae, a report for the emperor based on his work in 97. For further details see
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontinus
131
There was danger in letting your light shine too brightly under a bad emperor.