Unit 2

UNIT – II
•PERSONALITY
•PERCEPTION
•LEARNING
Copyright © 2019, 2017, 2015, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
5.1 Describe personality, the way it is measured, and the
factors that shape it.
5.2 Describe the strengths and weaknesses of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality
framework and the Big Five model.
5.3 Discuss how the concepts of core self-evaluation (CSE),
self-monitoring, and proactive personality contribute to
the understanding of personality.
5.4 Describe how personality affects job search and
unemployment.
Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
5.5 Describe how the situation affects whether personality
predicts behavior.
A FRESH PERSONALITY
• Pronsenjit Choudhary, CEO of Barbeque Nation
• Hot grilled vegetarian and non-vegetarian food
• Sayaji Hotels in Indore in MP
• Backed up by Sajid Dhnanai, the owner of Sayaji Hotels in Indore.
• In 2006
• Two year 13 BBQ
• 2018 – 100 restaurants
• Fresh ingredients and not stingy on serving.
• Ambitious , works hard to select people.
• Decision were customer centered. 25% profit sharing with employees
Describe Personality, the Way It Is Measured,
and the Factors that Shape It (1 of 4)
• Defining Personality
– Personality is a dynamic concept describing the
growth and development of a person’s whole
psychological system.
– The sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and
interacts with others.
Definition
• Rather than looking at part of the person, personality
looks at some aggregate use whole that is grater that
the sum of the parts.
• Personality refers to the sum total of ways in which an
individual reacts and interacts with others.
• Personality may be understood as the characteristic
pattern of behaviour and modes of thinking that
determine a person’s adjustment to the environment.
• Measuring Personality
– Managers need to know how to measure personality.
▪ Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions and
help managers forecast who is best for a job.
– The most common means of measuring personality
is through self-report surveys.
– Participants may lie or practice impression
management.
– Observer rating surveys – co-worker
• Early research tried to identify and label enduring
personality characteristics.
– Shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal,
and timid.
▪ These are personality traits.
Foundation of Individual behavior
• Personality Determinants
– Is personality the result of heredity or environment?
– Heredity refers to those factors that were determined
at conception.
▪ The heredity approach argues that the ultimate
explanation of an individual’s personality is the
molecular structure of the genes, located in the
chromosomes.
▪ Researchers on twins separated at birth and raised
apart. 50 personality similarity and 30 occupational
similarity.
▪ Dependability
Determinants of personality
1. Heredity: Traits like physique, eye color, hair color, height,
temperament, energy level, intelligence, reflexes.
2. Environment: Comprises of culture, family, social and situational
factors:
"Culture is the sum total of learned behavior traits which are manifested and
shared by the members of the society." - Hoebel.
3. Family: Socio-Economic level of the family, Family size, Birth order,

Race, Religion, Parent's educational level, and Geographic location.
4. Social: process by which an infant acquires from the enormously
wide range of behavioral potentialities
5. Situational: kind of situation in which he is placed that determines his
actions
Theory of personality
Strengths and Weakness of the MBTI
and Big Five Model (1 of 7)
• The most widely used personality framework is the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
• Individuals are classified as:
– Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)
– Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
– Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
– Perceiving or Judging (P or J)
▪ INTJs are visionaries.
▪ ESTJs are organizers.
▪ ENTPs are conceptualizers.
MBTI Preferences
How they feel and act in a situation
• E v/s I: Extrovert individuals are outgoing, sociable, and
assertive. Introverts are quiet shy and happy.
• S v/s I: Sensing are practical and prefer routine and order. They
focus on details. Intuitive rely on unconscious processes and
are not systematic.
• T v/s F: Thinking types use reason and logic to handle
problems. Feeling types rely on their personal values and
emotions.
• J v/s P: Judging types want control and prefer their world to be
ordered and structures. Perceiving types are flexible and
spontaneous.
16 personality traits
Big Five Personality Traits
Sources: P. T. Costa and R. R. McCrae, The NEO-PI Personality Inventory (Odessa, Fla.: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1992); J. F. Salgado, “The
Copyright
Five Factor © 2019,
Model of Personality 2017,in 2015,
and Job Performance the European2013 Pearson
Community,” Journal of Education, Inc.
Applied Psychology 82 All
(1997): Rights Reserved.
30-43.
Exhibit 5-1 Traits That Matter Most to Business Success at Buyout
Companies
Most Important Less Important
Persistence Strong oral communication

Attention to detail Teamwork
Efficiency Flexibility/adaptability
Analytical skills Enthusiasm
Setting high standards Listening skills
Source: Based on S. N. Kaplan, M. M. Klebanov, and M. Sorensen, “Which CEO Characteristics and Abilities Matter?”
The Journal of Finance 67, no. 3 (2012): 973–1007.
Strengths and Weakness of the MBTI and Big Five Model (4 of 7)
Exhibit 5-2 Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria
Personality Characteristics
in Organizations
Locus of Control
Internal External
I control what People and
happens to me! circumstances
control my fate!
• The Dark Triad
– Machiavellianism: the degree to which an individual is
pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes
that ends can justify means.
– “ My other name means smart and successful, and that’s what I am – I do
whatever I have to get ahead”
– Narcissism: the tendency to be arrogant, have a
grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive
admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.
– Psychopathy: the tendency for a lack of concern for
others and a lack of guilt or remorse when their actions
cause harm. Hard influence tactics, cunning behavior
(bullying)
• An emerging framework to study dark side traits:
– First, antisocial people are indifferent and callous
(heartless) toward others.
– Second, borderline people have low self-esteem
and high uncertainty.
– Third, schizotypal individuals are eccentric
(peculiar) and disorganized.
– Fourth, obsessive compulsive people are
perfectionists and can be stubborn, yet they attend
to details, carry a strong work ethic, and may be
motivated by achievement.
– Fifth, avoidant individuals feel inadequate and hate
criticism.
Approach-avoidance
• Degree to which we reach to stimuli;
• Approach is our attraction to positive stimuli
• Avoidance motivation is aversion to negative
stimuli
• Individual performance depends on level of
motivation
• Net effect depends on which dominates more
• Eg: Competitive pressure
CSE, Self-Monitoring, and Proactive
Personality
• Other Personality Traits Relevant to OB
– Core Self-Evaluation: bottom line conclusions
individuals have about their capabilities, competence,
and worth as a person. Positive and negative. Eg: Ratan
Tata, Insurance call
– Self-Monitoring: measures an individual’s ability to
adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.
Eg: Jyothi
– Proactive Personality: people who identify
opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere
until meaningful change occurs.
The Situation, Job Search, and
Unemployment
• What personality characteristics predict job search
behaviors among the unemployed?
– Conscientiousness and extraversion are the two
strongest predictors of job search behavior,
▪ Self-esteem and self-efficacy (parts of Core
Self-Evaluation) are also important.
The Situation, Personality, and
Behavior (1 of 3)
• Situation strength theory: indicates that the way
personality translates into behavior depends on the
strength of the situation. Eg1: You are in a meeting
– The degree to which norms, cues, or standards
dictate appropriate behavior.
▪ Clarity – High clarity, strong situations
▪ Consistency – Nurse vs managers
▪ Constraints- limited discretion, Bank examiner
▪ Consequences – important consequences, strong
situations. Eg: Surgeon job
Behavior (2 of 3)
Exhibit 5-3 Trait Activation Theory: Jobs in Which Certain Big Five Traits
Are More Relevant
Detail Orientation Required Social Skills Competitive Innovation Dealing with Time Pressure
Required Work Required Angry People (Deadlines)
Jobs scoring high (the traits blank blank blank blank blank
listed here should predict
behavior in these jobs)
Air traffic controller Clergy Coach/scout Actor Correctional Broadcast

officer news analyst
Accountant Therapist Financial Systems analyst Telemarketer Editor

manager
Legal secretary Concierge Sales Advertising writer Flight attendant Airline pilot
representative
Jobs scoring low (the traits blank blank blank blank blank
listed here should not predict
behavior in these jobs)
Forester Software Postal clerk Court reporter Composer Skincare

engineer specialist
Masseuse Pump operator Historian Archivist Biologist Mathematician
Behavior (3 of 3)
[Exhibit 5-3 Continued]
Detail Orientation Required Social Skills Competitive Innovation Dealing with Time Pressure
Required Work Required Angry People (Deadlines)
Model Broadcast Nuclear reactor Medical Statistician Fitness trainer

technician operator technician
Jobs that score high activate blank blank blank blank blank
these traits (make them more
relevant to predicting
behavior)
Conscientiousness (+) Extraversion (+) Extraversion Openness (+) Extraversion (+) Conscientiousn
(+) ess (+)
Blank Agreeableness Agreeableness Blank Agreeableness Neuroticism (–)

(+) (–) (+)
Blank Blank Blank Blank Neuroticism (–) Blank
Explain the Link Between Perception
and Decision Making
• Individuals make decisions – choosing from two or more
alternatives.
• Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem.
– There is a discrepancy between some current state of
affairs and some desired state, requiring consideration
of alternative courses of action.
▪ One person’s problem is another’s satisfactory state
of affairs.
PRICELESS FOR BEING CREATIVE
• Anup Nair – Local Economic Development Society
• Micro enterprises established to improve livelihood
• Majority do not generate profit
• Home shop owners and coconut growers
• Socially committed processionals
• Leveraging team by target rural market for sourcing and selling
• Distibution network – “HomeShops” started in 2009, LEDS has
1350 Home Shops with 75 microentrepreneurs.
• Incubation services
Learning Objectives
Explain the factors that influence perception
Describe attribution theory.
Explain the link between perception and decision making.
Contrast the rational model of decision making with bounded
rationality and intuition.
Explain how individual differences and organizational
constraints affect decision making.
Explain the Factors That Influence
Perception (1 of 2)
• Perception is a process by which individuals
organize and interpret their sensory impressions to
give meaning to their environment.
• It is important to the study of OB because people’s
behaviors are based on their perception of what
reality is, not on reality itself.
• According to Joseph Reitz, "Perception includes all those
processes by which an individual receives information
about his environment - seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting
and smelling. The study of these perpetual processes
shows that their functioning is affected by three classes of
variables-
– The objects or events being perceived,

– The environment in which perception occurs and
– The individual doing the perceiving."
Explain the Factors That Influence
Perception (2 of 2)
Exhibit 6-1 Factors That Influence Perception
THE PERCEPTION PROCESS:
THE PERCEPTION PROCESS:
• I Perceptual Inputs:
A number of stimuli are constantly confronting people in the form of
information, objects, events, people etc. in the environment. These serve
as the inputs of the perceptual process.
• II Perceptual Mechanism:
When a person receives information, he tries to process it through the
following sub processes of selection, organization and interpretation.
• A.Perceptual Selectivity
• Many things are taking place in the environment simultaneously. However,
one cannot pay equal attention to all these things, thus the need of
perceptual selectivity. Interest, belief and experience.
• B. Perceptual Organization
• After having selectively absorbed the data from the range of stimuli we are
exposed, we then try to organize the perceptual inputs in such a manner
that would facilitate us to extract meaning out of what we perceive
• Figure and Ground. This principle simply implies that the perceived
object or person or event stands out distinct from its back ground and
occupies the cognitive space of the individual.
• Perceptual Grouping. Grouping is the tendency to curb individual
stimuli into meaningful patterns
• (a) Similarity. The principle of similarity states that the greater the
similarity of the stimuli, the greater the tendency to perceive them as a
common group.
• (b) Proximity. The principle of proximity or nearness states that a
group of stimuli that are close together will be perceived as a whole
pattern of parts belonging together.
(c) Closure. The principle of closure relates to the tendencies of the people to perceive
objects as a whole, even when some parts of the object are missing
C. Perceptual Interpretation
• Perceptual interpretation is an integral part of the perception process. Without
interpretation, selection and organization of information do not make any sense.
• More important among them are perceptual set, attribution, stereotyping, halo effect
etc.
D. Checking
• After data have been received and interpreted, the perceiver tends to check whether his
interpretations are right or wrong.
E. Reacting
• The last stage in perception is the reaction. The perceiver shall indulge in some action in
relation to the perception.
Explain Attribution Theory (2 of 10)
• Clarification of the differences between internal and
external causation – Judge people
• Attempt to determine
– Internally caused – those that are believed to be
under the personal control of the individual.
– Externally caused – resulting from outside causes.
Eg: Vinita: same level performance
Current Task - Low distinctiveness, task- low
consensus and performance - high consistency
• Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an
individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it
was internally or externally caused.
• Eg: Late coming employee
• Determination depends on three factors (DCC)
– Distinctiveness- Different behavior in different
situations. Arrive late today regularly violates
(unusual-external)
– Consensus – Everyone who faces a similar situation
responds the same way (route) (high consensus –
external)
– Consistency – Respond same way over a period of
time. Not late for several months. (Low consistency –
external)
Exhibit 6-2 Attribution Theory
Experiential learning on attribution from their own
real experience
• Students will be asked to assess a person’s

behaviour and dissect three factors of internal and
external attribution.
• “Elon Musk lashes out at Thai cave rescuer”
• Consistent, consensus, Distinctiveness can be
discussed from various news articles.
• Fundamental attribution error
– We have a tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal
or personal factors. Eg: Sales agents
• Self-serving bias
– Individuals attribute their own successes to internal
factors.
– Ambiguous information as flattering, accept positive
feedback and reject negative feedback.
▪ Eg1: If someone sues you and you win the case,
should you pay legal cost?
▪ Eg2: Korean Manager – accept group failure
• Asian manager – blame group
• US – Individual vs collectivism
• Common Shortcuts in Judging Others
– Selective perception
▪ Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or
event stand out will increase the probability that it
will be perceived.
▪ We select according to our interests, background,
experience and attitude.
▪ Draw unwarranted conclusion
▪ Since we can’t observe everything going on around
us, we engage in selective perception.
▪ Eg1: US Stock market
• Halo effect
– The halo effect occurs when we draw a general
impression based on a single characteristic.
– Our general view contaminate our specific ones.
– Exercise: If you are a critic of Modi, try listing ten
things you admire about him.
• Contrast effects
– We do not evaluate a person in isolation.
– Our reaction to one person is influenced by other
persons we have recently encountered.
– Eg: Job interviews
– Eg: “Never follow an act that has kids or animals in it”
• Stereotyping
– Judging someone based on one’s perception of the
group to which that person belongs.
▪ We have to monitor ourselves to make sure we’re
not unfairly applying a stereotype in our evaluations
and decisions.
▪ Eg1: Inaccurate generalization that women lack
mental, emotional and strength for police job.
▪ Eg2: Men aren’t interested in childcare.
▪ Eg3: Life-and-death decisions
▪ Eg4: Leaders as whites.
Game based learning for stereotypes and group
behaviours
• A. Stereotypes: Some of the groups/race/ethnicity upon

which stereotypes are common will be identified.
• The names of such groups will be written on the board.
Students need to come voluntarily and write the first word
that comes to their mind.
• Avoid making any judgements on choice of word. This will
be followed by a class room discussion linking it with
stereotypes and judgments.
• Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations
– Employment Interview – predicting job performance.
▪ Evidence indicates that interviewers make
perceptual judgments that are often inaccurate.
– Interviewers generally draw early impressions
that become very quickly entrenched.
– Studies indicate that most interviewers’ decisions
change very little after the first four or five
minutes of the interview.
– Good applicant - Absence of unfavorable
characteristics than the presence of favorable
ones.
• Performance Expectations
– Evidence demonstrates that people will attempt to
validate their perceptions of reality, even when those
perceptions are faulty.
▪ Self-fulfilling prophecy, or the Pygmalion effect,
characterizes the fact that people’s expectations
determine their behavior.
▪ Others expectation of target person affect the target
person’s performance.
▪ Goelem effect: low expectations leads to decreased
performance
– Expectations become reality.
• Performance Evaluation
– An employee’s performance appraisal is very much
dependent upon the perceptual process.
▪ Many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms.
▪ Subjective measures are problematic because of
selective perception, contrast effects, halo effects,
and so on.
Explain the Link Between Perception
and Decision Making
• Individuals make decisions – choosing from two or more
alternatives.
• Decision making occurs as a reaction to a problem.
– There is a discrepancy between some current state of
affairs and some desired state, requiring consideration
of alternative courses of action.
▪ One person’s problem is another’s satisfactory state
of affairs.
Learning
• Learning – “Its what we did when we went to school”
• Learning “ any relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs as a result of experience”
• Change may be good or bad
• Change ingrained – reflexive or fatigue (sudden burst
of energy)
• Experience is necessary for learning. – directly or
observation.
• Does experience result in permanent change?
© 2005 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights
reserved.
Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as
a result of experience.
Learning
•Involves change
•Is relatively permanent
•Is acquired through experience
2–71
© 2007 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights
reserved.
Learning
• Learning
▪ Almost all complex behavior is learned.
▪ Learning is a continuous, life-long process.
▪ The principles of learning can be used to shape
behavior
• Theories of learning:
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
– Social learning
14–72
Theories of Learning
Theories of Learning
• Classical Conditioning – Individual response to stimuli
Few Classical condition examples
• Eg1: Nursery rhymes – Pleasant memories and
feeling of euphoria
• Eg2: Manufacturing plant - Top executive visit.
Exercise
Write two incidents that conditioned in your mind
and discuss that with your peer and get it ratified.
reserved.
Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
Key Concepts
•Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
•Conditioned (learned) behavior
•Reinforcement
2–76
reserved.
Learning (cont’d)
• Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
– The theory that behavior is a function of its
consequences and is learned through experience.
– Operant behavior: voluntary or learned behaviors
▪ Behaviors are learned by making rewards
contingent to behaviors.
▪ Behavior that is rewarded (positively reinforced) is
likely to be repeated.
▪ Behavior that is punished or ignored is less likely to
be repeated.
14–77
• Behavior is a function of its consequences.
• People learn to behave to get something they want or to avoid
something they don’t want.
• Voluntary learning behavior against reflexive or unlearned
behavior
• Creating pleasing consequences to follow specific form of
behavior.
• Eg1: Professor marking contribution for class behavior.
• Behaviorism - Behavior follows stimuli
• Eg2: Commissioned sales person
• Eg3: Boss behavior for overtime
withholding
payment until
a job is
complete
Putting a child
in a time-out
until they can
decrease their
aggressive
The most behavior,
common example
of this is
disciplining (e.g.
berating) a child
for misbehaving
reserved.
Types of Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
• Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs (Eg: stopped scolding)
• Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
undesirable behavior (Eg: Suspension for not attending
training session)
• Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation (Eg: Keeping quite over undesired behavior
2–80
and it stops)
Social learning theory
• Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that people

learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and
modeling:
• people learn through observing others' behavior,
attitudes, and outcomes of these behaviors.
• It also known as observational learning
reserved.
Learning (cont’d)
• Social Learning
– The theory that individuals learn through their observations
of others and through their direct experiences.
– Attributes of models that influence learning:
▪ Attentional: the attractiveness or similarity of the model
▪ Retention: how well the model can be recalled
▪ Motor reproduction: the reproducibility of the model’s
actions
▪ Reinforcement: the rewards associated with learning
the model behavior
14–82
Social Learning theory
reserved.
Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.
Key Concepts
•Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
•Some rewards are more effective than others.
•The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed
and permanence.
2–84
reserved.
Shaping: A Managerial Tool

• Shaping Behavior
– Attempting to “mold” individuals by guiding their learning in
graduated steps such that they learn to behave in ways that
most benefit the organization.
– Shaping methods:
▪ Positive reinforcement: rewarding desired behaviors.
▪ Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant
consequence once the desired behavior is exhibited.
▪ Punishment: penalizing an undesired behavior.
▪ Extinction: eliminating a reinforcement for an undesired
behavior.
14–85
reserved.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is
demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to
make the behavior worth repeating but not every
time it is demonstrated.
2–86
reserved.
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant
number of responses.
2–87
Schedule of Reinforcement
Nature of reinforcement Effect on Behavior Example
Reward given after each Fast learning of new Compliments
desired behaviour behaviour but rapid
extinction
Reward given at fixed time Average and irregular Weekly pay checks
intervals performance with rapid
extinction
Reward given at variable Moderately high and stable Pop quizzes
time intervals performance with slow
extinction
Reward given at fixed High and stable Piece-rate pay
amounts of output performance attained
quickly but also with rapid
extinction
Reward given at variable Vey high performance with Commissioned sales
amounts of output slow extinction
reserved.
Behavior Modification
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.
Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline data
3. Identify behavioral consequences
4. Develop and apply intervention
5. Evaluate performance improvement
2–93
reserved.
OB MOD Organizational Applications

• Well Pay versus Sick Pay
– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not
absence.
• Employee Discipline
– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.
• Developing Training Programs
– OB MOD methods improve training effectiveness.
• Self-management
– Reduces the need for external management control.
2–94
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UNIT – II

• Hot grilled vegetarian and non-vegetarian food

• Sayaji Hotels in Indore in MP

• Backed up by Sajid Dhnanai, the owner of Sayaji Hotels in Indore.

• Two year 13 BBQ

• 2018 – 100 restaurants

• Fresh ingredients and not stingy on serving.

• Ambitious , works hard to select people.

• Decision were customer centered. 25% profit sharing with employees

3. Family: Socio-Economic level of the family, Family size, Birth order,

Most Important Less Important

Persistence Strong oral communication

Analytical skills Enthusiasm

Setting high standards Listening skills

Exhibit 5-2 Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria

Air traffic controller Clergy Coach/scout Actor Correctional Broadcast

Accountant Therapist Financial Systems analyst Telemarketer Editor

Forester Software Postal clerk Court reporter Composer Skincare

Masseuse Pump operator Historian Archivist Biologist Mathematician

Model Broadcast Nuclear reactor Medical Statistician Fitness trainer

Blank Agreeableness Agreeableness Blank Agreeableness Neuroticism (–)

Blank Blank Blank Blank Neuroticism (–) Blank

– The objects or events being perceived,

• Students will be asked to assess a person’s

• A. Stereotypes: Some of the groups/race/ethnicity upon

Theories of Learning (cont’d)

• Bandura's Social Learning Theory posits that people

Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Shaping: A Managerial Tool

Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

OB MOD Organizational Applications

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