Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Bioplastics: A boon or bane?

Ardra Nandakumar a, b, Jo-Ann Chuah b, Kumar Sudesh b, *
a
Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali, Knowledge City, Sector 81, Manauli PO, Sahibzada Ajit Singh Nagar, Punjab, 140306, India
b
Ecobiomaterial Research Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Petroleum-based plastics have come under a lot of scrutiny in the past decade owing to the properties that made
Bioplastics them ubiquitous items; their durability and expendability. The exploitation of such features during the industrial
Greenwashing era has now culminated into the major environmental issue of plastic pollution. As a means of mitigating this
Disposal
issue, bioplastics are being considered as an environment-friendly alternative. However, not all materials under
Environmental benefits
Biodegradable
this category are the same and this has caused many misconceptions about the commodity and its after-life
processing, which has led to false advertising and consumer indifference. Proper disposal and sorting proced­
ures required for many of these bioplastics are not well known, which affects their optimum degradation. This
review aims to: (i) outline the production and properties of the most prominent bioplastics along with their
impacts on the environment and the economy, (ii) discuss the differences between biodegradable and com­
postable materials, (iii) explore the basic differences in the disposal of bioplastics compared to conventional
plastics, and (iv) enumerate the future directions that can help them become a ubiquitous commodity. Proper
knowledge of the various bioplastics and the implementation of proper disposal methodologies may alleviate
health as well as environmental impacts of plastics and reduce plastic pollution.

1. Introduction
Since the early 2000s, plastic pollution has been a topic on the table
in every United Nations Climate Summit and various countries have
tried to include the alleviation of this major concern into their 5 year
plans [1,2]. Rapid industrial advancements, the fossil fuel crisis, and the
abundance of loop holes in environmental laws misused by multina­
tional companies have brought about the Great Garbage Patches in the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans which in turn has aggravated the issue of
rapid climate change [3,4].
For this reason, bioplastics are being looked into by many countries
and corporations to replace these conventional plastics since many of
them are touted to be biodegradable and hence can be the solution to
plastic pollution. Bioplastics were discovered nearly a century ago with
Galalith and Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) being some of the oldest [5,
6]. At present, there are many bioplastics on the market including but
not limited to polylactic acid (PLA), poly(butylene adipate-co-tereph­
thalate) (PBAT), Mirel and Bio-PET. Starch-based polymers such as
blends with polycaprolactone (PCL) and polybutylene succinate (PBS)
currently dominate the market [7]. Even though many varieties of
bioplastics exist, they have not been able to phase out conventional
petroleum based plastics for the simple reason that they are economi­
cally non-viable. As of 2017, a kilogram of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) or P
(3HB), the most common type of PHA, was priced at US$ 5.5 while a
kilogram of PLA filaments cost around US$ 21 [8]. In contrast, con­
ventional plastics such as polypropylene (PP) and polyurethane (PU)
cost approximately US$ 1.3 to US$ 1.7 per kilogram [9]. Many com­
panies involved in the production of bioplastics such as Bio-On, Novon
and Cereplast had to shut down due to the debilitating losses they faced
[10–12]. However, methodologies to reduce these costs are underway
with polymers such as Bio-PET priced at only US$ 3.13 per kilogram
[13]. Innovative methods to reduce the cost of extraction involved in the
production of commercially available cellulose-based bioplastics such as
carboxymethyl cellulose have also been explored along with redirecting
food waste and industry waste into bioplastic production thereby
reducing the cost in terms of raw material [14,15]. Although PHA and
other bioplastics like polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL)
are being promoted for their green prospects, current literature seems to
be heavily divided on whether they may be able to reduce pollution or
add to it since most bioplastics need specific conditions for degradation.
Some papers even claim that the degradation products of bioplastics,
though non-toxic, may inadvertently affect the acidity of the soil and
microbial diversity [16,17]. Although bioplastics are biodegradable,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ksudesh@usm.my (K. Sudesh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111237
Received 7 August 2020; Received in revised form 26 April 2021; Accepted 17 May 2021
Available online 25 May 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Nandakumar et al.
Abbreviations
UN United Nations
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoate
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
P(3HB) Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)
PLA Polylactic Acid or Polylactide
PCL Polycaprolactone
PU Polyurethane
PP Polypropylene
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
PBAT poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate)
PBS Polybutylene succinate
PVA Polyvinyl alcohol
CaCl2 Calcium chloride
certain steps will need to be taken in their disposal to ensure safe and
rapid biodegradation. This review aims to clear misconceptions about
the terms related to bioplastics as well as their properties, and give a
compact procedure on their disposal.
2. The basics of bioplastics
Bioplastics have been and continue to be used as an umbrella term to
encompass many types of materials, some that do not quite fit into the
consumer’s basic understanding or expectations for the product. Recent
technological advancements have added to the inventory, which also
implies that there can be a bioplastic substitution for every need.
2.1. Definition
Although there is no standardized definition for a bioplastic, ac­
cording to the most widely accepted meaning, a bioplastic is a polymer
that is biobased or biodegradable or both [18]. This brings to light a very
important point that not all bioplastics are biodegradable, i.e., biobased
does not imply biodegradable, and certain non-biobased plastics are
biodegradable, such as PBAT. Even some conventional plastics, such as
polyolefins of low molecular weight, can give rise to create products of
low molecular weight that can be utilized by microbes through abiotic
processes like photodegradation and thermal degradation. Significant
biodegradation under a reasonable time period mandates that the
average molecular weight should be under 5000 Da. A decrease in the
number of carbonyl groups during degradation is a good indicator of
microbial growth. The final products of the degradation of these smaller
polyolefins are water and carbon dioxide. Prodegradant additives may
also be added to these polymers to accelerate their rate of degradation
and usually include metal salts [19].
Bioplastics of more recent origin such as Bio-PET are termed so only
because they are biobased, as the monomers are produced from corn,
but the polymerization process is chemical and the polymer has the same
properties as conventional PET, which makes the resulting polymer non-
degradable. However, the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) in 2015 defined bioplastics as “a biobased polymer
or a polymer issued from monomers derived from the biomass”, and for
this reason the IUPAC has stated that the term bioplastics can be very
misleading and suggests avoiding the term completely and using terms
like biobased polymers instead [20]. This is not to be confused with
compostable plastics that decompose as a result of biological activities
over the period of their degradation. More on this has been discussed in
later sections.
While on this topic, a good representative of misunderstood terms is
oxo-biodegradable plastics. Although the name suggests that they are
2
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
PVC Poly Vinyl Chloride
LDPE Low-density polyethylene
PP Polypropylene
PS Polystyrene
P(3HB-co-3HHx) Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate)
P(3HB-co-4HB) Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)
P(3HB-co-3HV) Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
ATPE Aqueous Two Phase Extraction
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
EN European Standards
BPA bisphenol A
N Nitrogen
P Phosphorus
biodegradable, a report by the United Nations Environment Programme
stated that they only physically degrade, due to the addition of metal
compounds to conventional plastics, and are not broken down or taken
up by microbes. Another newcomer is the enzyme-mediated degradable
bioplastic, which one should also be wary of for the same reasons as
mentioned for oxo-biodegradable plastics [21].
2.2. Types of bioplastics
Examples of bioplastics, based on the broad definition, are catego­
rized as follows:
(i) Starch-Based Bioplastics -Polymers that contain native or modi­
fied starch moieties fall under the category of starch based
polymers. Blends of natural or synthetic plastics with starch as
well as polymers produced from the fermentation of starch can
also be included in this group. This accounts for approximately
50% of the global bioplastics market and constitutes many of the
thermoplastics in use today [7,22]. E.g., Bio-PET, Thermoplastic
Starch (TPS)
(ii) Cellulose-Based Bioplastics - Derived from cellulose esters or
other cellulose derivatives. Cellulose contains glucose molecules
connected to each other by a β(1,4) linkage which explains why
specific symbiotic microbes are required for its digestion by ru­
minants [23]. E.g., cellulose acetate, methyl cellulose
(iii) Aliphatic Polyesters - Include materials that are more resistant to
hydrolytic degradation. E.g., PHA and PLA
(iv) Protein-Based Bioplastics - Derived from sources like milk, wheat
gluten and other sources of protein. Very similar to the process of
cheese-making. E.g., casein bioplastics
(v) Lignin-Based Bioplastics - Although lignin has long since been
obtained as a byproduct of cellulose production, it is only with
the recent advent of biorefinery projects that this polymer has
gained importance [24]. E.g., PP-lignin polymer blends,
PHA-lignin polymer blends, etc.
(vi) Chitin-Based Bioplastics - Chitin is a biopolymer made of N-
acetyl-D-glucosamine units linked by β(1,4) bonds and is the
second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose. Although
chitin is found in the cell walls of yeast and fungi and in the
exoskeletons of arthropods, the primary source of its extraction is
from the shells of crustaceans like crabs, prawns, shrimps, etc.
[25]. E.g., Chitosan based bioplastics, chitin blends with PP, etc.
Some argue that plastics that are completely petrochemical in na­
ture, like PCL and PBAT, may also be considered as a bioplastic as they
are completely biodegradable.
A. Nandakumar et al.
2.3. Production
In terms of production, bioplastics may be broadly grouped into
three types: (i) polymers directly extracted from biomass, (ii) polymers
produced from bio-derived intermediates, and (iii) polymers produced
by microorganisms.
Polymers such as those derived from lignin, cellulose, starch, chitin
and even milk fall under the category of bioplastics derived from
biomass. Lignin, cellulose and starch based polymers are often used to
produce intermediates so as to make blends with other plastics.
Of the biomass resources in the world, the ones obtained from the
byproducts of the wood industry and agricultural fields seem to be the
largest. Furthermore, lignocellulose makes up 90% of this plant biomass
and nearly a half of the carbon present in this lignocellulosic material
contains cellulose [26]. Cellulose based polymers such as cellulose ac­
etate, cellulose nitrate and methyl cellulose can be synthesized from
processes such as acylation, acetylation and esterification with other
components such as carboxylic acids and their derivatives [27]. The
main factor to keep in mind during cellulose processing is its extraction
as it is crucial to keep the cellulose intact while the other polymers like
pectin, hemicelluloses and lignin are removed. This serves as the
rate-limiting step in biomass conversion to cellulose in terms of both
yield and cost [28]. The most common methods of cellulose extraction
consist of the Kraft method, Caustic Soda processing and the Sulfite
method. All three processes entail a mixture of wood chips with chem­
icals ranging from sodium hydroxide to sodium sulfite so as to cleave the
bonds between hemicelluloses and lignin to cellulose. However, these
processes, especially the Kraft process, have been considered contro­
versial due to the environmental impacts, odorous substances and large
amounts of liquid waste produced as a byproduct of these methods [29,
30].
The use of lignin in polymer applications, while attractive, had
proven to be quite difficult due to its macromolecular structure. Spec­
troscopic analyses suggest that the structure of individual molecules
within the sample itself may significantly vary [24]. The processes for
lignin extraction can vary based on if the extrude is to be used at an
analytical or industrial level. Similar to cellulose extraction, lignin too
can be extracted using the Kraft method. However during this process,
the backbone of this polymer gets cleaved due to the harsh chemicals
and at times new functional groups may be introduced into the polymer
as well [31]. Organic solvents can also be used to solubilize degraded
forms of lignins and are structurally most similar to native lignins as
compared to lignin produced by other industrial methods. The major
drawback is that the amounts of lignin produced by these processes are
extremely low as compared to the amount of solvent required and the
disposal of these solvents also provide an environmental hazard [24,32].
Due to the laboriousness of its melt processing and poor thermal sta­
bility, the use of lignin directly as a polymer does not seem viable.
Instead lignin is blended with other polymers to provide resistance
against UV degradation and thermo-oxidation since the phenol groups in
lignin are able to scavenge free radicals [33].
Chitin based polymers may also be deemed a fairly plausible
replacement to conventional plastics since there is no deficit in chitin
resources due to the rise in fishing and aquaculture systems. However,
extraction, yield and final product quality are some points of concern
with respect to the polymers produced from it [25]. Chitin extraction,
whether chemical or biological, follow the same steps; demineralization
and deproteinization. The chemical method uses dilute hydrochloric
acid for demineralization and deproteinization is done using sodium
hydroxide and removal of lipids using organic solvents. The major
drawbacks of this method include the use of high volumes of hazardous
solvents and the loss in mass post processing. On the other hand the
biological method of extraction uses microbes such as lactic-acid bac­
teria, proteolytic bacteria and even mixed cultures of the same [34,35].
Casein polymer films are made by denaturing the proteins using heat
which forms disulfide linkages that may contribute to the film like
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
structure. The addition of plasticizers such as glycerol or sorbitol may
also help in ensuring that thick films can be synthesized without
worrying about the brittleness however, increasing the amount of
plasticizers also reduced the tensile strength of the material. Such
properties were seen to help extend the shelf life of food products such as
cheese since these casein films acted as oxygen barriers [36]. The major
issues with using casein as a biopolymer include the problems associated
with the acquisition of raw material, the complex manufacturing pro­
cesses and poor resistance to moisture. Methods such as processing the
polymer with high pressure CO2 are currently underway in hopes of
increasing the hydrophobicity and decreasing the solubility of the
polymer [37].
Starch is considered a good filler for conventional plastics since it is
biodegradable and has adequate thermal stability so as to not interfere
with the melt flow processing of the polymer. However since it is a
hydrophilic molecule, it causes a loss in mechanical properties and
produces low adhesion due to the hydrophobic nature of the conven­
tional plastics that causes poor formation of starch-polymer interfaces.
The use of starch by itself is not viable since it neither shows resistance to
humidity nor does it show sufficient properties for melt-process [7]. On
the other hand, TPS contains starch and a plasticizer however, unlike
starch blends, thermomechanical energy is applied to the polymer to
create hydrogen bonds between the starch and the plasticizer thereby
severing the hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl groups of starch.
Insufficient amounts of plasticizers though impair the formation of a
homogenous layer and can instead cause some starch granules to remain
intact. TPS in turn exhibits drawbacks in the form of poor water resis­
tance and inferior mechanical properties. Remedies to mediate these
issues though are limited by the cost incurred [10]. TPS can also be
blended with non-biodegradable synthetic plastics to increase the
modulus of the polymer however, this is also seen to decrease the
ductility. In cases of TPS blends with non-polar synthetic polymers,
there arises the issue of immiscibility however, the addition of citric acid
was seen to counter this drawback [7]. In other cases such as Bio-PET,
the monomers are derived from renewable resources like corn or po­
tato, but the polymerization follows the same pattern as
petroleum-based conventional plastics.
Polymers produced by microorganisms include PHA and in some
cases, even extracellular polymeric substances like alginate. The mi­
croorganisms may be grown on carbon-rich sources such as glucose or
oil and the organisms accumulate this carbon as polymers, i.e., the
polymerization takes place in vivo.
From Table 1, it can be seen that PHA is the only bioplastic that is
biobased, biodegradable as well as biologically produced [38]. There
may be some dispute over the exclusion of PLA from such a grouping, as
various studies have shown that PLA is just as difficult to degrade as
petroleum-based plastics if devoid of conducive conditions such as
elevated temperature and moisture [17].
2.4. Uses
Bioplastics like PHA are biodegradable and can bypass the use of
fossil fuels, since most of them are produced from biomass, which im­
plies potential carbon neutrality. For these reasons, there has been an
increase in the usage of these materials, in the form of blends or com­
posites with synthetic polymers that are degradable or non-degradable.
This is not a new concept as parts of machines like the Ford Model T
were once derived from corn and soybean oil [49]. At present, the most
common use of bioplastics is in single use items like food packaging,
utensils, film wrap, etc [50].
Another benefit of the biodegradable nature of bioplastics is that the
end products can be reclaimed as raw materials, thereby eliminating the
need for virgin raw material and giving the product multiple end-of-life
options. For example, a company proficient in producing casein plastics,
Lactips, claims that their plastic is edible since it is made of milk protein
[17]. Casein protein polymers are majorly synthesized to be used as
A. Nandakumar et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237

Table 1 moieties as well as in the aliphatic chains allow it to be used as chemical

Types of Polymers and their Synthesis. This table encompasses a collection of handles [31]. Lignins have been shown to be capable of adsorbing heavy
the various polymers in use today, indication of their biodegradable and/or metals and its application as an adsorbent material for wastewater pu­
biobased nature, and their respective polymerization methods. From the table, it rification is under consideration. This adsorption capacity however is
can be seen that although PHA is not the only polymer that is both biodegradable limited by factors such as pH and the oxidation state of the metal ions
and biobased, it is the only polymer that can be synthesized via a biological
[59]. Lignins have also been identified as a potential precursor for the
route.
synthesis of carbon fibres, materials that require high strength and
Polymer Biodegradable Biobased Polymerization Reference stiffness [60]. Lignin has also been considered to be used as a fire
PET No No Esterification and Awaja and retardant along with other polymers due to its high charring capacity
transesterification Pavel, 2005 [61].
[39]
Cellulose has been used in the production of Cellulose Nanofibres
PHA Yes Yes Using microbes Tan et al.,
2014 [40] (CNFs) and Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs) since nanomaterials made of
PLA No Yes Polycondensation or Pholharn cellulose possess physical properties like high tensile strength and elastic
Ring-opening et al., 2017 modulus, low density and high specific surface areas, all of which are
polymerization [41] relevant from an application based perspective [23]. Cellulose is also
Bio-PET No Yes Aqueous phase Prieto, 2016
used as edible coating for many food items to increase their shelf life and
reforming and [42]
transesterification is also being considered as an alternative to petroleum based plastics in
(APR) single use packaging. The use of cellulose in these many areas can be
PBAT Yes No Polycondensation Ferreira considered due to its biodegradability, renewability and non-toxic na­
reaction et al., 2019
ture [62]. Additionally, since cellulose is soluble in many liquids and
[43]
PBS Yes No Melt Labruyère
media and this process is reversible, the production of regenerated cel­
polycondensation et al., 2014; lulose is also being looked into. This process includes the addition of
and chain extension Xu and Guo, solubilizing agents like carbon sulfide or ionic liquids which can then be
2009 [44,45] removed to obtain the fibres once more. This process is often used to
PCL Yes No Ring opening McKeen,
obtain artificial silk and for the production of artificial membranes for
polymerization 2012 [46]
PVA Yes No Free radical vinyl Ben and medical devices [63,64].
polymerization Halima, 2016 Since PBAT is flexible and tough, it can be mixed with other polymers
[47] to substitute low or high density polyethylene in garbage bags or other
Cellulose Yes Yes Cellulose with acetic Ach 1993
disposable plastics. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) provides a good oxy­
acetate acid [48]
Casein Yes Yes Precipitation using [36]
gen barrier that can be used to preserve food and cosmetics, and may
plastics heat or acid eliminate the need for nitrogen flushing during production. Polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) is already used to make glue whereas research is being
done to see if PCL can replace specialty polyurethanes. PLA has been and
adhesives and different processes such as irradiation, enzymatic or is currently being used for 3D printing to create medical devices for
chemical treatment may be used to form strong adhesives or obtain implants and surgical procedures [50,65]. An innovative collaboration
polymers with fast setting properties [51]. Casein proteins can also be was also seen between Ford and Heinz wherein Heinz supplied their
used in the synthesis of edible packaging films, controlled release drug surplus tomatoes that used to go to waste to Ford to be broken down into
delivery systems and can also serve as antimicrobial and antioxidising tomato fibres and used for injection molding in combination with other
agents [36,37,52]. plastics for the manufacture of car parts. This method was also incor­
Another polymer coming to the forefront now is a polymer from algin porated later into the packaging for Heinz ketchup bottles [66]. Fig. 1A
or carrageenan extracted from seaweed [53]. This provides an addi­ depicts the distribution of the consumption of bioplastics across various
tional benefit in that the remains of the seaweed can then be used as a sectors [67] and Fig. 1B depicts the distribution of the production of
substratum to grow microorganisms to produce PHA [54]. Nutrafilm, a bioplastics by various countries [68].
company that produces seaweed food packaging, also claims that the PHA copolymers, like Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydrox­
packaging is edible and has been reinforced using chemicals like CaCl2, yvalerate) or P(3HB-co-3HV) and Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-
which do not cause any side effects [55]. hydroxyhexanoate) or P(3HB-co-3HHx), are used as biodegradable
Uses of starch polymers include food packaging, production of packaging material [69]. PHAs also have many medical applications in
hygiene-related items such as toothpicks, food serviceware and planting the treatment of HIV or various cancers as it is a pharmaceutically active
pots to name a few. Blends of starch-based polymers with other biode­ compound and have also been used to create nanoparticles for drug
gradable plastics can produce bioplastics that are both biodegradable delivery to remedy conditions such as respiratory disorders. Drug de­
and compostable which can be used to manufacture starch-based films livery in this manner is sustained and controlled over time, hence
to make recycling bags to dispose organic waste, mulching films and making it easier for older patients who may have difficulty in taking
compostable packaging [10]. drug doses at correct intervals [70]. The use of PHA in such fields is
Since chitin-based polymers are biodegradable and biocompatible further touted by the fact that the polymer is non-toxic and does not
they can be used for a wide range of applications such as in biomedicine, cause severe immune effects [71–73]. PHA can also be used in agricul­
food technology, textile industry, production of nanoparticles and ture in the form of mulch films to maintain soil structure and retain
agriculture [56]. However it is important to note that the chitin purity moisture, and as agricultural nets and grow bags when rearing plants in
required in each of these areas largely varies with medical imple­ the nursery [74]. Due to a variety of different PHAs with many different
mentations requiring the highest purity to avoid adverse reactions. In properties, polymers may be tailored for specific purposes by varying
the case of medical applications, chitin hydrogels can be used in bone the substrate, microorganism or even the molding conditions. Fig. 2
repair wherein they form pores which provides the ideal area for hy­ depicts the possible replacements of petroleum-based plastics with PHA
droxyapatite formation [57]. Addition of chitin to starch-based poly­ [75].
mers has also shown to improve the water resistance of those polymers
although it decreases the tensile strength as well [58]. 2.5. Environmental benefits of bioplastics
The aromatic rings of lignin in lignin-based polymers provide rigidity
to polymeric materials while the hydroxyl groups present in its phenolic According to the European Union Plastics Strategy, bioplastics can

4
A. Nandakumar et al.
Fig. 1. Proportional Use of Bioplastics and their Production by Region as
of 2019. (A) The pie chart depicts the use of bioplastics in various sectors
ranging from agriculture to packaging. Modified from “Bioplastics facts and
figures. Market - vast applications for bioplastics” by European Bioplastics
(June 7, 2020) [67]. (B) The bar graph depicts the proportional production of
bioplastics by different continents [68]. The proportional use or production is
calculated as the amount of bioplastics used globally in the sector or produced
by the continent (in tonnes) divided by the total amount of bioplastics used in
the world in 2019 (in tonnes). The total production of bioplastics in 2019 was
2.11 million tonnes.
play a key role in creating a low carbon circular economy hence boosting
recycling efficiency [76]. For many bioplastics, their major advantage
over conventional plastics lies in their biodegradability. According to
the European Union Commission, bioplastics are also of great impor­
tance due to their impact on climate protection and carbon footprint.
Extensive dependency on fossil fuels has been linked to greenhouse gas
emissions, which contributed to issues such as food supply disruptions,
increase in the number of wildfires and extreme weather to name a few.
Hence, a shift to bioplastics can alleviate some of these major concerns.
Their reduced dependency on our limited fossil fuel supply also makes
them carbon neutral. Biobased plastics also provide the option of end
product reclamation and energy recovery hence making them a poten­
tial renewable resource [77]. Although sorting of bioplastics from con­
ventional plastics is often required, a study showed that minor
contamination of conventional plastic recycling streams with bioplastics
causes no negative effects on the recycled products [78]. Bioplastics can
also undergo feedstock recovery for the procurement of secondary raw
material. For example, biobased plastics, along with municipal waste
(and at times even conventional plastics), can be used for the generation
of syngas, which can be used for the generation of electricity, production
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
of chemicals like ethanol and methanol, and even for the synthesis of
synthetic petroleum. Although the incineration of plastics for heat
generation is already a frequently used option in many parts of Europe,
the shift to bioplastics provides the opportunity to obtain renewable
energy from the biogenic carbon. Such measures also ensure that the use
of landfills is minimized in the long run, hence allowing the reclamation
of land for other purposes [79]. Therefore, replacing a good portion of
fossil fuel-based plastics with biobased ones may help achieve EU
Climate Protection targets and even UN Sustainable Development Goals
[76].
3. Properties of bioplastics
Bioplastics are generally said to be biodegradable but some can even
be compostable and the difference between the two will be explored in
this section. It is also important to study the effects of the byproducts of
degradation on the biospehere.
3.1. Biodegradability
Biodegradation is the process by which materials can be broken
down by microbes and used as a food source. However, a biodegradable
material may not be biodegradable in all conditions. In fact, in some of
the colder regions, even organic material like algae can leave behind
fossil traces due to poor biodegradation [21].California has therefore
banned the use of the term “biodegradable” for plastics sold in the state
as it was considered vague and misleading. Although officially there is
no time limit which defines a material to be biodegradable, if a material
decomposes within a few months it is called biodegradable, any longer
and it is termed durable [80]. Recently, some standards have been
implemented for the aerobic biodegradation of plastics (ISO17556) as
well as for mulch films (EN17033) [81,82]. Not all materials made from
renewable resources, i.e., biobased, are biodegradable. This property is
linked to the chemical structure of a material. For example, in the case of
PBAT and Bio-PET, although the former has its building blocks derived
from fossil fuels unlike the latter, PBAT is more biodegradable as well as
compostable when compared to Bio-PET [83].
Starch is considered a good filler for conventional plastics since it is
biodegradable and has adequate thermal stability so as to not interfere
with the melt flow processing of the polymer. However since it is a
hydrophilic molecule, it causes a loss in mechanical properties and
produces low adhesion due to the hydrophobic nature of the conven­
tional plastics that causes poor formation of starch-polymer interfaces.
During degradation, this composite structure can be further weakened
due to the activity of microbes on the starch portion which can ulti­
mately lead to increased biofragmentation [7]. Furthermore, on
observing the biodegradation of blends with TPS, it was seen that only
the TPS fraction underwent biodegradation under a reasonable amount
of time [84]. It is important to note that not all forms of starch based
polymers are biodegradable and compostable. There are different clas­
ses based on the aforementioned properties ranging from Class A that
includes biodegradable but non-compostable materials that take around
2 years to decompose to Class Y that includes materials made only from
raw materials and are both biodegradable and compostable. Plastics
made from fermented corn starch such as Bio-PET are not biodegradable
or compostable however polymers such as TPS possess both properties
[10].
Although cellulose is derived from plant biomass, not all forms of this
polymer easily biodegrade in natural environments. Polymers like cel­
lulose acetate require highly controlled thermophilic conditions for
optimal biodegradation [85,86]. Although the cellulose backbone is
easily biodegraded, the acetyl groups require esterases for its deacety­
lation and hence there were conflicts during the initial phases of the
studies conducted on the degradation of these polymers since those
studies focused mainly on the degradation of cellulose acetate by fungi
and did not take into account the aforementioned deacetylation step
A. Nandakumar et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237

Fig. 2. Prospective Substitutions by PHA. This figure shows how day to day products that use petroleum based plastics can be manufactured with variants of PHA
hence ensuring that the products are biodegradable and yet maintain the physical properties required for their application. Modified from“PHA bioplastics a ‘tunable’
solution for convenience food packaging” by Lingle, R. (2018, April 10) [75].

[87]. Studies have also shown that cellulose fibres used in the textile
Table 2
industry show different rates of biodegradability due to variations in
PHA degrading microorganisms. This table provides examples of the various
crystallinity, degree of polymerization and manufacturing processes. In
types of microorganisms that can degrade PHAs under various conditions; at the
these studies, it was shown that rayon was the most biodegradable while physiological pH of 7.4, in soil, marine and freshwater environments, as well as
acetate was the least biodegradable. Although cotton has a higher hy­ in the activated sludge system.
drophilicity than rayon, its high crystallinity made it less biodegradable
Conditions Microorganisms Reference
than rayon. And although acetate is the least crystalline, the replace­
ment of hydrophilic acetyl molecules with hydrophobic acetate mole­ Aqueous Alcaligenes faecalis, Comamonas Mukai et al., 1993 [92]
solution [pH testosterone, Chromobcaterium
cules makes it more difficult to degrade [88].
7.4] viscosum Pseudomonas fluorescens,
Lignin provides strength and protection to the plant cell wall due to Pseudomonas pickettii
the presence of strong ether and carbon-carbon linkages and can also Soil Pseudomonas sp., Streptomyces Emadian et al., 2017
guard the plant against cellulolytic microbes [26]. However due to these bangladeshensis, Bacillus subtilis, [97]
Actinomadura sp.
properties, in addition to its insolubility, it is a difficult polymer to
Marine Gracilobacillus sp., Enterobacter, Volova et al., 2011;
enzymatically depolymerise. Save for a few basidiomycetes or white rot Planococcus, Micrococcus sp, Volova et al., 2013 [96,
fungi, other microbes, including brown rot fungi, can only modify the Cellulomonas, Corynebacteriu, 98]
polymer [89]. Freshwater Acidovorax sp., Pseudomonas sp., Morohoshi et al., 2018;
The degradation rate of most bioplastics appear to depend on the Thiomonas sp., Cupriavidus sp. Vigneswari et al., 2019
[99,100]
surface area of the polymer, as this seems to be the limiting factor in
Activated Micrococcus sp., Bacillus sp. Emadian et al., 2017
most cases of degradation.This can be attributed to the fact that rapid sludge [97]
degradation of these materials is caused by enzymes, the activities of
which are inherently constrained by surface area. Depending on the
equilibrium between the rate of hydrolytic chain scission of the polymer other polymers, such as seaweed based polymers that do not have a very
and the rate of water diffusion into it, uncatalysed hydrolytic degrada­ long shelf life in many conditions [93]. The degradation time for bio­
tion can also occur at the surface or through the bulk of the material. polymers may depend on factors such as porosity and the physical state
This degradation is dependent on factors such as crystallinity, of the polymer, but it also heavily relies on the microbial density and
morphology, temperature and thickness of the material. Surface degra­ diversity of the environment, temperature, pH, salt concentrations, etc.,
dation is much faster, especially in the soil, and over time this degra­ and how frequently these variables fluctuate [94]. However studies that
dation causes an increase in surface area and roughness. This, in turn, have estimated the time for complete degradation of PHA to be around
provides a larger area for the attachment of microbes, which makes the 1.5–3.5 years have also suggested that the dearth of information on this
polymer more amenable to further degradation [90]. For example, in the topic makes it difficult to point out a single environmental or morpho­
case of PHAs, they are usually degraded by the action of extracellular logical factor as the key determinant of the rate of biodegradation [95].
depolymerases such as PHA depolymerases, lipases, etc [91]. These An unusual advantage of PHA in terms of biodegradation comes forth in
enzymes are mostly present only in soil and sediment dwelling microbes an indirect way due to its ability to settle quickly on the ocean floor since
[92]. Hence although PHAs can be considered biodegradable due to its even with the addition of fillers and additives the density of PHA is
capacity to be broken down into oligomers or monomers by many mi­ usually greater than 1.1 [96]. Therefore, if we were to deposit PHA in an
croorganisms as listed in Table 2, it is also more durable as compared to ocean with the appropriate temperature for its degradation, the chances
of it floating into other oceans with colder temperatures is reduced,

6
A. Nandakumar et al.
unlike in case of plastic bags that are always floating.
3.2. Compostability
A compostable material can be broken down into nutrient-rich
biomass in three months or less under composting conditions. To be
considered compostable, bioplastics must meet the ASTM D6400 stan­
dard for compostability. Compostable materials must not have any
physical or visual remnants past the specified composting time and the
products of this decomposition should not leave behind any toxic resi­
dues [101]. However, there are different types of composting systems
such as: (i) home/garden composting, where the maximum temperature
may reach 40◦ C; and (ii) industrial composting, which is a much more
mechanical and controlled process [102]. A bioplastic that meets the
ASTM standard but without specification as to which sort of composting
it would have to go through can cause some confusion. The European
standard (EN 13432), on the other hand, requires the bioplastic to be
degraded by industrial composting. The characteristics tested under this
standard include disintegration, biodegradability, as well as the effect
and presence of residues [103].
Table 3 expands on the major differences between biodegradable and
compostable materials along with logos that will help consumers
distinguish if the material is biodegradable or compostable. A study
done in Brazil revealed that with the introduction of compostable carrier
bags, the use of PE carrier bags reduced over time. The same was
observed in the introduction of compostable garbage disposal bags and
tableware, since waste materials generated during large functions or
events can now be disposed in one single compostable outlet [104,105].
As in the case of biodegradable materials, a misconception seems to
exist in the case of compostable materials as well. There are petroleum-
based resins that are compostable in both garden and industrial com­
posts, and there are some forms of cellulose that may biodegrade but
may not be compostable. Although all biodegradable materials are not
compostable, all compostable materials are biodegradable. Major dif­
ferences between the two have been listed in Table 3. Compostable
materials provide an added benefit of enriching the humus depending on
the byproducts released in the process [106–108].
Although some materials like PLA do require high temperatures in
Table 3
Biodegradable versus Compostable. This table summarizes the differences
between biodegradable and compostable materials. From the table, it is evident
that certifying a material as compostable requires the adherence to stringent
guidelines hence making it a clearer term than biodegradable. It should also be
noted that all compostable materials are biodegradable but the reverse is not
true.
Biodegradable Compostable
Standards EN17033 acts as the standard for Must meet the ASTM D6400
followed biodegradable mulch films while or EN 13432 standard
ISO17556 is used to determine
aerobic biodegradation of plastics
Duration >90% should be converted to CO2 Less than or equal to three
within two years months
Byproducts No requirement regarding the No physical remnants should
absence of remnants be found and no toxic
byproducts should be
produced
Interrelation All biodegradable materials are not All compostable materials
compostable are biodegradable
Logo
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
commercial composting facilities, most compostable materials can
degrade despite the external conditions [109].Chitin on the other hand
can be easily degraded in many areas like the sea, soil and even the
human gut. This is due to the presence of chitinases in many microbes
which degrade this polymer through chitinoclastic or deacetylation
mechanisms [56].The rate of degradation depends on factors like the
thickness of the material, the composting conditions, and the chemical
makeup of the material. Home composting is often quite variable due to
the quality of soil, the moisture content, temperature and how often
turning over occurs. Industrial or commercial composting, on the other
hand, is more regulated as all materials are ground and turned over
intermittently, and higher temperatures can be reached by heating
processes. Commercial composting can be a more energy expensive
process but the composting period is significantly reduced and is often
preferred for compostable materials like compostable utensils, wherein
the thickness may not allow them to breakdown in home composting
systems even after years [102]. Composting conditions are very
important as in some cases the plastic may just thermally degrade if it
surpasses a threshold and it might not be possible to convert the plastic
into the required biomass leaving only remnants. In this way many
bioplastic companies recommend industrial composting rather than
home composting for their products since commercial composting
conditions can be well controlled [110,111].
Danimer Scientific claims that the PHAs they produce are compost­
able in both industrial and home composting systems as they meet the
ASTM and European Standards, with third party certification from
Vinçotte for home composting [112].These claims have also been sup­
ported by a study in 2018 by the University of Georgia that studied the
degradation and compostability of P(3HB-co-3HHx). Hence, although P
(3HB) is easily thermally degraded, PHAs containing larger monomers
are more heat stable thereby allowing them to be both durable as well as
easily composted even in domestic settings, unlike other compostable
plastics like PLA that require the higher temperatures of industrial
composting facilities [113].
3.3. Eco-toxicity due to polymer breakdown
Conventional plastics, when left in the soil, can break down into
small microparticles and additives such as Bisphenol A may be released
into the soil. These particles and chemicals can then enter our food chain
via the water we drink and finally cause biomagnifications in humans
who are at the top of their respective food chain. In fact, BPA is known to
be a hormone disruptor in vertebrates and can even cause changes in
gene expression [114,115]. Oxo-degradable plastics contain metals,
which were added to enable quick degradation of the compound, and
these metals can leach into the soil and change the nutrient composition
or may even affect the water table [116]. In the same way, if not
disposed of properly, the byproducts of some, but not all, bioplastics can
cause debilitating damage to the surrounding ecosystems and the food
web it holds. For example, the degradation of PLA in marine sediments
was shown to affect the microbial diversity and increase the decompo­
sition of organic carbon as well as reduce the inorganic nitrogen release,
which can affect N and P recycling, and that could have a lasting impact
on the diversity of flora and fauna growing in the area [117]. In some
degradation studies, although the amount of bacterial biomass in
PLA-degraded soils did not vary significantly, it was seen that the di­
versity varied, which reduced the oxidative activities of ammonium and
nitrite ions [118,119]. To date, the byproducts of PHA have not been
shown to have any toxic effects on the surrounding environment,
including soil, marine sea beds or even the human body. In fact, a study
has shown that the placement and degradation of PHA can increase the
microbial diversity in the surrounding soil over the period of degrada­
tion, as it may serve as a carbon source to surrounding organisms [71,
120].
A. Nandakumar et al.
4. Bioplastics disposal
Contrary to popular belief, not all bioplastics can be left out in the
open to decompose and often require controlled conditions for their
degradation and even separation from conventional plastic waste to
achieve the optimal rate of degradation as commercialized.
4.1. Disposal strategies for conventional plastics
Before the population boom and land crises, dumping waste into
landfills was the most common way to dispose of plastics. Often there
was no segregation in this case; plastics and biological waste materials
were thrown together. However, the presence of other compounds can
cause some additives in the plastics, such as metal compounds in oxo-
degradable plastics or epoxy stabilizers, to break down into toxic sub­
stances, which could leach into the soil and degrade the quality of the
land as well as surrounding water resources over time [121]. As the
landfills fill up, the waste will eventually be incinerated, which may
cause massive air pollution in many areas. The segregation of plastics
from other materials is an important aspect of sustainable change,
however at present, some municipalities still dump them together in the
landfills thus rendering the segregation futile.
Although there are still issues of people dumping plastic wastes into
the ocean, with tourism and corporate irresponsibility being the largest
contributors, more care is now being taken by governments of various
countries to remedy the issue by holding clean up drives or campaigns,
such as the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan or Clean India Movement started in
India in 2014 [122,123]. As of today, countries like Sweden and
Singapore use the plastic waste generated for the production of heat and
electricity through controlled incineration and via multiple filters to
prevent air pollution [124–126].
The biggest problem in both developed and developing countries
seems to be the widespread use of single use plastics. Recycling seems to
be the best end of life option for these plastics and this can be achieved
through proper doorstep segregation [127]. As shown in Fig. 3, there are
many options for recycling wherein primary to tertiary methods include
the use of recycled material to create a product that may be used again as
a raw material, whereas quaternary recycling is essentially just
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
incineration to reclaim heat, as practiced in Sweden [128]. Even in these
cases, it is difficult to recycle agricultural plastic products as it is quite
costly to remove the contaminants [129,130]. In such situations, the
plastic may be converted to oil through plastic pyrrolysis, which does
not require water as the process occurs in vacuum or can even be used
for road laying [131,132]. However, even with these alternatives,
landfilling and incineration still take place today and may start to show
detrimental effects in the future.
4.2. Disposal strategies for bioplastics
One of the biggest misconceptions regarding the disposal of bio­
plastics is that it can be dumped anywhere and degradation is assured.
This is not true of most of the bioplastics including PLA. For polymers
made from seaweed, this holds true however such polymers have their
own drawbacks with regards to thermal stability [53,109,133].
As mentioned before, not all bioplastics are degradable and in fact,
there is no issue in recycling these non-degradable bioplastics with
conventional plastics since they are indistinguishable in terms of poly­
mer properties. The real problem lies in the disposal of degradable and
compostable plastics, which will not mix with conventional plastics
during the degradation processes. For this reason, it is very important to
note that degradable or compostable bioplastics should not be disposed
with normal plastics [106]. Fig. 4a and b elucidate some of the pro­
cesses, like mechanical or organic recycling, that post consumerism
bioplastics may go through. Most bioplastics seen in the market undergo
mechanical recycling since many of them possess physical and chemical
properties identical to conventional plastics. On the other hand, organic
recycling is more well suited to plastics that are compostable and which
can biodegrade under general industrial composting conditions [134,
135].
Recycling of bioplastics, especially if for food-grade applications,
requires a lot more processing to free the plastic of contaminants. Hence,
some compostable plastics should instead be collected with biowaste
and can be used to create enriched compost, which is more valuable
[136].This is much easier said than done because the compostable
plastics look no different from the non-degradable plastics unless they
have been demarcated by any symbols or logos that pertain to the nature
Fig. 3. End of Life Options for Conventional
Plastics. This figure depicts a flow diagram for the
disposal and recycling of conventional plastic wastes.
In case of disposal, incineration and landfilling are
the main options whereas in case of recycling, some
sort of separation is initially required before primary,
secondary, tertiary or quaternary recycling. Copy­
right (1986) Elsevier. Used with permission from T.
Randall Curlee, Plastics recycling: Economic and
institutional issues, Conservation & Recycling, Elsev­
ier [128].
A. Nandakumar et al.
Fig. 4. End of Life options for Bioplastics. (A)Mechanical Recycling. This
figure depicts how mechanical recycling of bioplastics can lead to a realization
of a ‘closed loop’ economy. Modified from " Recycling” by European Bioplastics
(April 29, 2020) [134] (B) Organic Recycling. This figure also depicts a ‘closed
loop’ end of life strategy for bioplastics however this time through organic
recycling or composting. This is a more beneficial route in conditions when
plastic waste is mixed with biowaste since under these conditions mechanical
recycling is not feasible for the plastic portion as well as the biowaste. Modified
from “Composting” by European Bioplastics (April 29, 2020) [135].
of disposal, like the seedling logo for bioplastics that are compostable
under the European Standard. Such a system also requires the inculca­
tion of a sense of responsibility among citizens so that they will take the
effort to separate the bioplastics from the other waste products.
If proper collection and segregation takes place, the chances of toxic
or waste residues arising from the disposal or recycling processes are
minimized since each process is specific to the type of material. Since
such processes are still being developed, most of the bioplastics
currently end up in the landfills [137] or in the water bodies, just like
petrochemical plastics. Since such areas cannot provide the required
temperature, moisture and other conditions conducive for bioplastic
degradation, they do not decompose as well as they have been adver­
tised to. Such poor degradation can end up making bioplastics as
problematic as petroleum based plastics.
4.3. Disposal of PLA
It can be difficult to judge if a bioplastic is truly biodegradable, as in
the case of PLA, and this makes its disposal perplexing. Enzymes
required to catalyze the hydrolysis of PLA, such as Proteinase K, are not
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
available in the natural environment. For this reason, industrial com­
posting of PLA is more feasible since self-hydrolysis of PLA into lactic
acid can take place at high temperatures with the acceleration of hy­
drolysis over time through autocatalysis. In fact, the book “Biomaterials
Science: An Introduction to Materials in Medicine” states that the cases
of PLA hydrolysis are so rare they are not worth mentioning [17,138,
139].
PLA requires temperatures above 60 C and a lot of moisture to
◦
catalyze the process of self-hydrolysis, therefore, home composting of
this bioplastic is only feasible if such conditions can be achieved [140].
Many governments are trying to shift their source of single use plastics to
PLA and it would be ineffective if proper industrial composters are not
set up as well. In fact, ineffective decomposition of PLA would mean that
food crops are used to produce an inert, disposable polymer, as in the
case of Bio-PET.
In the UK, the disposal of PLA has been a real dilemma since council
composting facilities refuse to accept PLA in food and garden waste
collections. Recyclers also refuse to take the bioplastic as it could
contaminate the remaining recycling process, since the recycling process
for conventional plastics is very different. At present, PLA is thrown in
the bin and not composted effectively as it should be. This implies that
PLA would end up in landfills, which are anaerobic conditions, and will
not be broken down [109].
NatureWorks, which manufactures Ingeo brand PLA, has clearly
stated that the product is to be industrially composted and has described
how the composting works as well. In the disintegration process, the
moisture and heat help to convert the polymer to units of lactic acid and
the microbes in the composting system use the lactic acid as nutrients.
Since many microbes are able to metabolize lactic acid, the mechanized
portion of composting may be limited to disintegration alone. If correct
humidity and temperature is present, in the end the compost should only
consist of carbon dioxide, a little water and mostly humus. However,
since PLA degrades into lactic acid, if not used up by microbes it can
reduce the pH of the soil. This can, in turn, affect the enzymatic activity
of the other microorganisms in the soil including the microbes that can
metabolize lactic acid [119,140,141].
As of now, PLA is most commonly used in 3D printing and the best
way to dispose of the printed material seemed to be through recycling.
This can be done using Filabot machines that use printed waste to
extrude reusable filaments, however, care must be taken to avoid
inhomogeneous mixtures that could lead to poor quality filaments [65,
142]. Fig. 5 depicts the general life cycle of PLA products and their
disposal mechanisms.
4.4. Disposal of PHA
Although not as popular as PLA, awareness about PHA is becoming
more widespread within the environmental community for its ease of
disposal compared to other biopolymers [143]. Most organisms are able
to degrade this polymer through the action of depolymerases or
non-specific lipases, hence, it is easily compostable in even home com­
posting conditions, leaving behind little to no remnants. Degradation of
PHA can start even at 30◦ C, which can be achieved under most com­
posting conditions. Although all kinds of PHAs can be degraded under
controlled composting conditions, of the various types of PHAs, P(3HB)
degrades the slowest while Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydrox­
ybutyrate) or P(3HB-co-4HB) degrades quickly [144].
In composting systems, PHAs are known to enrich the soil more as
compared to PLA since the PHA films increase the diversity of microbes
present in the soil, which can promote degradation of all the other
compounds present as well [119,120,144]. Soils that contain more PHA
degrading organisms can, in turn, increase the efficiency of PHA
degradation [120].Hence, the efficiency of the same environment in
degrading the polymer may increase over time when continuously
exposed to PHA. The majority of PHA disintegration and biodegradation
occurs through microbial processes and so this polymer can be easily
A. Nandakumar et al.
Fig. 5. Disposal of PLA. This figure depicts the general flow of events asso­
ciated with PLA along with the various end of life options for waste PLA. Since
PLA is only biodegradable under specific conditions not offered by home
composting, it has to first go through an industrial composting facility before it
can be mixed with the soil. Another option is for the products to go through
Filabot recycling, wherein PLA products (usually failed prints) are extruded into
filaments which can then be used for 3D printing.
integrated into industrial composters as well as home composting sys­
tems. Danimer Scientifics’ PHA meets the European and ASTM stan­
dards as well as the Vinçotte standard for home composting [112]. PHAs
may also be degraded in aerobic lagoon water treatment systems since
PHA is more degradable in water than in soil, and these systems contain
a good number of microbes [98,99]. This also means that separation of
PHA and biowastes need not be as stringent as in the case of other
bioplastics, which could reduce the need for separate bins and com­
posting systems.
Although not ideal, even if PHAs were to end up in landfills, their
degradation would still occur in anaerobic conditions, albeit a lot slower
[145,146]. PHAs can be disposed into anaerobic wastewater treatment
digesters since the activated sludge contains microbes that are capable
of degrading the polymer, and such systems were even shown to be
improved due to the denitrification imposed by the polymer [147]. In
this manner, the disposal of PHA can be integrated into already existing
disposal systems thereby reducing set up costs. Such waste systems may
also generate carbon sources used to produce PHA [148,149]. Fig. 6
depicts the possible disposal mechanisms for PHA products.
Unfortunately, recycling of some PHAs like P(3HB) may not be
feasible since it is not very stable at high temperatures, and may be
difficult to isolate if mixed with PET and other conventional plastics in
recycling units [111]. Recently, research was conducted to investigate
the prospects of chemically recycling PHA products, since many prod­
ucts such as crotonic acid can have a second life as herbicides, plasti­
cizers,etc. The decomposition of these products to monomers do not
require very high temperatures, which could reduce costs of running
such units although the pyrolytic reaction may take a longer time [150].
5. Economical and environmental outlook
Bioplastics may seem like the obvious solution to our current prob­
lems, however, one must also take into consideration the cost of such an
implementation and the effects it would have on our economy and the
working class population. The general hype around bioplastics has also
caused many companies to resort to pulling wool over the conscious
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
Fig. 6. Disposal of PHA. This figure depicts the life of PHA from production to
disposal to recycling. If PHA is collected with other polymers like PLA it can be
sent for industrial composting and the waste can be used as a substrate for PHA
production. In case PHA is collected alone with food waste, the waste can be
used as agricultural mulch or can be put through sewage treatment since PHA
degrading microbes are present in soil as well as in sludge.
consumer’s eyes.
5.1. Greenwashing practices
An important term to be included in a discussion on bioplastics
would be ‘greenwashing’, which is defined as “the act of misleading
consumers regarding the environmental practices of organizations
(firm-level greenwashing) or the environmental benefits of a product or
service (product/service-level greenwashing)” [151]. Coined by Jay
Westerveld in 1986, this term was meant to imply putting on a pretense
of being more environmentally conscious than one actually is. Green­
washing is often seen in the form of false advertising wherein important
details are often left out or false claims are made. Westerveld came up
with the term after seeing a note at a hotel that asked guests to reuse
their towels to save the environment. It was evident that the hotel did
not actually care about the environment as they were expanding into the
beach front at the time, hence endangering many coral reefs, and in
reality wanted to save on the laundry costs [4]. Often such practices are
a means of capitalising on the conscious consumer and their growing
need for environmentally sound items. Greenwashing practices bring
about consumer skepticism towards such products but also inadver­
tently towards actual green products, which can hinder the development
of sustainable societies.
5.2. Drawbacks of bioplastics
Although most bioplastics have been touted for their contribution to
sustainable living, we have been viewing most of them through green
tinted glasses. For example, companies like Pepsico have been lauded for
moving onto 100% biobased PET, which is actually bio-based but not
biodegradable. Other examples include oxo-degradable plastics [152],
as already discussed in an earlier section of this review.
The IUPAC has clarified that a biobased polymer with properties
similar to a petroleum-based one is not more favorable in terms of their
environmental impact unless a life cycle assessment (LCA) comparison
A. Nandakumar et al.
deems it so [20]. An LCA or cradle-to-grave analysis checks the envi­
ronmental impacts of all the processes related to the product starting
from the raw material to its disposal or degradation [153]. Such an
analysis has not been covered by many companies that focus only on the
carbon footprint of the bioplastic production. For example, the biomass
often used for PLA production is corn or maize and the land required to
produce that amount of raw material can create a food conflict, espe­
cially in countries like Brazil where there is extensive research on bio­
plastic production from agricultural produce [154]. LCAs have shown
that indeed there is a huge problem of food versus bioplastic production
but a report from the Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites in
Hanover stated that bioplastics currently only use 0.02% of agricultural
land [155,156]. The addition of non-biodegradable components into
biopolymers to improve their mechanical properties simultaneously
reduces their biodegradable properties too [157].
A case study comparing Mater-Bi (a starch-based plastic) and PE
revealed that although production of Mater-Bi reduces the use of fossil
resources, the production of its raw material (corn) requires extensive
use of fertilizers and pesticides, which can cause detrimental after effects
like acidification of the soil and eutrophication. Furthermore, the LCA
showed that recycling the PE products produced an overall reduced
environmental impact than recycling or composting the Mater-Bi plas­
tics [157]. As for PVA, its major drawback lies in the fact that it is
produced from non-renewable resources like oil, and the fluctuating
nature of the price of raw materials acts as a major setback in the growth
of its market [158]. Unlike most polymers, PVA also requires compo­
nents like poly(vinyl acetate) for polymerization due to the instability of
its own vinyl monomers. Additionally, if the polymer is created through
alcoholysis, large quantities of methanol are required and the disposal of
such toxic solvents can cause many environmental side effects [159].
PVA and Mater-Bi cost about US$ 2.16/kg and US$ 2.3/kg, respectively,
and it is evident that neither of these can compete with the market price
of US$ 1.3 - US$ 1.7/kg of conventional plastics [160,161].
Although PHA was predicted to be in high demand by 2020, as of
now, the market for this polymer is very poor as it is almost four times
the cost of conventional plastics [9]. A large fraction of the cost goes to
the carbon substrate as well as purification processes. Sterilization
processes, poor microbial growth and poor carbon to PHA conversion
are other factors that contribute to the high price [162]. Among the
extraction techniques, solvent extraction is the most established, but
environmental impacts and the high cost of scaling up the process makes
it a hazardous option. Methods to use waste solvents for extraction are
currently underway to lower environmental risk as well as the overall
cost through recycling. While enzymatic digestion may seem like the
best choice in terms of minimal degradation as well as reduced envi­
ronmental footprint, the high cost of enzymes makes it unfavorable for
large scale production [40]. W.R. Grace and Company was the first
company to start P(3HB) production but had to close down due to low
synthesis efficiency and problems with purification. Similarly, in 2006, a
joint venture by the name of Telles aimed to achieve high PHA pro­
duction but collapsed in 2012 due to poor sales [163].
5.3. Current methods of mediation
LCA is frequently carried out without considering the logistics
behind processes such as collection and sorting of waste, hence over­
looking the advantages that bioplastics, in the form of disposable cutlery
or compostable bags, can provide [157]. Moreover, companies and re­
searchers alike are now focusing on devising novel methods to reduce
the costs involved in the production processes. Starch-based polymers
reinforced with corn and wheat husks as fillers have improved gas
barrier properties while at the same time decreasing energy inputs and
overall costs since the raw material used is an agricultural byproduct.
Cost effective techniques like surface coating and crosslinking have also
been developed to reduce the moisture sensitivity of this polymer
without having to drastically reduce the starch content in blends [164].
11
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
PVA can be produced using renewable sources like ethylene gas or
ethanol as raw materials, but these processes have proven to be
commercially non-viable [158]. However, with the rising ubiquity of
bio-ethanol, production costs of PVA may decrease in the subsequent
years [165]. Starch can be added to PVA to make it economically
feasible and improve the biodegradability of the polymer [166].
In the case of PHAs, methods to reduce environmental and economic
costs have been underway, such as: (i) genetically engineering strains for
efficient PHA production, (ii) using agricultural waste materials and
wastewater as substrates, and (iii) recycling the solvents used for
extraction [167,168].Wastewater from sewage treatment plants are also
being considered as a carbon substrate for PHA production. The acti­
vated sludge present in such processes would have a very diverse mi­
crobial community, and the mixed carbon sources could enhance the
production of PHA since some microbes may be able to use up the
substrates that could be limiting to the other. This is evident in the case
where anaerobic methane production increased by 25% in plants that
contain microbes able to accumulate PHA granules [169].
Several companies in the field of PHA production, such as BioMatera
and BioOn, are attempting to use new techniques to reduce the cost, and
the prosperity of these companies, unlike their forefathers, can also be
linked to the increasing environmental awareness of the general masses
today [170]. Some novel methods for PHA extraction include Aqueous
Two Phase Extraction (ATPE) and biological recovery methods such as
the use of mealworms. These methods can minimize the amount of toxic
solvents required for purification processes and reduce the volume of
water required to treat and dispose of them, hence alleviating some of
the economical and environmental burden [171,172].
In addition, PHAs can be tailor made for far more diverse applica­
tions by varying the monomer compositions and are also known to be
highly hydrophobic, and sink when placed in aqueous solutions [173].
Since PHA production requires microorganisms, some toxic materials
like halogens may be transformed during fermentation. Using cyano­
bacteria to produce PHAs may also make the process independent of the
agriculture sector, since algal farms can be set atop buildings, on in­
dustrial sites or even in the ocean [174]. These various advantages and
the novel methods for its extraction make PHA an environmentally
sound choice to replace at least some conventional plastics.
6. Future perspectives
Although plastic pollution is a global issue, awareness of its severity
is still lacking among the general population, or neglected due to the fast
paced life that is obsessed with convenience as seen in most cities. In
Singapore, many supermarkets have commented that consumers are
quite indifferent to biodegradable shopping bags despite the many
promotions [126]. This could be due to greenwashing practices, which
have caused consumers to revert back to using conventional plastics and
pay less attention to any sort of bioplastic campaigning. However, the
existence of different varieties of bioplastics and how to properly dispose
of them should be made common knowledge by now. Under the guise of
being sustainable, many companies have added to the problem by
switching to oxo-degradable plastics or neglecting to inform consumers
of the same disposal mechanisms that they may have been informed of
by the bioplastic provider. States have been advised to implement the
‘naming and shaming’ strategy to get corporations to make voluntary
cuts and transitions to reduce their ecological footprint [175]. A study in
Germany showed that though compostable biobased plastics appeal to a
majority of the consumers, proper disposal as instructed on the pack­
aging is not followed through. Hence, it is important to make consumers
familiar with the types of biobased products and the steps to be taken in
their disposal to gain the full environmental benefit of these plastics
[176]. To reduce the amount of effort by the consumers, it would be a
good idea to use bioplastics that are easily compostable like PHAs and
lignocellulosic polymers since these can be easily disposed along with
other organic waste. To expedite the commercialization and integration
A. Nandakumar et al.
of these bioplastics into our daily lives, research on these polymers is
currently focused on reducing the cost in terms of raw materials and
fermentation processes. In case of PHAs, the major cost of production is
borne by the acquisition of raw materials and for this reason, PHA
production is currently being integrated with other processes such as
wastewater treatment and PET degradation [149,177,178]. On the other
hand, in case of starch-based polymeric blends whose major disadvan­
tage lies in its poor gas barrier properties, studies have shown that
reinforcement with other natural substances such as corn or wheat hulls
can improve these properties of these blends. The components were also
compatible with each other due to the hydrophilic nature of the mate­
rials involved. The cost of transportation of these polymers can also be
diminished by splitting the foaming system into two steps [164]. Pichia
pastoris, a methylotrophic yeast, is under consideration as a potential
producer of protein-based polymers due to high product yields and ease
in downstream processing due to secretory production and methods to
further improve protein expression in this host and to decrease prote­
olysis are being looked into [179]. From an environmental perspective,
solvents used in the production can often be recycled and researchers
have also found a new method of converting waste PLA into a green
solvent known as methyl lactate that can in turn be used for the pro­
duction of nitrocellulose and is also low in toxicity [180]. Shift from
metal based catalysts to organic catalysts also provide a potential
method to reduce the ecological impact of bioplastic production [181].
7. Conclusion
This review has attempted to discuss the various types of bioplastics
and more importantly, the confusion caused by many of the terminol­
ogies associated with them. Such jargon is often used as a loophole by
clever multinational companies, which can cause detrimental effects in
terms of misinformation and ineffective disposal in the long run. PHA
and seaweed polymers seem to be the best contenders among existing
bioplastics in terms of decreasing environmental load although seaweed
polymers are not as versatile as PHA. PHA can be easily disposed of
together with biowastes since it can be integrated into current waste
management systems, however its inability to compete with conven­
tional plastics in terms of cost makes it unable to reach its full potential.
In the long run, rather than trying to find more materials that can
easily degrade, we also need to change our habits of seeking out con­
venience brought about by rapid capitalism and consumerism such as
the rampant use of single use and disposable items. Bioplastics cannot be
the solution to littering and reduction in waste production should be
pursued instead. This can be made feasible as a global task initially
through the provision of incentives. It is also important that companies
take responsibility for how they dispose their toxic wastes as consumers
now look at all aspects of a company’s performance. Care should also be
taken by governments to properly assess the green practices of com­
panies and publicize such data so that consumers can make informed
decisions. As for the conventional plastics we have at present, collection
is of utmost urgency and recycling them to give them a second chance
seems to be more feasible than attempting to hasten their slow demise
[142]. In this day and age where it is of paramount importance to reduce
our dependence on as many non-renewable resources as possible,
striving to create closed loop systems should be on every country’s
agenda so as to promote sustainable living and a greener future.
Author information
Corresponding Author Kumar Sudesh; Ecobiomaterial Research
Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800 Penang, Malaysia; E-mail: ksudesh@usm.my.
Author contributions
The manuscript was written through contributions of all authors. All
12
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 147 (2021) 111237
authors have given approval to the final version of the manuscript.
Ardra Nandakumar: Conceptualisation, Writing- Original Draft. Jo-
Ann Chuah: Writing- Reviewing and Editing, Validation. Kumar
Sudesh: Supervision, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
This study was supported by the grant from the Ministry of Higher
Education Malaysia titled “Soil Analysis and Value-Addition to Oil Palm
Trunk (OPT) and Sap Through Biotechnology” [203/PBIOLOGI/
67811001] as well as Science and Technology Research Partnership for
Sustainable Development (SATREPS). We would like to thank Dr. S.
Choudhury from Vigilenz® Medical Devices Sdn. Bhd. for providing the
image of a medical suture.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111237.
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