Algebra Lang I

SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 1 EXERCISE
SOLUTIONS
KELLER VANDEBOGERT
Problem 1
Show that every group of order 6 5 is abelian.

The trivial group is abelian. Every group of prime order is cyclic,
hence abelian. Finally, for order 4, the only possibilities are Z/2 × Z/2
and Z/4, both of which are abelian.
Problem 2
Show that there are two non-isomorphic groups of order 4,

namely the cyclic one, and the product of two cyclic groups
of order 2.
Note that the only two possibilities for a group of order 4 are Z/2 ×
Z/2 and Z/4. To see this, we observe the order of any elements in our
group G if |G| = 4. The only possibilities are that there is an order 4
element, in which case we have a cyclic group; the other possibility is
that all nonzero elements are order 2 (note that we are using Lagrange’s
theorem by only looking at the divisors of 4). The latter case yields
Z/2 × Z/2.
Date: October 22, 2018.

1
2 KELLER VANDEBOGERT
To see that these are nonisomorphic, merely note that any isomor-
phism must preserve the order of an element. If there were an isomor-
phism, the image of the order 4 element must remain order 4; this is
not possible as there are no order 4 elements in Z/2 × Z/2.
Problem 3
Show that the commutator subgroup is a normal subgroups.

Show that any homomorphism of G into an abelian group
factors through the commutator quotient G/Gc .
It suffices to show gGc g −1 ⊂ Gc for every g ∈ G. Let gaba−1 b−1 g −1 ∈
gGc g −1 . Letting [a, b] denote the commutator, we see:
g[a, b]g −1 = gag −1 gbg −1 ga−1 g −1 gb−1 g −1
= [g(a), g(b)] ∈ Gc
And normality follows. Suppose now that we have a morphism φ :
G → A with A abelian. Then,
φ(g)φ(h) = φ(h)φ(g)
=⇒ φ([g, h]) = 1
Whence Gc ⊂ Ker φ; merely define φ : G/Gc → A by φ(gGc ) := φ(g).
This is well defined since if h−1 g ∈ Gc , then
φ(h−1 gGc ) = 1 =⇒ φ(h) = φ(g)
And well definedness follows.
Problem 4
Let H and K be subgroups of a finite group K with K ⊂ NH .

Show that
|H| · |K|
|HK| =
|H ∩ K|
SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 1 EXERCISE SOLUTIONS 3
By the second isomorphism theorem,
HK ∼ H
=
K H ∩K
Taking cardinalities,
|H||K|
|HK| =
|H ∩ K|
Problem 5
Goursat’s Lemma. Let G and G0 be groups, let H be a

subgroup of G × G0 such that the two projections p1 : H → G
and P2 : H → G0 are surjective. Let N be the kernel of p2 and
N 0 the kernel of p1 . One can identify N as a normal subgroup
of G and N 0 as a normal subgroup of G0 . Show that the image
of H in G/N × G0 /N 0 is the graph of an isomorphism
G/N ∼
= G0 /N 0
In order to show that this is the graph of a homomorphism, we need

well definedness. That is, if we have
G G
(g1 N, g10 N 0 ) = (g2 N, g20 N 0 ) ∈ × 0
N N
with g1 N = g2 N , then in fact g10 N 0 = g2 N 0 . Firstly, note that by

surjectivity we get that p1 (N ) and p2 (N 0 ) are normal in G and G0 ,
respectively. We associate N to the subset p1 (N ) × {1} E G × G0 and
N 0 with {1} × p2 (N 0 ) E G × G0 . Now, consider the map
G G
φ :H → × 0
N N
(g, g 0 ) 7→ (gN, g 0 N 0 )
This is trivially a homomorphism. Suppose then that (g2−1 g1 , 1) ∈ N ;

we see
(1, g20 −1 g10 ) = (g2 , g20 )−1 (g1 , g10 )(g2−1 g1 , 1)−1
∈H
Hence (1, g20 −1 g10 ) ∈ N 0 , implying that g10 N 0 = g20 N 0 . Thus, we may de-
fine ψ(g1 N ) = g10 N 0 if (g1 , g10 ) ∈ H. This is surjective since ψ −1 (g10 N 0 ) 3
g1 N whenever (g1 , g10 ) ∈ H; by symmetry (that is, just employ the
above well-definedness argument), ψ is injective, hence an isomorphism.
We conclude that
G ∼ G0
= 0
N N
Problem 6
Prove that the group of inner automorphisms of a group G

is normal in Aut(G).
Let φ ∈ Aut(g). Let cg ∈ Inn(G) denote an inner automorphism.
Let x ∈ G arbitrary; we have
φcg φ−1 (x) = φ(gφ−1 (x)g −1 )
= φ(g)xφ(g)
= cφ(g) (x) ∈ Inn(G)

So that Inn(G) E Aut(G).
Problem 7
Let G be a group such that Aut(G) s cyclic. Prove that G

is abelian.
Suppose that Aut(G) is cyclic. In particular, this implies that Inn(G)
is cyclic. But
G ∼
= Inn(G)
Z(G)
is then cyclic as well, implying that G must be abelian.
Problem 8
Let G be a group and let H and H 0 be subgroups.
(a) Show that G is a disjoint union of double cosets.

(b) Let {c} be a family of representatives for the double cosets.
For each a ∈ G denote by [a]H 0 the conjugate of aH 0 a−1 of
H 0. For each c we have a decomposition into ordinary
cosets
[
H= xc (H ∩ [c]H 0 )
c
where {xc } is a family of elements of H, depending on c.

Show that the elements {xc c} form a family of left coset
representatives for H 0 in G.
(a). Define an equivalence relation by x ∼ y ⇐⇒ HxH 0 = HyH 0 .

Choose representatives C = {c} for each equivalence class; as the equiv-
alence classes form a partition, we know
[
G= HcH 0
c∈C
(b). Define another equivalence relation on elements of H by x ∼c

y ⇐⇒ xcH 0 c−1 = ycH 0 c−1 . Choose representatives {xc } for each
c ∈ C. Then,
[
H= xc H ∩ cH 0 c−1 )
c∈C
By part (i),
[
G= HcH 0
c∈C
[[
= xc H ∩ cH 0 c−1 )cH 0
c∈C c∈C
[[
= HH 0 ∩ xc cH 0
c∈C c∈C
[[
= xc cH 0
c∈C c∈C
So that {xc c}c∈C is a class of coset representatives.
Problem 9
(a) Let G be a group and H a subgroup of finite index. Show

that there exists a normal subgroup N of G contained in
H and also of finite index.
(b) Let G be a group and H1 , H2 be subgroups of finite index.
Prove that H1 ∩ H2 has finite index.
(a). Consider the action

G G
G× →
H H
(g, g H) 7→ gg 0 H
0
Consider then the induced permutation representation

G → S|G/H|
g 7→ πg
Then πg ≡ Id whenever ggi H = gi H for every coset. In particular,
gH = H =⇒ g ∈ H, so that Ker ⊂ H.
(b). Note that we may find N1 E H1 , N2 E H2 by (a). Then,
(N1 N2 : N1 ) = (N2 : N1 ∩ N2 )
Since N1 has finite index, we have that N1 ∩ N2 has finite index in N2 .

But,
(G : N2 ) = (G : N1 ∩ N2 )(N2 : N1 ∩ N2 )
=⇒ (G : N1 ∩ N2 ) < ∞
As H1 ∩ H2 ⊃ N1 ∩ N2 , we deduce that (G : H1 ∩ H2 ) < ∞ as well.
Problem 10
Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of finite index.

Prove that there is only a finite number of right cosets of H,
and that the number of right cosets is equal to the number of
left cosets.
Define a map φ between the right and left cosets by φ(gH) = Hg −1 .
Let us show well definedness first. If g2−1 g1 ∈ H; by definition, we
have
Hg1−1 g2 = H =⇒ Hg1−1 = Hg2−1
So this is well defined. Injectivity follows just by reading the above

proof backwards.
Let us now prove surjectivity. Given Hg, φ(g −1 H) = Hg, so this
is surjective. Thus we have that φ is a bijection between the left and
right cosets, so there are the same number of each. In particular,
(G : H) < ∞ implies that there must be finitely many right cosets as
well.
Problem 11
Let G be a group, and A a normal abelian subgroup. Show

that G/A operates on A by conjugation, and in this manner
obtain a homomoprhism of G/A into Aut(A).
We only need show the action of G/A is well defined, when

G
×A→A
A
(gA, a) 7→ gag −1
Note first that gag −1 ∈ A by normality. Suppose now that g1 A = g2 A,

so that g2−1 g1 ∈ A. Then, certainly g2−1 g1 ag1 g2 = a because A is
abelian, so that g1 ag1−1 = g2 ag2−1 , yielding well definedness.
Hence we have the association
G/A → Aut(G)
gA 7→ cg
Problem 12
Let G be a group and let H, N be subgroups with N normal.

Let γx denote conjugation by an element x ∈ G.
(a) Show that x 7→ γx induces a homomoprhism f : H →

Aut(N ).
(b) If H ∩ N = 1 show that the name H × N → HN given by
(x, y) 7→ xy is a bijection, and that this map is an isomor-
phism if and only if f is trivial.
(c) Conversely let N , H be groups, and let ψ : H → Aut(N ) be
a given homomorphism. Construct a semidirect product
as follows. Let G be the set of pairs (x, h) with x ∈ N and
h ∈ H. Define the composition law
(x1 , h1 )(x2 , h2 ) = (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 ), h1 h2 )
Show that this is a group law, and yields a semidirect

product of N and H.
(a). Observe first that the association x 7→ γx is a homomorphism,

since
γxy = γx ◦ γy
Now, as N is normal, γx (n) = xnx−1 ∈ N , so that γx ∈ Aut(N ) (in

other words, normality is the condition that the subgroup is stable
under conjugation).
(b). Let φ denote our product map. Surjectivity is trivial as (h, 1) 7→ h,

(1, n) 7→ n.
For injectivity, suppose hn = h0 n0 . Then h0−1 h = n0 n−1 , so h0−1 h ∈
H ∩ N = 1, so that h = h0 and n = n0 . Suppose now that the map
x 7→ γx is trivial for all x ∈ H; we see
φ(xx0 , yy 0 ) = xx0 yy 0
= xx0 yx0−1 x0 y
= xyx0 y 0
= φ(x, y)φ(x0 , y 0 )
So that φ is a homomorphism. Suppose conversely that φ is a homo-
morphism; then

φ x, 1)(1, y) = φ (1, y)(x, 1)
=⇒ xy = yx for all x ∈ H, y ∈ N
Hence H ⊂ CG (N ), implying x 7→ γx is the trivial morphism.
(c). Let ψ : H → Aut(N ). Define (x1 h1 )(x2 , h2 ) := (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 ), h1 h2 ).

Then,

(x1 , h1 )(x2 , h2 ) (x3 , h3 ) = (x1 φ(h1 )(x2 ), h1 h2 )(x3 , h3 )
= (x1 φ(h1 )(x2 )ψ(h1 h2 )(x3 ), h1 h2 h3 )

And,

(x1 , h1 ) (x2 , h2 )(x3 , h3 ) = (x1 , h1 )(x2 ψ(h2 )(x3 ), h2 h3 )
= (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 ψ(h2 )(x3 )), h1 h2 h3 )
= (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 )ψ(h1 h2 )(x3 ), h1 h2 h3 )

So this is associative. Our inverse is
(x, h)−1 = (ψ(h−1 )(x−1 ), h−1 )
with identity (1, 1). Now, identify N with (N, 1) and H with (1, H);
we see
(N, 1)(1, H) = (N ψ(H)(1), H) = (N, H)
And, (N, 1) ∩ (1, H) = (1, 1), so we have an isomorphism
N × H → NH
Problem 13
(a) Let H and N be normal subgroups of a finite group G.

Assume that the order of H and N are relatively prime.
Prove that xy = yx for all x ∈ H and y ∈ N , and that
H ×N ∼
= HN .
(b) Let H1 , . . . , Hr be normal subgroups of G such that the
order of Hi is relatively prime to the order of Hj for i 6= j.
Prove that
H1 × · · · × Hr ∼
= H1 · · · Hr
Let x ∈ H ∩ N . Then the order of x divides both |h| and |N |, so that

x has order 1 =⇒ x = 1. By the previous problem, this gives that
H × N → HN is a bijection, and if xy = yx, we have an isomorphism.
Given x ∈ H, y ∈ N ,
yxy −1 ∈ H x−1 yx ∈ N
But then x−1 yxy −1 ∈ N ∩ H = 1, so
x−1 yxy −1 = 1 =⇒ xy = yx
(b). Proceed by induction, with the base case being part (a). Then,
H1 × · · · × Hn = H1 . . . Hn−1 × Hn
= H1 H2 . . . Hn
Problem 14
Let G be a finite groups and let N be a normal subgroup

such that N and G/N have relatively prime orders.
(a) Let H be a subgroup of G having the same order as G/N .

Prove that G = HN .
(b) Let G be an automorphism of G. Prove that g(N ) = N .
(a). As H and N have coprime orders, H ∩ N = 1, so

|G|
|HN | = |H||N | = · |N | = |G|
|N |
Hence HN = G.
(b). Let g ∈ Aut(G). By definition of automorphism, |g(N )| = |N |, so

that if g(N ) 6= N , then |g(N )||G/N |. But these orders are coprime,

so this is impossible. Hence g(N ) = N .
Problem 15
Let G be a finite group operating on a finite set S with

|S| > 2. Assume that there is only one orbit. Prove that there
exists and element x ∈ G with no fixed point.
Anticipating the result of 19(b), note that |S/G| = 1 when G acts

transitively. Hence,
X
|G| = |S g |
g∈G
By definition, |S e | > 1 (where e is the identity), so that |S g | = 0 for at

least one g ∈ G. That is, gs 6= s for any s ∈ S.
Problem 16
Let H be a proper subgroup of a finite group G. Show that

G is not the union of all of the conjugates of H.
Note that |G| = k|H| for some k ∈ N with k > 1. Also, |gHg −1 | =
|H|, and we have at most k distinct conjugacy classes of H. Hence,
noting that 1 ∈ gHg −1 for all g ∈ G, we may choose representatives
for each conjugacy class:
[
gi Hh−1
i 6 |H|k − k + 1 < |H|k = |G|

i∈I
Hence, G cannot possibly be a union of conjugacy classes.
Problem 17
Let X, Y be finite sets and let X be a subset of X × Y . For

x ∈ X, let
φ(x) := number of y ∈ Y such that (x, y) ∈ C
Verify that
X
|C| = φ(x)
x∈X
This is merely a dual perspective. For each x, let Cx = {y | (x, y) ∈

C}. Then,
[
C= {x} × Cx
x∈X
And this is a disjoint union since equivalence classes form a partition.

Taking cardinalities,
X
|C| = |Cx |
x∈X
But |Cx | = φ(x) as defined in the book, hence

X
|C| = φ(x)
x∈X
Problem 18
Let S and T be finite sets. Show that |Map(S, T ) = |T ||S| .

Let s ∈ S. There are |T | possible ways to map s into T . Over all
s ∈ S, we then see that there are |T ||S| maps S → T .
Problem 19
Let G be a finite group acting on a finite set S.
(a) For each s ∈ S, show that

X 1
=1
t∈Gs
|Gt|
(b) For each x ∈ G define f (x) = number of elements s ∈ S such

that xs = s. Prove that the number f orbits of G in S is
equal to
1 X
f (x)
|G| x∈G
(a). Note that if t ∈ Gs, then |Gt| = |Gs|. Hence,

X 1 X 1
=
t∈Gs
|Gt| t∈Gs |Gs|
1 X
= 1
|Gs| t∈Gs
|Gs|
= =1
|Gs|
(b). We have:
X
|S/G| = 1
Gs∈S/G
X X 1
=
t∈Gs
|Gt|
Gs∈S/G
X 1
=
s∈S
|Gs|
X |Gs |
=
|G|
s∈S
1 X
= |Gs |
|G| s∈S
Note that
X X
|Gs | = {(s, g) | gs = s} = |S g |

s∈S s∈S
Hence, combining this with the above,

X
|S/G| = |S g |
s∈S
Problem 20
Let P be a p-group. Let A be a normal subgroup of order

p. Prove that A is contained in the center of P .
Let A E P . As |A| = p, A is cyclic. It suffices to show that CG (A) =

P . Consider:

P
| Aut(A)| = p − 1
CG (A)

But this must imply that |P | = |CG (A)|, since else p − 1 would have
to have p as a prime factor. This gives that P = CG (A), so A 6 Z(G).
Problem 21
Let G be a finite group and H a subgroup. Let PH be a

p-Sylow subgroup of H. Prove that there exists a p-Sylow
subgroup P of G such that PH = P ∩ H.
Note that there exists a Sylow p-subgroup containing any p-subgroup
of G. If P is a Sylow p-subgroup of H, then P is a p-subgroup of G.
By Sylow’s theorem, P ⊂ PH for some PH ∈ Sylp (G). By selection,

P ⊂ PH ∩ H. Conversely, as PH ∩ H is a subgroup, pm 6 |PH ∩ H|pm k.
As k and p share no factor, it must be that
|PH ∩ H| = pm = |P |
As P ⊂ PH ∩ H, we deduce that P = PH ∩ H, as desired.
Problem 22
Let H be a normal subgroup of a finite group G and assume

that |H| = p. Prove that H is contained in every p-Sylow
subgroup of G.
As H is a p subgroup, it is contained in some P ∈ Sylp (G). All Sylow
p subgroups are conjugate, so given any other Q ∈ Sylp (G), Q = gP g −1
for some g ∈ G. But then,

H 6 P =⇒ gHg −1 6 gP g −1 = Q
=⇒ H 6 Q
Where the last step uses normality of H. But then we see that H is
contained in all such Sylow p subgroups.
Problem 23
Let P , P 0 be p-Sylow subgroups of a finite group G.
(a) If P 0 ⊂ N (P ), then P 0 = P .
(b) If N (P 0 ) = N (P ), then P = P 0
(c) We have N (N (P )) = N (P ).
(a). By definition, P E N (P ), so that P is the unique Sylow p sub-

group of N (P ). Hence, if P 0 is any other Sylow p subgroup, P 0 = P .
(b). If N (P ) = N (P 0 ), then P 6 N (P 0 ). But by part (a), we must

have that P = P 0 .
(c). Note that N (P ) ⊂ N (N (P )) trivially. Suppose a ∈ N (N (P )); we

see:
P ⊂ N (P ) =⇒ aP a−1 ⊂ aN (P )a−1
=⇒ aP a−1 ⊂ N (P )
Since all Sylow p subgroups are conjugate, we know that aP a−1 ∈
Sylp (N (P )). But P is the unique such subgroup, so that aP a−1 =
P =⇒ a ∈ N (P ). Whence
N (P ) = N (N (P ))
as desired.
Problem 24
Let p be a prime number. Show that a group of order p2

is abelian, and that there are only two such groups up to
isomorphism.
Suppose |G| = p2 . Then, Z(G) is nontrivial by the class equation,
so we have that |Z(G)| ∈ {p, p2 }. If |Z(G)| = p2 , then G = Z(G) and
G is trivially abelian.
If |Z(G)| = p, then G/Z(G) has order p and is hence cyclic. But this
implies G is abelian as well. Hence, since every subgroup must have
order dividing p2 , the only two possibilities are
G∼
= Z/p2 , G∼
= Z/p × Z/p
Problem 25
Let G be a group of order p3 , where p is prime, and G is

not abelian. Let Z denote the center, and let C be the cyclic
group of order p.
(a) Show that Z ∼

= C and G/Z ∼
= C × C.
(b) Every subgroup of order p2 contains Z and is normal.
(c) Suppose xp = 1 for all x ∈ G. Show that G contained a
normal subgroup H ∼
= C × C.
(a). Since G is not abelian, Z(G) 6= G. Also, if |Z(G)| = p2 , then

G/Z(G) is cyclic, in which case G is abelian. By the class equation,
Z(G) is not trivial, whence we see that |Z(G)| = p, so that Z(G) ∼
= C.
Now, since |G/Z(G)| = p2 , the previous problem gives that G/Z(G) =
C × C or Z/p2 . If G/Z(G) ∼
= Z/p2 , then this is cyclic, and G must be
abelian. Thus G/Z(G) ∼
= C × C.
(b). Firstly, if |H| = p2 , then (G : H) = p, which is the smallest prime

divisor of p3 . Hence, H is normal. Suppose for sake of contradiction
that H 6⊃ Z(G). Then, H ∩ Z(G) = 1, in which case HZ(G) = G.
Note that since |H| = p2 , the previous problem gives that it must be
abelian. Hence, given g1 , g2 ∈ G,
g1 = h1 z1 , g2 = h2 z2 , hi ∈ H, zi ∈ Z(G)
We see:
g1 g2 = h1 z1 h2 z2
= h1 h2 z2 z1
= h2 h1 z2 z1
= h2 z2 h1 z1
= g2 g1
Implying that G is abelian, which is a contradiction. Therefore, we
must have that H ⊃ Z(G) so all subgroups of order p2 .
(c). We can find some x ∈ G such that x ∈

/ Z(G). Consider then the
subgroup
(x) · Z(G) = {xn z | n ∈ Z, z ∈ Z(G)}
Since Z(G) is normal, the above product is a subgroup; since x ∈

/ Z(G),
we know that |(x) · Z(G)| = p2 . By part (b), (x) · Z(G) ∼
= C × C and
is normal.
Problem 26
(a) Let G be a subgroup of order pq, where p and q are primes

with p < q. Assume that q 6≡ 1 mod p. Prove that G is
cyclic.
(b) Show that every group of order 15 is cyclic.
(a). We first consider the number of Sylow p and q subgroups. Note

that for np (the number of Sylow p subgroups), np ≡ 1 mod p. Since
q 6≡ 1 mod p and np ∈ {1, q}, we deduce that np = 1, so P E G.
Similarly, since p < q, nq = 1 as well, and Q E G. Both P and Q
are cyclic (since they have prime order), and have trivial intersection.
Thus, G = P Q.
We have the isomorphism G/CG (P ) ∼ = Aut(Z/p), so that
pq
p − 1
|CG (P )|
But this is only possible is |CG (P )| = pq, giving that CG (P ) = G.
Thus, Q ⊂ CG (P ), and G is abelian. Finally, since P and Q are cyclic,
choose respective generators x and y. Then xy has order pq, whence
G = (pq)
so that G is cyclic.
(b). Note that 15 = 3 · 5. Setting p = 3, q = 5, q 6= 1 mod 3, so by

part (a), this is cyclic.
Problem 27
Show that every group of order < 60 is solvable.

We proceed by induction on different cases. Assume first that |G| =
2m · 3n . Then, the base case is of course trivial. For m 6 3, n3 ∈ {1, 4}.
If n3 = 1, then the Sylow 3 subgroup is normal and cyclic, hence
solvable. By induction, G/P is solvable, so that G is also solvable.
If n3 = 4, we have an action of G on Syl3 (G) by conjugation. Let
φ : G → S4 be the permutation representation of each element. Then
Im φ 6 S4 is solvable, since it is a subgroup of a solvable group. By
the inductive hypothesis, Ker φ is solvable, hence, as Im φ ∼

= G/ Ker φ,
G must also be solvable.
Now suppose m > 4. If n = 0, G is a p group, hence solvable. If
n = 1, then m = 4, so that |G| = 48. We have that n2 ∈ {1, 3}. If
n2 = 1, we again use normality to proce that G is solvable. If n2 = 3,
we have permutation representation φ : G → S3 induced by acting
on the Sylow subgroups by conjugation. Since S3 is solvable, so is
Im φ, and by the inductive hypothesis, Ker φ is also solvable. Then,
G/ Ker φ = Im φ, from which we see that G is also solvable.
Now, let p be the largest prime factor of |G|. If p > 7, then |G| = pk
for some k < p. As np ∼
= 1 mod p, the only possibility is np = 1, so
the Sylow p subgroup is normal. By induction, it is solvable and so is
G/P , so G is also solvable.
When p = 7, we see that the only possible value for |G| < 60 with
|G| = 7k, k > 7 is |G| = 56. Hence, when k < 8, the Sylow 7 subgroup
is normal, hence solvable. When k = 8, n7 ∈ {1, 8}. Assume then
that n7 = 8, since if n7 = 1, normality and the inductive hypothesis
immediately gives that G is solvable. When n7 = 8, we have 6 · 8 = 48
elements of order 6, leaving room for only 1 Stlow 2 subgroup. But then
this Sylow 2 subgroup is normal, whence G is solvable by induction.
Finally, set p = 5. If k 6 5 and |G| = 5k, then n5 = 1. Whence the
Sylow 5-subgroup is normal and by induction, G is solvable. Assume
now that k > 5. Then, if k 6≡ 1 mod 5, the above shows G is solvable.
Hence, assume |G| < 60 and k ≡ 1 mod 5. The only possibility is that
|G| = 30, and n5 ∈ {1, 6}.
Assume n5 = 6 then, since the other case yields solvability trivially.
Then there are 4 · 6 = 24 elements of order 4, leaving room for only
one Sylow 3 subgroup. Hence, Q ∈ Syl3 (G) is normal, and G/Q and
Q must be solvable by induction. Thus, G is also solvable.
This exhausts all cases, so we see that every group of order < 60 is
solvable.
Problem 28
Let p, q be distinct primes. Prove that a group of order p2 q

is solvable, and that one its Sylow subgroups is normal.
If p = q, then G is a p group, hence solvable. Suppose that p 6= q, so
p > q. Then nq = 1, and the unique Sylow q subgroup is normal. But
then Q and G/Q are solvable by induction, hence G is.
Now suppose p < q. If nq = 1, we are done. Hence nq = p2 . Then,
there are p2 (q − 1) elements of order q. But then there is only room
for a single Sylow p group, so this is normal, and G is solvable.
Problem 29
Let p, q be odd primes. Prove that a group of order 2pq is

solvable.
If p = q, then G is solvable by the previous problem. Assume then
that p < q. This implies that nq ∈ {1, 2p}. If nq = 1, we are done, so
assume nq = 2p. Then, G has 2p(q − 1) elements of order q.
Now, np ∈ {1, q, 2q}. If np = 1, again, we are done, so assume
np = q. Then, there are q(p − 1) elements of order p in G. Finally,
consider n2 ∈ {1, p, q, pq}. If n2 = 1, we are done, so assume n2 = p.
Now, p − 1 > 1, since p is an odd prime; we then see that

|G| > 2p(q − 1) + q(p − 1) + p
> 2p(q − 1) + q + p
> 2p(q − 1) + p + p
= 2pq = |G|
Which is a contradiction. Hence, G contains at least one normal Sylow

subgroup, so that G is solvable.
Problem 30
(a) Prove that one of the Sylow subgroups of a group of order

40 is normal.
(b) Prove that one of the Sylow subgroups of a group of order
12 is normal.
(a). If |G| = 40 = 23 · 5, n5 ∈ {1, 2, 4, 8}. The condition n5 ≡ 1 mod 5

forces n5 = 1 identically, so the Sylow 5 subgroup is normal.
(b). Consider |G| = 12 = 22 · 3, and the permutation representation of

G by the action
G × G/P → G/P
(g, aP ) 7→ gaP
where P ∈ Syl2 (G). If φ : G → S3 , and Ker φ is proper and nontrivial,

then we are done since the kernel of a map is always normal.
Suppose then that Ker φ = G. Then, since Ker φ 6 P , we see that

|G| = | Ker φ||P | =⇒ 12|4, which is impossible. Hence, Ker φ is a

proper nontrivial normal subgroup of G.

Problem 31
Order 1: Trivial
Order 2: Z/2
Order 3: Z/3
Order 4: Z/4 and Z/2 × Z/2
Order 5: Z/5
Order 6:
Abelian: Z/6, Z/2 × Z/3
Nonabelian: S3
Order 7: Z/7
Order 8:
Abelian: Z/8, Z/2 × Z/4, Z/2 × Z/2 × Z/2
Nonabelian: D8 , Quaternion group

Order 9: Z/3 × Z/3 and Z/9.
Order 10:
Abelian: Z/10
Nonabelian: D10
Problem 32
Let Sn be the permutation group on n elements. Determine

the p-Sylow subgroups S3 , S4 , S5 for p = 2 and p = 3.
(a). S3 : The Sylow 2 subgroups are merely the subgroups generated

by the transpositions. The Sylow 3 subgroup is A3 and is normal.
(b). S4 : The Sylow 3 subgroups are generated by the 3-cycles, and

there are 4 of them. The Sylow 2 subgroups are of order 8 and are
nonabelian. By the previous problem, they must be isomorphic to D8 ,
and since we have 8 elements of order 3 from the Sylow 3 subgroups,

there are 3 such copies of D8 .
(c). S5 : The Sylow 3 subgroups are again generated by the 3-cycles,

and we have 10 of them. The Sylow 2 subgroups are again isomorphic
copies of D8 , so we only need to determine how many copies there are.
n2 ∈ {1, 3, 5, 15}, and we see that n2 must equal 5.
Problem 33
Let σ be a permutation of a finite set I having n elements.

Define e(σ) to be (−1)m where
m = n − number of orbits of σ
If I1 , . . . , Ir are the orbits of σ, then m is also equal to the sum

r
X
m= |Iν | − 1
ν=1
By definition of orbit, the orbits of σ are disjoint. Hence,

r
X
|I| = |Iv |
v=1
Pr
Similarly, the number of orbits is φ(σ) = v=1 1. Hence,
m = |I| − φ(σ)
X r r
X
= |Iv | − 1
v=1 v=1
r
X
= |Iv | − 1
v=1
Then it suffices to show that e(τ ) = −1. But this is trivial:
m = n − (n − 1) = 1
So that e(τ ) = −1, as asserted. Since any σ can be decomposed as a

product of transpositions, we see:
e(σ) = e(τ1 . . . τk ) = (−1)k = (σ)
So we are done.
Problem 34
(a) Let n be an even positive integer. Show that there exists

a group of order 2n, generated by two elements σ, τ such
that σ n = 1 = τ 2 and στ = τ σ n−1 . This group is called the
dihedral group.
(b) Let n be an off positive integer. Let D4n be the group
generated by the matrices

0 −1 ζ 0
and
1 0 0 ζ −1
where ζ is a primitive nth root of unity. Show that D4n

has order 4n, and give the commutation relations between
the above generators.
(a). Let D2n be the group of rotations and reflections on the vertices
of an n-sided regular polygon. σ will be rotation by 2π/n radians, and
τ is a reflection. Then it is geometrically evident that τ 2 = 1, and
σ n = 1. Also, if we choose base point 1 ∈ C,
στ (1) = −e2πi/n
= τ (e−2πi/n )
= τ σ n−1 (1)
Whence στ = τ σ n−1 .
(b). Note
2
0 −1 1 0
=
1 0 0 1
and
n
ξ 0 1 0
=
0 ξ −1 0 1
Also,

ξ 0 0 −1
στ =
0 ξ −1
1 0

0 −ξ
= −1
ξ 0

0 −ξ 1−n
= n−1
ξ 0
n−1
0 −1 ξ 0
=
1 0 0 ξ 1−n
= τ σ n−1
Problem 35
Show that there are exactly two nonisomorphic nonabelian

groups of order 8.
Assume that G is nonabelian of order 8. Then our nonidentity el-
ements have order 2 or 4. If any elements have order 8, G would be
cyclic, hence abelian.
If every element have order 2, then
(xy)2 = e =⇒ xy = yx for all x, y ∈ G
so that G would again be abelian. Thus, there exists at least one g ∈ G

with order 4. Now, for h ∈ G\(g), (g, h) properly contains (g) so that
(g, h) = G.
Now, |G/(g)| = 2, so that (g) E G and
hgh−1 ∈ {1, g, g 2 , g 3 }
Since hgh−1 has order 4, we deduce that hgh−1 = g or hgh−1 = g −1 .

In the first case, h and g commute, so G would be abelian. Hence
hgh−1 = g −1 . Now, as |G/(g)| = 2, h2 ∈ (g) and as h has order 2 or 4,
h2 has order 1 or 2, implying
h2 ∈ {1, g 2 }
In the first case, G = (h, g) with the relations
h2 = 1, g 4 = 1, hgh−1 = g −1
But this is precisely D8 . In the second case,
h2 = g 2 , g 4 = 1, hgh−1 = g −1
and this is precisely the quaternion group, so we are done.
Problem 36
Let σ = (1 2 . . . n) in Sn . Show that the conjugacy class of

σ has (n − 1)! elements. Show that the centralizer of σ is the
cyclic group generated by σ.
Holding 1 fixed, we permute the rest of the elements of the cy-
cle. This gives (n − 1)! distinct conjugates. Since σ contains every
{1, 2, . . . , n}, no other cycle is disjoint and hence cannot commute un-
less it is a power of σ. We deduce that
CSn ((σ)) = (σ)
Problem 37
(a) Let σ = (i1 . . . im ) be a cycle. Let γnSn . Show that γσγ −1

is the cycle
(γ(i1 ) . . . γ(im ))
(b) Suppose that a permutation σ in Sn can be written as a

product of r disjoint cycles, and let d1 , . . . , dr be the num-
ber of elements in each cycle, in increasing order. Let τ be
another permutation which can be written as a product of
disjoint cycles whose cardinalities are d01 , . . . , d0s in increas-
ing order. Prove that σ is conjugate to τ in Sn if and only
if r = s and di = d0i for all i = 1, . . . , r.
(a). Since γ is a bijection, any a ∈ {1, . . . , n} is τ (b) for some b ∈

{1, . . . , n}. Now assume b = ik for some k. We see:
τ (i1 . . . im )τ −1 (a) = τ (i1 . . . τm )(ik )
= τ (ik+1 )
= (τ (i1 ) . . . τ (im ))(a)

And, if b ∈
/ {i1 , . . . , im },
τ (i1 . . . im )τ −1 (a) = τ τ −1 (a) = a
In both cases, the result follows.
(b). Let σi be our disjoint cycles. Then,
τ σ1 . . . σr τ −1 = τ σ1 τ −1 τ . . . τ σr τ −1
By part (a), the cycle length for each σi is preserved, whence the overall
cycle type is also preserved.
Problem 38
(a) Show that Sn is generated by the transpositions (12), (13), . . . , (1n).

(b) Show that Sn is generated by the transpositions (12), (23), . . . , (n−
1, n).
(c) Show that Sn is generated by the cycles (12) and (1 2 . . . n).
(d) Assume that n is prime. Let σ = (1 2 . . . n) and let τ = (r s)

be any transposition. Show that σ, τ generate Sn .
(a). As Sn is generated by transpositions, it suffices to show that an

arbitrary transposition is generated by a transposition of the given
form. We see
(a1 a2 ) = (1 a1 )(1 a2 )(1 a1 )
So that Sn is generated by such transpositions.
(b). By part (a), it suffices to show that transpositions of the form

(1 k) are generated by the given transposition type. We see
(1 k) = (1 2)(2 3) . . . (k − 1 k)(k − 2 k − 1) . . . (2 3)(1 2)
(c). By part (b), it suffices to show all transpositions of the type (k −

1 k) are generated by (1 2) and (1 . . . n). Using the result of problem
37, we see
−1
(k − 1 k) = (1 2 . . . n)k−2 (1 2) (1 2 . . . n)k−2
Giving the result.
(d). Let σ = (1 2 . . . p), τ = (r s). Then, for some power of σ, r and

s must be adjacent, and if r − s = d, (σ, τ ) contains all transpositions
of the form (k − d k). Then, taking well chosen transpositions, we
may reduce the given of the numbers in our transpositions. Using
the same process, we get another set of transpositions with length
strictly smaller. Continuing this process, we eventually generate all
transpositions of the form (k − 1 k), which, by part (b), generate Sp .
Problem 39
Show that the action of the alternating group An on {1, . . . , n}

is (n − 2)-transitive.
An has a subgroup isomorphic to Sn−2 , and Sn−2 is n − 2 transitive.
Also, given n − 1 distinct elements {1, . . . , n − 1}, there does not exist
σ ∈ An sending
{1, . . . , n − 2, n − 1} 7→ {1, . . . , n − 1, n − 2}
so that An is n − 2 transitive.
Problem 40
Let An be the alternating group on {1, . . . , n} and let Hj

denote the subgroup of An fixing j, so Hj ∼
= An−1 , and (An :
Hj ) = n for n > 3. Let n > 3 and let H be a subgroup of index
n in An .
(a) Show that the action of An on cosets of H by left trans-

lation gives an isomorphism An with alternating group of
permutations of An /H.
(b) Show that there exists an automorphism of An mapping
H1 on H, and that such an automorphism is induced by an
inner automorphism of Sn if and only if H = Hi for some i.
(a). Enumerate the distinct cosets
{H, σ1 H, . . . , σn−1 H}
And send each σ ∈ An to its permutation representation induced by

the actions of left coset multiplication. As An is simple for n > 5, the
kernel must be trivial, so we have an isomorphism (note that the n < 5
cases are trivial). It remains to show that πσ is an even permutation

for σ ∈ An .
Since we have an isomorphism, An is isomorphic to its image as a
subgroup of Sn ; but the only such subgroup is An itself, whence every
even permutation must have permutation representation that is also
even.
(b). We have an isomorphism by part (a) sending A → Alt(An /H).

Identify H with the element 1 ∈ {1, . . . , n}. Consider the induced
isomorphism An ∼
= Alt(An /H), and we may compose the maps
An → Alt(An /H) → An
to get an automorphism of An . Now, the image of H 6 An →

Alt(An /H) is precisely the set of elements fixing H. Composing this
with the second isomorphism, we get an induced isomorphism between
the element of An fixing 1.
Now, consider Sn acting by conjugation on {H1 , . . . , Hn }. If σ ∈ Hi ,
then any τ ∈ Sn is such that τ στ −1 ∈ Hj , so inner automorphisms
merely permute the subgroups {H1 , . . . , Hn }. If H = τ Hi τ −1 , the
previous sentence tells us Hi = τ −1 Hτ =⇒ H ∈ {H1 , . . . , Hn }, so we
are done.
Problem 41
Let H be a simple group of order 60.
(a) Show that the action of H by conjugation on the set of its

Sylow subgroups induces and embedding H ,→ A6 .
(b) Using the preceding exercise, show that H ∼
= A5 .
(c) Show that A6 has an automorphism which is not induced

by an inner automorphism of S6 .

(a). Consider the set of Sylow 5 subgroups. Then, |Syl5 (H)|12 and

is congruent to 1 mod 5. Thus it is either 1 or 6. If it is 1, then H

is not simple, so we have 6 Sylow subgroups of H. Now consider the
conjugation action of Syl5 (H). This induces a permutation representa-
tion in S6 with trivial kernel by simplicity of S6 . Whence we have an
embedding H ,→ S6 , and we want to further argue that the image in
contained in A6 .
To see this, consider the elements of order 3 in H, and the subgroup
generated by these elements. This is normal in H, hence all of H (and
nontrivial by Sylow’s theorem). Thus the permutation representation
is generated by order 3 elements, hence even, so that H ,→ A6 , as
desired.
(b). Counting cardinalities, we see the image of H ,→ A6 has index

6 in A6 . Also, H is generated by its order 3 elements, implying that
H∼
= A5 .
(c). By the previous problem, it suffices to show that H 6= Hi for any

i ∈ {1, . . . , 6}. However, the action of H is induced by conjugation
on its Sylow subgroups. If every element of H fixed some Sylow 5
subgroup, then H would have to be simple. Hence, h 6= Hi , and we
deduce that there exists at least one automorphism of A6 not induced
by any inner automorphism of S6 .
Problem 42
Viewing Z and Q as additive groups, show that Q/Z is a

torsion group which has one and only one subgroup of order
n for each integer n > 1, and that this subgroup is cyclic.
p p
Q/Z is a torsion group since for any p/q ∈ Q, q
+ ··· + q
= 0
(where we have added this q times). The unique subgroup of order
n is (1/n + Z). To see this, suppose that b + Z has order n. Then,
nb ∈ Z =⇒ b = m/n for coprime m, n ∈ Z. Hence, (b+Z) = (1/n+Z),
and this is certainly cyclic by construction.
Problem 43
Let H be a subgroup of a finite abelian group G. Show that

G has a subgroup that is isomorphic to G/H.
Theorem 8.1 gives that G is isomorphic to the direct sum of its p-
torsion parts, and by Theorem 8.2, these are isomorphic to a product
of cyclic p groups. Hence, it suffices to prove the statement when G is
a p groups and then induct of the p torsion parts. Now,
G = Z/pα1 ⊕ Z/pα2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/pαk
where 1 6 α1 6 . . . 6 αk . Any quotient Q of G is also a p group and

hence has a similar decomposition
Q = Z/pb1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/pbj
with 1 6 b1 6 . . . 6 bj , and j 6 k. Consider now Z/pbj and note

that the order of ant element in G is at most pak , and likewise for the
quotient. This gives that bj 6 ak , and inductively, bj−i 6 ak−i for each
i = 1, . . . , j − 1. Now, at each step, we may find a cyclic subgroup of
order pbj−i of G (since we are working with cyclic groups), and hence,
taking the direct sum of all of the above,
Z/pb1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Z/pbj
is our constructed subgroup, and this is isomorphic to the original

quotient as contended.
Problem 44
Let f : A → A0 be a homomorphism of abelian groups. Let

B be a subgroup of A. Denote by Af and Af the image and
kernel of f in A respectively, and similarly for B f and Bf .
Show that (A : B) = (Af : B f )(Af : Bf ), in the sese that if two
of these three indices are finite, so is the third, and the stated
equality holds.
We have the inclusion Af /Bf ,→ A/B, with a + Bf 7→ a + B, and
similarly a surjection
φ : A/B → Af /B f
sending a + B 7→ f (a) + B f . If a + Bf ∈ Af /Bf , then f (a) + Bf = Bf ;

that is, Af /Bf ⊂ Ker φ. By the first isomorphism theorem, we see that
A/B Af
= f
Ker φ B
So that
|A|/|Af | Af
| Ker φ| = =
|B|/|B f | Bf
Whence Ker φ = Af /Bf , and,
Af A/B
f
=
B Af /Bf
Taking orders of the above,
(A : B) = (Af : B f )(A : B)
as desired.
Problem 45
Let G be a finite cyclic group of order n, generated by σ.

Assume that G operates on an abelian group A, and let f, g :
A → A be the endomorphisms of A given by
f (x) = σ(x) − x, g(x) = x + σ(x) + · · · + σ n−1 (x)
Define the Herbrand Quotient by the expression q(A) = (Af :

Ag )/(Ag : Af ), provided both indices are finite.
(a) Define in a natural way an operation of G on A/B.

(b) Prove that
q(A) = q(B)q(A/B)
(c) If A is finite, show that q(A) = 1.
We have the natural action

G × A/B → A/B
(σ, a + B) 7→ σ(a) + B
Let us show well definedness. If a + B = a0 + B, then a − a0 ∈ B =⇒
σ(a − a0 ) ∈ σ(B) ⊂ B. Hence,
σ(a) − σ(a0 ) ∈ B =⇒ σ(a) + B = σ(a0 ) + B
So this is well defined.
(b). Since f ◦g = g◦f = 0, we may define a complex C(A) with An = A

for all n ∈ N and differentials
(
f, n even
d=
g, n odd
By the action defined in part (a), C(A/B) is also a complex, and we

have an exact sequence
0 / C(B) / C(A) / C(A/B) / 0
of chain complexes. We now want to consider the induced long exact

homology sequence, where we note that by periodicity of our differen-
tials, (
H0 (−), p even
Hp (−) =
H1 (−), p odd
So we have
i∗ π∗
··· / H1 (B) / H1 (A) / H1 (A/B)
i∗ π∗
δ / H0 (B) / H0 (A) / H0 (A/B) / 0
Then, note that the Herbrand quotient is precisely
|H0 (A)|
|H1 (A)|
As i∗ is injective by definition, we may extract the short exact sequences
i∗ π∗
0 / H0 (B) / H0 (A) / Coker i∗ / 0
i∗ π∗
0 / H1 (B) / H1 (A) / Coker i∗ / 0
By exactness, Im i∗ = Ker π∗ , so that
|H0 (A)| = |H0 (B)|| Im π0∗ |
|H1 (A)| = |H1 (B)|| Im π1∗ |
Similarly,
|H0 (B)| = | Im δ0 || Im i0∗ |
|H1 (B)| = | Im δ1 || Im i1∗ |
And
H0 (A/B)| = | Im π0∗ || Im δ1 |
H1 (A/B)| = | Im π1∗ || Im δ0 |
Noting that | Im δ0 | = |H0 (B)|, | Im δ1 | = |H1 (B)|,

| Im δ0 || Im i0∗ | · | Im π0∗ || Im δ1 |
q(B)q(A/B) =
| Im δ1 || Im i1∗ | · | Im π1∗ || Im δ0 |
| Im i0∗ || Im π0∗ |
=
| Im i1∗ || Im π1∗ |
|H0 (A)|
=
|H1 (A)|
= q(A)
As desired.
(c). In the finite case,

|Af |/|Ag |
q(A) =
|Ag |/|Af |
|Af ||Af |
=
|Ag ||Ag |
|A|
= =1
|A|
Problem 46
S
Let G operate on a set S. Let S = Si be a partition of S
into disjoint subset. We say that the partition is stable under
G if G maps each Si onto Sj for some j, and hence G induces
a permutation on the sets of the partition among theselves.
THere are two partition of S which are obviously stable: the
partition consisting of S itself, and the partition consisting of
the subsets with one element. Prove that the following two
conditions are equivalent:
(1) The only partitions of S which are stable are the two
partitions mentioned above.
(2) If H is the isotropy group of an element of S, then H is

a maximal subgroup of G.
We prove 1 =⇒ 2 first. Suppose that G acts transitively, and let

H stabilize s ∈ S. We have the surjective map
G→S
g 7→ g · s
with kernel H, so that G/H → S is an isomorphism. If there exists
H 0 6= G containing H, then G/H 0 6 G/H. Restricting the above, we
have an induced partition
{gH 0 · s}, g∈G
Since |G/H 0 | < |G/H|, this is a nontrivial partitition that is stable,

contradicting the assumption. Hence H is maximal.
For 2 =⇒ 1, argue by contraposition. Suppose we have a nontrivial
stable partition, and choose s ∈ S such that s ∈ Si for some Si in
out partition, and Si 6= {s}. Let H 0 be the stabilizer of Si . Then
H 6 H 0 because our partition is stable by assumption. But then H is
not maximal, since H 0 properly contains it, and we are done.
Problem 47
Let a finite group G operate transitively and faithfully on a

set S with at least 2 elements and let H be the isotropy group
of some element s ∈ S. Prove the following:
(a) G is doubly transitive if and only if H acts transitively on

the complement of s in S.
(b) G is doubly transitive if and only if G = HT H, where T is
a subgroup of G of order 2 not contained in H.
(c) If G is doubly transitive and (G : H) = n, then
|G| = d(n − 1)n
where d is the order of the subgroup fixing two elements.

Furthermore, H is a maximal subgroup of G, that is, G is
primitive.
(a). Let H be the stabilizer of s ∈ S, and suppose first that G is

doubly transitive. We have the induced bijection G/H → S, so we
may think of G as acting by left mulitplication on G/H. Since G is
doubly transitive, the action
H : {H} × G/H → {H} × G/H
is surjective. However, we may then ignore the first coordinate to see

that H acts transitively on G/H\{H} = S\{s}.
Conversely, let H act transitively on S\{s}, that is, for any a, b ∈
/ H,
there exists h ∈ H such that
haH = bH
Now let (aH, bH), (a0 H, b0 H) be two arbitrary pairs. By transitivity of

G, we may assume that aH = a0 H = H. Then, by H transitivity, we
may find h ∈ H such that hbH = b0 H, whence G is doubly transitive.
(b). Suppose first that G is doubly transitive. Choose a 6= b ∈ S. We

first want to show there exists an element of order 2 not contained in
H.
Find g ∈ G such that (a, b) 7→ (b, a), so that g 2 (a, b) = (a, b). Then,
g is an involution, and in particular G must have even order. Then the
set of elements of order 2 is nonempty. Suppose now that K ⊂ H. If
x ∈ K, then gxg −1 ∈ K, so K is stable under conjugation. Hence, if

K ⊂ H, then
K ⊂ gHg −1
for all g ∈ G, in which case

\
K⊂ gHg −1 = ∅
g∈G
Where the above is empty because G acts faithfully. Thus there exists
t ∈ K with t ∈
/ H. Choose g ∈
/ H and by part (a) we can find h ∈ H
such that
htH = gH
Taking the preimage under this projection, we see that G\H ⊂ HT H,

where T = (t). If g ∈ H, then g = gt2 · 1 ∈ HT H, so we are done.
Conversely, if G = HT H with T = (t), t2 = 1, then H acts transi-
tively on the set of cosets htH, h ∈ H. By part (a), this implies that
G is doubly transitive, as desired.
(c). First observe that since (G : H) = n, |S| = n since H is the

stabilizer. Note that we can count the cardinality of S × S in two
ways. Counting cardinalities, |S × S| = n2 , but S × S also consists of
the diagonal elements along with the nondiagonal elements.
G acts doubly transivitively, so that the number of nondiagonal el-
ements is |G|/| Ker |. But the cardinality of the kernel is precisely d.
Hence
|G|
n2 = n + =⇒ |G| = d(n − 1)n
d
In remains to show that H is maximal. Argue by contraposition. If H
is not maximal, choose
H ⊂ H0 ⊂ G
and h0 ∈ H 0 \H, g ∈ H\H 0 . If H stabilizes s ∈ S, then gs and h0 s are

distinct elements 6= s. In view of (a), it suffices to show that gs 6= hh0 s
for any h ∈ H.
However, if gs = hh0 s, we see
g −1 hh0 ∈ H ⊂ H 0
=⇒ g −1 hh0 H 0 = H 0
=⇒ gH 0 = H 0
=⇒ g ∈ H 0
Which is a contradiction. Hence, H does not act transitively on S\{s},
so that G is not doubly transitive.
Problem 48
Let G be a group acting transitively on a set S with at least

2 elements. For each x ∈ G let f (x) = number of elements of
S fixed by x. Prove:
P
(a) x∈G f (x) = |G|
(b) G is doubly transitive if and only if
X
f (x)2 = 2|G|
x∈G
(a). This is merely Burnside’s Lemma. Since G acts transitively, there

is only one orbit, so that
1 X
1= f (x)
|G| x∈G
X
=⇒ |G| = f (x)
x∈G
(b). Since G is doubly transitive, there are two orbits of the action of
G and its complement. Consider now the order of the fixed points. If
g fixes (a, b), then g fixes a and b. In the problem’s notation, this says
that there are f (g) · f (g) fixed points of g, so, by Burnside’s Lemma,
X
2|G| = f (x)2
x∈G
Problem 49
A group as an automorphism group. Let G be a group and

let Set(G) be the categoryof G-sets (ie sets with a G-action).
Let F : Set(G) → Set be the forgetful functor. Show that
Aut(F ) is naturally isomorphic to G.
Let us define
φ : Aut(F ) → G
a 7→ aG (1)
ψ :G → Aut(F )
where ψ(g)x (x) := g · x. Then,
φ(a ◦ b) = (a ◦ b)G (1)
= aG (bG (1))
= aG (1)bG (1)
= φ(a)φ(b)
ψ(g · g 0 )x (x) = (g · g 0 ) · x
= g(g 0 x)
= ψ(g)x ψ(g 0 )x (x)

So, φ and ψ are indeed homomorphisms of groups. It remains to show
that φ and ψ are inverses for each other.
We see:
φ(ψ(g)) = ψ(g)G (1)
=g·1=g
And, for a ∈ Aut(F ),
ψ(φ(a))x (x) = ψ(aG (1))x (x)
= aG (1) · x
= ax (x)
So we have an isomorphism Aut(F ) ∼

= G.
Problem 50
(a) Show that fiber products exist in the category of abelian

groups.
(b) Show that the pullback of a surjective morphism of groups
is surjective.
(a). We only need to show that X ×Z Y satisfies the universal property

guaranteed by the pullback.
Let p1 , p2 be the natural projections. Assume there exists Q satis-
fying f q1 = gq2 . Then we may define u : Q → X ×Z Y by
u(q) = (q1 (q), q2 (q))
This is trivially well defined and unique, so we see that X ×Z Y satisfies

the universal property of the pullback.
(b). Let f : X → Z be surjective. Then, suppose we have g : Y → Z

and the induced projection p2 : X ×Z Y → Y . We wish to show that
p2 is a surjection. Let yinY . THen, there exists x ∈ X such that
f (x) = g(y), and the pair (x, y) is an element of X ×Z Y . We then see
that p2 (x, y) = y, so p2 is surjective.
Problem 51
(a) Show that fiber products exist in the category of sets.

(b) In any category C, consider the category CZ of objects over
Z. Let h : T → Z be a fixed object in this category. Let F
denote the functor
F (X) = HomZ (T, X)
where X is an object over Z. Show that F transforms fiber

products into products in the category of sets.
(a). This proof is identical to the proof given in part (a) of the above,
noting that we do not have any kind of group structure. That is,
X ×Z Y = {(x, y) ∈ X × Y | f (x) = g(y)}
(b). Consider a product in the category of objects over Z, that is, CZ .

We have (X, f ), (Y, G) as objects, and,
(X, f ) × (Y, g)
pr2
pr1
x &
X Y
f
g
& x
Z
commutes. That is, a product in the slice category over Z is precisely
the fiber product over Z. But HomZ (T, −) preseves products, so we
deduce that HomZ (T, −) applied to a pullback yields a product in the
category of sets.
Problem 52
(a) Show that pushouts exist in the category of abelian groups.

(b) Show that the pushout of an injective morphism of groups

is injective.
(a). Let
f :Z→X
g:Z→Y
Define
X ⊕Z Y := X ⊕ Y /{(f (z), −g(z)) | z ∈ Z}
Now, in order to construct this, we ask that

g
Z / Y
f i2

X / X ⊕Z Y
i1
commutes. This is trivially well defined since the qi are, and we see
that the universal property is satisfied.
(b). Suppose that f : Z → X is injective. We want to show the

inclusion
i2 : Y → X ⊕Z Y
is also injective. Let y ∈ Ker i2 , so that (0, y) ∈ W . Then,
(0, y) = (f (z), −g(z))
for some z ∈ Z. But then f (z) = 0, and by injectivity, (z = 0, so that

y = g(0) = 0, proving injecivity of i2 .
Problem 53
Let H, G, G0 be groups, and let
f : H → G, g : H → G0
be two homomorphisms. Define the notion of a coproduct of

these two homomorphisms.
We merely take our coproduct as the set G ∗ G (the free product)
with the standard inclusions, modulo the set of pairs (f (h), g(h)−1 ),
h ∈ H. By the universal property of the free product, we see that the
above satisfies the coproduct universal property for our constructed
set.
Problem 54
Let G be a group and let {Gi }i∈I be a family of subgroups

generating G. Suppose G operates on a set S. For each i ∈ I,
S
suppose given a subset Si of S, and let s be a point of S\ i Si .
Assume that for each g ∈ Gi \{e}, we have
gSj ⊂ Si for all j 6= i, and g(s) ∈ Si for all i
Prove that G is the coproduct of the family {Gi }i∈I .

S
Following the hint, we suppose that s ∈ S\ i∈I Si , and
g1 · · · · · gm = id
where gi ∈ Gki . Then, in this is the case,
g1 . . . gm (s) = s
and the above implies s ∈ Ski , which is impossible. Hence, no product

of elements in the Gi stabilizes s, so no product could possibly we the
identity. Following Proposition 12.4, we deduce that G must be the
coproduct of the Gi .
Problem 55
Let M ∈ GL2 (C) act on C by linear fractional transforma-

tions. Let λ and λ0 be the eigenvales of M viewed as a linear
map on C2 . Let W , W 0 denote the corresponding eigenvectors.
By a fixed point of M we mean a complex number z such that
M (z) = z. Assume that M has two distinct fixed points 6= ∞.
(a) Show that there cannot be more than two fixed points and
that these fixed points are w = w1 /w2 and w0 = w10 /w20 .
(b) Assume that |λ| < |λ0 |. Given z 6= w, show that
lim M k (z) = w0
k→∞
(a). A fixed point is such that

az + b
= z =⇒ cz 2 + (d − a)z − b = 0
cz + d
This is a quadratic in z, hence has at most 2 distinct
0 roots. Now,
w w
normalize our eigenvectors to be of the form , . By definition,
1 1

a b w w
=λ
c d 1 1
Implying that aw + b = λw, cw + d = λ. Hence,

a b
w=w
c d
And similarly for w0 . Thus we conclude that λ and λ0 are the unique
fixed points.
(b). We may diagonalize our matrix as

0
λ 0 −1
M= w w 0 w w0
0 λ
Then,

0
λk 0 −1
k
lim M (z) = lim w w 0k w w0
k→∞ z→∞ 0 λ
λ k z − w

= lim w w0
k→∞ λ0 −z − w0
0

w w
= (0) = w0
1 1
So that limk→∞ M k (z) = w0 , as desired.
Problem 56
Let M1 , . . . , Mr ∈ GL2 (C). be a finite number of matrices.

Let λi , λ0i be the eigenvalues of Mi . Assume that each Mi has
two distinct complex fixed points and |λi | < |λ0i |. Also as-
sume that the fixed points for M1 , . . . , Mr are all distinct from
each other. Prove that there exists a positive integer k such
that M1k , . . . , Mrk are the free generators of a free subgroup of
GL2 (C).
Choose our fixed points wi , wi0 for each Mi ∈ GL2 (C). By the
previous problem, for any z ∈ C we may find ni ∈ N such that
Mini (z) ∈ Ui ∩ Ui0 . In particular, choose ni large enough that
Mini (s) ∈ Ui ∩ Ui0
and, for every other j,
Mini (UJ ∩ UJ0 ) ⊂ Ui ∩ Ui0
Doing this for every i = 1, . . . , r, choose k := maxi {ni }. By construc-

tion, the sets Gi := (Mik ) satisfy
gUj ∩ Uj0 ⊂ Ui ∩ Ui0 , g(s) ∈ Ui ∩ Ui0

for every g ∈ Gi \{1}, over all i = 1, . . . , r. By problem 54, these

generate a free subgroup of GL2 (C).
Problem 57
Let G be a group acting on a set X. Let Y be a subset of X.

Let GY be the subset of G consisting of those elements g such
that gY ∩ Y is not empty. Let GY be the subgroup generated
by GY . Show that GY Y and (G\GY )Y are disjoint.
Argue by contraposition. Choose g1 ∈ GY and g2 ∈ G\GY such that
g1y1 = g2 y2 for some yi ∈ Y . Then, we see that g2−1 g1 y1 = y2 , so that
g2−1 g1 ∈ GY , and in particular, as g1 ∈ GY , we deduce that g2 ∈ GY as
well.
SOLUTIONS
KELLER VANDEBOGERT
1. Problem 1
Assume 1 6= 0 in A. Let S be a multiplicative subset of A not

containing 0. Let p be a maximal elements in the set of ideals
whose intersection with S is empty. Show that p is prime.
Consider
Γ := {I ⊂ A | I ideal, I ∩ S 6= ∅}
Then, p is assumed to be maximal in the above set. Suppose fro sake

of contradiction that p is not prime, and choose x, y ∈ pc with xy ∈ p.
We see that p+Ax strictly contains p, so, by maximality p+Ax ∈
/ Γ,
whence
(p + Ax) ∩ S 6= ∅
implying there exists p ∈ p, a ∈ A such that
p + ax ∈ S
Similarly, there exists p0 ∈ p, a0 ∈ A such that
p 0 + a0 y ∈ S
We then see that the product
(p + ax)(p0 + a0 y) ∈ S
Date: October 22, 2018.

1
Expanding this,
pp0 + pa0 y + ap0 x + aa0 xy ∈ S
However, all of the terms in the above are elements of p, implying that
p ∩ S 6= ∅
which is a contradiction; whence the result follows.
2. Problem 2
Let f : A → A0 be a surjective homomorphism of rings, and

assume that A is local, A0 6= 0. Show that A0 is local.
Note that in a local ring, every x ∈
/ m must be a unit, since (x) = A.
By surjectivity, the image of m is an ideal. We want to show that it is
maximal.
Let a0 ∈
/ f (m). There exists a ∈ A such that f (a) = a0 . We see that
a∈
/ m, so that a is a unit. Letting b denote the inverse,
f (ab) = f (a)f (b) = 1
Implying that f (a) = a0 is also a unit, so that f (m) is also maximal.
3. Problem 3
Let p be a prime ideal of A. Show that Ap has a unique

maximal ideal.
Let Ap denote our localization. Then,
np
pAp = | p ∈ p, s ∈ pc }
s
is our maximal ideal, since if r/s ∈
/ pAp ,
r s
· =1
s r
so that r/s is a unit, implying pAp is our unique maximal ideal.
4. Problem 4
Let A be a principal ideal domain and S a multiplicative

subset with 0 6∈ S. Show that S −1 A is principal.
Suppose that A is principal. Given any ideal I ⊂ S −1 A, the preimage
under the natural inclusion i : A → S −1 A will remain an ideal. Hence,
i−1 (I) = (a) for some a ∈ A. Since i : A ,→ S −1 A is injective,
a
−1
f ◦ f (I) = I =⇒ I =
1
whence I is also a principal ideal, implying S −1 A is a PID.
5. Problem 5
Let A be a unique factorization domain and S a multiplica-

tive subset with 0 6∈ S. Show that S −1 A is also a UFD, and that
the prime elements of S −1 A are of the form up with primes p
of A with that (p) ∩ S is empty, and units in S −1 A.
Suppose p ∈ Spec(A) is such that p ∩ S = ∅. If i : A → S −1 A
denotes the natural inclusion, we wish to show that i−1 (S −1 p) = p.
Certainly, p ⊂ i−1 (S −1 p) holds tautologically. For the reverse inclu-
sion, let a ∈ A be such that
a
∈ S −1 p
1
Then, there exists t ∈ S, s ∈ S, a0 ∈ p such that
t(sa − a0 ) = 0
As st ∈ S and S ∩ p = ∅, we deduce that a ∈ p. Hence, i−1 (S −1 p) = p.

Now, if p is prime and p ∩ S = ∅, then suppose
a b
· ∈ S −1 p
s s0
so that there exists t, t0 ∈ S and p ∈ p such that
t0 (tab − ss0 p) = 0
As p ∩ S = ∅ and tt0 ∈ S, we see that this forces ab ∈ p. But p is

prime, so
ab ∈ p =⇒ a or b ∈ p
a b
=⇒ or 0 ∈ S −1 p
s s
−1
=⇒ S p is prime
This then shows that the prime ideals of A disjoint from S are in
bijection with prime ideal in S −1 A. Hence, if p is prime and (p)∩S = ∅,
then i(p) = p/1 generates a prime ideal of S −1 A, so that p/1 is a prime
element in S −1 A.
Now let a/s ∈ S −1 A. As A is a UFD, we have a factorization of
a = up1 . . . pk with pi prime and u a unit. We have that 1/s is a unit,
and for each pi /1, if (pi ) ∩ S = ∅, then pi /1 is a prime in S −1 A by the
above.
If (pi ) ∩ S 6= ∅, then rpi ∈ S for some r ∈ A. This gives that pi /1 is
a unit, however, since
r pi
· =1
rpi 1
Thus, any prime pi with (pi ) ∩ S 6= ∅ becomes a unit in S −1 A. Com-

bining this with the above, we may factorize a/s in S −1 A; uniqueness
of this factorization follows by uniqueness of the factorization on a in
A, since if we had two distinct factorizations, every prime of S −1 A
corresponds to some prime of A by the above logic.
6. Problem 6
Let A be a UFD and p a prime element. Show that the local

ring A(p) is principal.
By the previous problem, A(p) is a UFD with maximal ideal (p)A(p) .
Given any other prime p0 ∈ A, p0 is not a unit, so p0 ∈ (p) =⇒ p0 = up
for some unit. Then, every x is of the form x = upn , n ∈ N, u ∈ A× .
Now, let I ⊂ A be an ideal. Consider
min{n ∈ N | x = upn , x ∈ I}
Choose x ∈ I such that the minimum is achieved. The condition x ∈ I

ensures (x) ⊂ I.
For the reverse inclusion, let y ∈ I. Then, y = u0 pm for u0 ∈ A× ,
m > n. But,
y = u0 pm
= u−1 u0 pm−n · upn
= u−1 u0 pm−n x ∈ (x)
So that y ∈ (x), and we conclude (x) = I. As I was arbitrary, we see

that A is a PID.
7. Problem 7
Let A be a PID and a1 , . . . , an nonzero elements of A. Let

(a1 , . . . , an ) = (d). Show that d is the greatest common divisor
for the ai .
Suppose (a1 , . . . , an ) = (d). It is clear that d|ai for every i, as
(ai ) ⊂ (a1 , . . . , an ) = (d)

Suppose now that some other d0 divides each ai . By definition, (ai ) ⊂

(d0 ), so that
(d) = (a1 , . . . , an ) ⊂ (d0 )
=⇒ (d) ⊂ (d0 )
=⇒ d|d0
So that d is the greatest common divisor, by definition.
8. Problem 8
Let p be a prime number and let A be the ring Z/pr Z. Let G

be the group of units in A, i.e. the group of integers prime to
p, modulo pr . Show that G is cyclic, except in the case when
p = 2 and r > 3, in which case it is of type (2, 2r−1 ).
Consider first the case for p an odd prime. We see that
pn−1
X pn−1
pn−1
(1 + p) = pk ≡ 1 mod pn
k=0
k
And,
pn−2
X pn−2
pn−2
(1 + p) = pk
k=0
k
(pn−2 − 1) n−2
= 1 + pn−1 + pn + · · · + pp
2
≡ 1 + pn−1 mod p n
This implies that p + 1 has order pn−1 , since if (p + 1)m ≡ 1modpn for
some other m, then m|pn−1 . This gives that (1 + p)m ≡ 1 mod pn for
some k < n − 2.
n−2
However, taking successive powers of p, we see that (1 + p)p ≡ 1,
which has already shown to be impossible.
Now, if P denotes our Sylow p subgroup, consider the map

(Z/pn )× → (Z/p)×
x + (pn ) 7→ x + (p)
The kernel of this map is precisely P , so,
(Z/pn )× /P ∼
= (Z/p)×
It suffices to show that (Z/p)× is cyclic. Suppose then that every

nonzero element has order strictly less than p − 1. Then, choose the
maximum of these orders, say, m. We see that
xm − 1 ≡ 0
has p−1 solutions mod p. But m < p−1, so this is impossible. Hence
(Z/p)× is cyclic, and the subgroup of order p − 1 in (Z/pn )× must also
be cyclic. Then,
(Z/pn )× ∼
= Z/pn−1 × Z/(p − 1)
is a cyclic group, as desired, generated by (p+1)x, where x is any order

p − 1 element.
Now we consider the p = 2 case. When r < 3, it is trivial that
(Z/2)× and (Z/4)× are cyclic. Suppose now that r > 3. Then,
r−2
2X r−2

2 2r−2 2
(1 + 2 ) = 22k
k=0
k
≡1 mod 2r
And,
r−3
2X r−3

2 2r−3 2
(1 + 2 ) = 22k
k=0
k
≡ 1 + 2r−1 mod 2r
So, 5 has order 2r−2 , and, we may consider the map

(Z/2r )× → (Z/4)×
x + (2r ) 7→ x + (4)
The kernel of this map is the subgroup generated by 5, so modding out
this subgroup, we see the rest is cyclic of order 2, and
(Z/2r )× ∼
= (Z/2r−2 ) × (Z/2)
which completes the problem.
9. Problem 9
Let i denote the imaginary unit. Show that the ring Z[i],
the Gaussian integers, is principal hence factorial. What are
the units?
We can say even more than the problem asks: Z[i] is a Euclidean
domain with norm N (a + ib) = a2 + b2 . This is a trivial checking of
definitions, where our Euclidean algorithm is computed by picking the
nearest lattice point upon division by any other element.
Then, given any ideal I ⊂ Z[i], the element of minimal norm will
generate the entirety of our ideal.
Since the norm is multiplicative, we also see that the only units will
have norm 1. Hence, our units are
{1, −1, i, −i}
10. Problem 10
Let D be an integer > 1 and let R be the set of all elements

√
a + b −D with a, b ∈ Z.
(1) Show that R is a ring.

(2) Using the fact that complex conjugation is an automor-

phism of C, show that compex conjugation induces an
automorphism of R.
(3) Show that if D > 2 then the only units of R are ±1.
√ √
(4) Show that 3, 2 + −5, 2 − −5 are irreducible elements
√
in Z[ −5].
(a). Let (x2 + D) denote the ideal generated by x2 + D. Then,

√ Z[x]
Z[ −D] = 2
(x + D)
As the quotient of a ring, this is itself clearly a ring.
√
(b). First note that conjugation is stable on Z[ −D], so this is well
defined. Since it is an automorphism of C, restricting yields an auto-
√
morphism of Z[ −D].
(c). Define our norm

√
N : Z[ −D] → Z>0
√
a + b −D 7→ a2 + Db2
√ √
Then, a + b −D is a unit if and only if N (a + b −D) = 1. If b > 1,
√
D > 2, then b2 D > 1, so b = 0 if N (a + b −D) = 1, implying a2 = 1,
so,
a = ±1
as asserted.
(d). Suppose that 3 is reducible. Observe that N (3) = 9, so it must

factor as the product of two elements with norm 3. However, no such
element can exist, so that 3 is irreducible.
√ √
Similarly, N (2 + −5) = N (2 − −5) = 9, so by the above these
are also irreducible.
11. Problem 11
Let R be the ring of trigonometric polynomials. Show that

R consists of all functions f on R which has an expression of
the form
n
X
f (x) = a0 + (am cos(mx) + bm sin(mx)
n=1
where a0 , am , bm are real numbers. Define the trigonometric

degree degtr (t) to be the maximum of the integers r and s such
that ar , bs 6= 0. Prove that
degtr (f g) = degtr (f ) + degtr (g)
Deduce from this that R has no 0 divisors, and also deduce

that the function sin(x) and 1 − cos(x) are irreducible elements
in that ring.
We may view R[sin(t), cos(t)] as a subring of C[eint ] (this is merely
by Euler’s formula). Hence we may find ci ∈ C such that for f (x) ∈
R[sin(t), cos(t)],
n
X k
f (x) = ck eit
k=0
n
X
= ck cos(kt) + ick sin(kt)
k=0
Taking the real part, set ak := Re(ck ), bk := Re(ick ). Then,

n
X
f (x) = a0 + ak cos(kt) + bk sin(kt)
k=1
as desired. If we assume degtr (f ) = r, degtr (g) = s, then f and g

are polynomials of degree r and s, respectively, in C[eit ]. Hence, their
product is of degree r + s. Taking real parts, we deduce that
degtr (f g) = degtr (f ) + degtr (g)

Then, we see that sin(x) and 1 − cos(x) both have trigonometric degree
1. If these were to factor, it would be the product of a degree 0 and
degree 1 polynomial. The degree 0 polynomials are merely constants,
however, and all nonzero constants are units in R. Hence, these are
irreducible.
12. Problem 12
Let P be the set of positive integer and R the set of function

defined on P with values ina commutative ring K. Define the
sum in R to be the ordinary addition of function, and define
the convolution product by the formula
X
(f ∗ g)(m) = f (x)g(y)
xy=m
where the sum is taken over all pair (x, y) of positive integer
with xy = m.
(a) Show that R is a commutative ring whose unit element is

the function δ such that δ(1) = 1 and δ(x) = 0 for x 6= 1.
(b) A function f is said to be multiplicative if f (mn) = f (m)f (n)
whenever m and n are coprime. If f and g are multiplica-
tive, show that f ∗ g is multiplicative.
(c) Let µ denote the Möbius function such that µ(1) = 1,
µ(p1 . . . pr ) = (−1)r if p1 , . . . , pr are distinct primes. Show
that µ ∗ φ1 = δ, where φ1 denotes the constant function
having value 1.
(a). Commutativity is a tautology. Addition is trivially an abelian

group. It remains to show associativity and existence of identity. We
see:
X
f ∗ (g ∗ h)(m) = f (x) · (g ∗ h)(y)
xy=m
X X
= f (x) g(a)h(b)
xy=m ab=y
X
= f (x)g(a)h(b)
xab=m
X X
= h(b) f (x)g(a)
yb=m ax=y
X
= h(b)(f ∗ g)(y)
yb=m
= h ∗ (f ∗ g)(m)
= (f ∗ g) ∗ h(m)
Which yields associativity. Suppose now there is some identity δ(x).

Then,
X
f ∗ δ(m) = f (x)δ(y)
xy=m
= f (m)
Whence we deduce that δ(x) must satisfy
(
1, x = 1
δ(x) =
0, else
Hence, we have a commutative ring with identity.

(b). Let f and g be multiplicative. Choose m, n coprime; the convo-

lution has the equivalent form
X mn
(f ∗ g)(mn) = f (d)g
d
d|mn
X m n
= f (a)f (b)g g
a b
a|m,b|n
X m n
= f (a)g f (b)g
a b
a|m,b|n
X m X n
= f (a)g f (b)g
a b
a|m b|n
= (f ∗ g)(m) · (f ∗ g)(n)
So the convolution is also multiplicative.
(c). Suppose n > 1 (the n = 1 case is trivial). Let
n = pα1 1 · · · pαk k
We see:
X
(µ ∗ 1)(n) = µ(d)
d|n
k X
X
= µ(pm1 . . . pmi )
i=1
k
X X
= (−1)i
i=1 Size i subsets
k
X k
= (−1)i
i=1
i
= (1 − 1)k = 0
P
As desired. Suppose now that f (n) = d|n g(d) = (φ1 ∗ g)(n). Con-
volving with our Möbius function,
(µ ∗ f )(n) = µ ∗ (φ1 ∗ g)(n)
= g(n)
Which yields the Möbius inversion formula.
13. Problem 13
Prove every ideal of a Dedekind domain is finitely gener-

ated.
Suppose ab = o. In particular, 1 ∈ o, so there exist ai ∈ a, bi ∈ b
with
X
ai bi = 1
i
Claim: a = (a1 , . . . , an ). To see this, let a ∈ a. Then,
a=a·1
X
=a· ai b i
i
X
= (abi )ai
i
Since abi ∈ o, we deduce that
a ∈ (o(a1 , . . . , an ) = (a1 , . . . , an )
Hence a = (a1 , . . . , an ), as asserted.
14. Problem 14
Every ideal has a factorization are a product of prime ideals,

uniquely determined up to permutation.
We consider the set Σ consisting of all ideals that cannot be written
as the product of prime ideals.
Assuming Σ is nonempty, let a ∈ Σ be a maximal element with
respect to inclusion. Such an element exists by the previous problem,
which shows that o is Noetherian. If a = m, the result follows trivially
since m is prime.
If a ⊂ m is properly contained, then a = mm−1 a, and m−1 a strictly
contains a (because m is proper).
By assumption, a was maximal in Σ, so m−1 a ∈

/ Σ. By definition
this means that m−1 a = p1 p2 . . . pk for prime ideals pi . But then we
see that a = mp1 . . . pk is a prime factorization for a, contradicting the
definition of Σ.
It remains to show uniqueness of such a factorization. If
p1 . . . pk = q1 . . . qj
then without loss of generality we may assume p1 ⊃ q1 . However, by

symmetry the reverse containment also holds, and continuing induc-
tively we find that i = j and the ideals in both factorizations coincide.
15. Problem 15
/ p2 .
Suppose o has only one prime ideal p. Let t ∈ p and t ∈
Then p = (t) is principal.
(t) has a prime factorization by the previous problem. Hence, write
(t) = pn for some n. Since t ∈
/ p2 and pn ⊃ p2 for all n > 2, we deduce
that n = 1, so that (t) = p.
It remains to show that such a t must exist. If not, then p = p2 . But
this contradicts uniqueness of factorizations, so that p 6= p2 .
16. Problem 16
Let mf o be any Dedekind domain. Let p be a prime ideal.

Let op be the localization at p. Show that op is Dedekind and
has only one prime ideal.
We have already shown that op is local with maximal ideal pop . It
suffices to show that there are no proper prime ideals of pop . In fact,
we can show even stronger that pop is a PID.
2
By the previous exercise, we may find a t ∈ pop with t ∈
/ pop .
Then our maximal ideal is principal, in which case there are trivially
no proper prime ideals, since else (t) ⊂ q for some q ∈ Spec(op ).
17. Problem 17
As for the integers, we say that a | b if there exists an ideal

c such that b = ac. Prove:
(a) a | b if and only if b ⊂ a.

(b) Let a, b be ideals. Then a + b is their greatest common
divisor. In particular, show a and b are relatively prime if
and only if a + b = o.
(a). We prove the forward direction first. Since a is an ideal, ac ⊂ a;

hence
b = ac ⊂ a =⇒ a ⊃ b
Conversely, suppose that a ⊃ b. Then, b = aa−1 b, so we may take

c := a−1 b.
(b). Recall that a + b is the minimal ideal with respect to inclusion

containing both a and b. That is, if some other c divides both a and
b, this implies that c must contain a + b. That is, c|a + b, as desired.
18. Problem 18
Prove that every nonzero prime is maximal. In particular,

if p1 , . . . , pn are distinct primes, then the Chinese remainder
theorem applies to their power pr11 . . . prnn .
Let p be a nonzero prime ideal of our Dedekind domain.
Claim: If p = ab, the p ⊃ a or p ⊃ b. To prove this claim, suppose

without loss of generality that p 6⊃ a. We may find a ∈ a, a ∈
/ p, and
for every b ∈ b,
ab ∈ p
Since a ∈
/ p, the definition of prime ideals gives that b ∈ p for every
b ∈ b; that is, p ⊃ b. Suppose now that p ⊂ a for some ideal a. Then,
p = a(a−1 p)
and by the above,

p ⊃ a =⇒ p = a, or
p ⊃ a−1 p =⇒ a = o
Whence p is maximal.
19. Problem 19
Let a and b be ideals. Show that there exists an element

c ∈ K (the quotient field of o) such that ca is an ideal relatively
prime to b. In particular, every ideal class in Pic(o) contains
representative ideals prime to a given ideal.
Define νp on the nonzero ideals I of o to be the exponent of the prime
ideal p in the factorization of I.
/ p2 . Then, (t) has p in
By Problem 16, we may find t ∈ p, t ∈
its prime factorization, and similarly, (tn ) must have pn in its prime
factorization.
Let p1 , . . . , pn be distinct primes. Given any tuple (α1 , . . . , αn ), find
xi such that (xi ) has pαi i as a prime factor. By the Chinese Remainder
theorem, we may choose x ∈ o wth x ≡ xi mod pαi i +1 .
Now, let a, b be given ideals. Find y as above so that νp ((y)) = νp (a)

for every p|a. Then, choose x satisfying

0, p|a

νp ((x)) = νp ((y)), p|(y), p 6 |a

0, p|b, p 6 |(y)
Then, xy a is coprime to b. To see this, merely note that by construction,

no prime containing b can contain xy a, since else p ⊃ a or p ⊃ xy . But
νp ((x)) = 0, so p ⊃ a.
Hence, xy a + b = o, and the proof is complete.
SOLUTIONS
KELLER VANDEBOGERT
1. Problem 1
Let {u1 , . . . , un } and {w1 , . . . , wm } be bases for U and W , respec-

tively. Without loss of generality, we may assume that {u1 , . . . , uk }
and {v1 , . . . , vk } form bases for U ∩ W . This implies
Span{u1 , . . . , uk } = Span{w1 , . . . , wk }
so that {u1 , . . . , un , wk+1 , . . . , wm } forms a basis for U + W . Counting

cardinalities,
dim(U + W ) = dim(U ) + dim(W ) − dim(U ∩ W )
=⇒ dim(U + W ) + dim(U ∩ W ) = dim(U ) + dim(W )
2. Problem 2
As S −1 M ∼
= S −1 R ⊗R M , we may assume without loss of generality
that R is local. Let m denote the maximal ideal; R/m is a field, so that
R/m ⊗R M is a vector space.
Choosing a basis yields a generating set for the preimage, and con-
versely, every generating set can be refined to a basis in R/m ⊗R M .
Since vector spaces have the invariant basis property, we deduce that
M does as well.
Date: March 7, 2018.

1
3. Problem 3
Since R is an integral domain, the homothety map s 7→ rs is injec-

tive. Extending by linearity over k, we have an injective map over a
finite dimensional vector space. But this means that we have an iso-
morphism, thus there exists s ∈ R such that rs = 1, whence R is a
field.
4. Problem 4
(a). Assume first that
f g
0 / M0 / M / M 00 / 0
splits, so that M ∼
= M 0 ⊕ M 00 . Then, take h : M ⊕ M 00 → M 0 as the
natural projection onto M 0 . By definition, hf ≡ id.
Similarly, we may take i : M 00 ,→ M 0 ⊕ M 00 to be the standard
inclusion. Again by definition, we have that ig ≡ id.
Assume no that f is left invertible, with left inverse h. Observe first
that for any m ∈ M ,

h m − f ◦ h(m) = h(m) − h(m) = 0
So that m − f (h(m)) ∈ Ker k. This immediately gives that M =

Ker h + Im f , since m = (m − f (h(m))) + f (h(m)). Indeed, we can
say even more, since if m ∈ Ker h ∩ Im f , then m = f (m0 ) for some
m0 ∈ M 0 , and
0 = h(m) = h(f (m0 )) = m0
So m0 = 0 =⇒ f (m0 ) = 0. Hence
M = Ker h ⊕ Im f
Since f is injective, M 0 ∼
= Im f . It remains to show that
Ker h ∼
= M 00
Since g is surjective, every m00 ∈ M 00 is of the form g(m) for some

m ∈ M . As M = Ker h ⊕ Im f and Ker g = Im f by exactness,
g(M ) = g(Ker h) = M 00
And, as g|Ker h is injective by exactness,
Ker h ∼
= M 00
so that M ∼
= M 0 ⊕ M 00 .
Suppose now that g is right invertible with right inverse i. Consider
m − i(g(m))
We again see that

g m − i(g(m)) = g(m) − g(m) = 0
So that m − i(g(m)) ∈ Ker g = Im f (by exactness). Also, if m ∈

Ker g ∩ Im i, then m = i(m00 ) for some m00 ∈ M 00 and
0 = g(m) = g(i(m00 )) = m00
So that m = 0 as well. Hence
M∼
= Ker g ⊕ Im i
Since Ker g = Im f and f is injective, Im f = M 0 . Similarly, we deduce

that
g(M ) = g(Im i) = M 00
and by the first isomorphism theorem, this must be an isomorphism.

Hence,
M∼
= M 0 ⊕ M 00
as desired.
(b). Let
M
i:E→ Ei
i
M
π: Ei → E
i
be the given maps. These are trivially R-module homomorphisms. We

also see
π ◦ i(x) = π(ψ1 x, . . . , ψm x)
= φ1 ◦ ψ1 x + · · · + φm ◦ ψm x
X
= φi ψi (x)
i
=x
i ◦ π(x1 , . . . , xm ) = i(φ1 x1 + · · · + φm xm )
= ψ1 φ1 x1 , . . . , ψm φm xm )
= (x1 , . . . , xm )
Whence i and π are inverses of each other, so they are isomorphisms.
L
If each φi is the natural inclusion Ei ,→ i Ei and ψi the natural
L
projection i Ei → ei , we see
ψi φi = id, ψj ◦ φi ≡ 0 (i 6= j)
L
We also see for (e1 , . . . , em ) ∈ i Ei ,
φ1 ψ1 (e1 , . . . , em ) + · · · + φm ψm (e1 , . . . , em )
=φ1 (e1 ) + · · · + φm (em )
=(e1 , 0, . . . , 0) + · · · + (0, . . . , 0, em )
=(e1 , . . . , em )
P
So that i φi ψi = id, as required.
5. Problem 5
Proceed by induction on the maximal amount of linearly independent

element of A over R. For the base case n = 1, this is by definition.
Let {v1 , . . . , vm } be a maximal set of such elements. Consider any
subgroup A0 contained in the space generated by {v1 , . . . , vm−1 }. By
the inductive hypothesis, these can all be generated by integral linear
combinations.
Now, denote by S the subset of A such that
v = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm , ai ∈ R
0 6 ai < 1
0 6 am 6 m
0
Choose vm such that the coefficient am is minimal and nonzero in S.
Note that such an element exists since S is finite by assumption and if
every am = 0, {v1 , . . . , vm−1 } generates S and by scaling, {v1 , . . . , vm−1 }
generates A. Employing the inductive hypothesis would yield the re-
sult, whence we may find am > 0.
We want to now show that
0
{v1 , . . . , vm−1 , vm }
is a basis for A over Z. Let v ∈ A, so that v = a1 v1 + · · · + am vm .

Then we may find a sufficiently large N ∈ N such that v/N ∈ S; by
definition, am /N > a0m , where a0m is the mth coefficient of vm
0
.
Let k be the smallest positive integer such that ka0m > am /N . If
ka0m 6= am /N , then by minimality of k,
am
− ka0m < a0m
N
But this may not happen, so in fact

am
ka0m =
N
and if
0
vm = a01 v1 + · · · + a0m vm
for some coefficients a0i , we may multiply by the above by N k and use
that N ka0m = am and see
am vm = −N ka01 v1 − · · · − N ka0m−1 + N kvm

0
And, substituting this for the expression of v,
v = (a1 − N ka01 )v1 + · · · + (am−1 − N ka0m−1 )vm−1 + N kvm

0
0
Subtracting we see that v − N kvm ∈ A0 , so by the inductive hypothesis
we may find ji ∈ Z such that
0
v − N kvm = j1 v1 + . . . jm−1 vj−1
0
Whence we finally see v ∈ SpanZ {v1 , . . . , vm }, as desired.
6. Problem 6
Confer Lang’s Algebraic topology book for the correct statement.

The statement given here is not true.
7. Problem 7
(a). Let u, v ∈ W . Then,

|u − v| 6 |u| + |v| = 0
=⇒ |u − v| = 0
So this is a subgroup.
(b). For convenience, we may assume M0 = {0}. Let M1 = (v1 , . . . , vr )

and let d ∈ Ann(M/M1 ). Then, dM ⊂ M1 , and we may choose nj,j to
be the smallest integer such that there exist
nj,1 , . . . , nj,j−1 ∈ Z
such that
nj,1 v1 + · · · + nj,j vj = dwj
for some wj ∈ M . Without loss of generality, we may assume 0 6

nj,k 6 d − 1. It remains to show our elements {w1 , . . . , wr } forms a
basis.
By selection
Span{w1 , . . . , wr } = Span{v1 , . . . , vr }
And, since the cardinality of the wi matches that of the vi , linear

independence is a triviality. Finally, since 0 6 nj,k 6 d − 1,
r
X nj,k
|wi | = vj

j=1
d
r
X
6 |vj |
j=1
As desired.
8. Problem 8
(a). We certainly have that the kernel is ±1. Let (a, b) = (a0 , b0 ) = 1.
If x = a/b, y = a0 /b0 ,
h(xy) = log max |a||a0 |, |b||b0 |

6 log max |a|, |b| max |a0 |, |b0 |

= h(x) + h(y)
(b). M is certainly finitely generated, since if not, we could find an

infinite irredundant generating set for M1 , which is a contradiction.
Using Problem 7, after completing the xi to a basis for M , we may
bound any generating set appropriately.
9. Problem 9
(a). Define our localization as equivalence classes

m m0
= 0 ⇐⇒ ∃ r ∈ A such that r(s0 m − sm0 ) = 0
s s
This is given the trivial S −1 A-module structure
am am
:=
b s bs
Well definedness/distributeivity follow immediately from the fact that
M is itself an A-module.
(b). Let
φ ψ
0 / M0 / M / M 00 / 0
We exact. Then, φ and ψ extend to localized maps by defining

m0 φ(m0 )
φ :=
s s
m ψ(m)
ψ :=
s s
And then extending by linearity. Suppose then that φ(m0 )/s = 0, so
that some t ∈ A must annihilate φ(m0 ), implying that φ(tm0 ) = 0.
Since φ is injective, tm0 = 0, whence m0 /s = 0, so the localized φ is
also injective.
Now let us check exactness at S −1 M . We have Im φ ⊂ Ker ψ by
definition. Suppose that ψ(m/s) = 0, so there exists t ∈ A such that
ψ(tm) = 0. By exactness, tm ∈ Im φ, so φ(m0 ) = tm for some m0 ∈ M 0 .

Then,
m tm
=
s ts
φ(m0 )
=
tsm
=φ ∈ Im φ
ts
So our sequence is exact at M . It remains to show that ψ is surjective.
Observe that ψ on M is surjective, so given m00 ∈ M 00 , there exists
m ∈ M such that ψ(m) = m00 . Then,
m00 ψ(m) m
= =ψ ∈ Im ψ
s s s
So that
φ ψ
0 / S −1 M 0 / S −1 M / S −1 M 00 / 0
is exact.
10. Problem 10
(a). Our map is

Y
M→ Mp
p∈m-Spec(A)
m
m 7→
1 p∈m-Spec(A)
Now, suppose m 7→ (0). Then for each p ∈ m-Spec(A), there exists

ap ∈
/ p such that ap m = 0. But then Ann(m) is not contained in any
maximal ideal, whence Ann(m) = A, so m = 0, yielding surjectivity.
(b). We already know the forward direction from part (b) of the pre-
vious problem. Let φ, ψ be our maps φ : M 0 → M , ψ : M → M 00 , and
consider the converse.
Firstly, suppose φ(m0 ) = 0 for some m0 ∈ M 0 . Then for all p ∈

/ p such that ap m0 = 0. To see this, note
m-Spec(A), there exists ap ∈
that
m0
φ(m0 ) = 0 =⇒ φ
1
m0
=⇒ = 0 for all p ∈ m-Spec(A)
1
By identical reasoning as in part (a), Ann(m0 ) = A, so that m0 = 0,
and φ is injective.
We know that Ker ψ ⊂ Im φ. For the reverse inclusion, note that
m0
ψ◦φ =0
1
ψ ◦ φ(m0 )
=⇒ = 0 for all p ∈ m-Spec(A)
1
=⇒ Ann(ψ ◦ φ(m0 )) = A
whence Im φ ⊂ Ker ψ, giving exactness at M . Finally, surjectivity is a
tautology, so that
φ ψ
0 / M0 / M / M 00 / 0
is exact.
(c). Suppose that M → Mp and m 7→ m/1 = 0. Then, there exists

ap ∈
/ p such that ap m = 0. Since M is torsion free, m 6= 0 implies that
ap = 0. But then ap ∈ p, which cannot happen, so we deduce that
m = 0 and our natural inclusion is thus injective, as desired.
11. Problem 11
Let p ∈ m-Spec(o). Then Mp is still finitely generated and torsion

free over op . By problems of the previous chapter, op is a PID, and
hence Mp is projective (since it is free). Let
f
F / M / 0
be exact. We want to show that f is right invertible. We know that

the induced map fp is right invertible by freeness of Mp .
Hence for all p ∈ m-Spec(o), there exists gp such that fp gp = idMp .
We can then find cp ∈ o with cp ∈
/ p and
cp gp (M ) ⊂ F
(this is merely by definition), since gp (Mp ) ⊂ Fp . Then, we want to

show that {cp }p∈Spec(o) generate all of o; this follows since {cm }m∈m-Spec(o)
is not contained in any maximal ideal, hence generates all of o. Thus
there exist xi , cpi ∈ o such that
X
xi cpi = 1
i
P
Set g := i xi cpi gpi . Then for all a/b ∈ o, m ∈ m-Spec(o):
a 1 X
(f ◦ g)m = fm ◦ (xi cpi gpi (a))
b b i
1X
= xi cpi fpi gpi (a)
b i
aX a
= xi cpi =
b i b
Since the maximal ideal m was arbitrary, we deduce that f ◦ g ≡ idM .
12. Problem 12
(a). We have the following short exact sequence
0 / a∩b / a⊕b / a+b / 0
Assume then that a and b are coprime, so that a ∩ b = ab, a + b = o.

As o is projective, the sequence above splits, so
a ⊕ b = o ⊕ ab
Now, employing exercise 19 of the previous chapter, choose x, y ∈ o

such that xa and yb are coprime. Then,
a ⊕ b = xa ⊕ yb
= o ⊕ xyab
= o ⊕ ab
Whence the general case. Indeed, by induction, one easily sees
a1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ an = on−1 ⊕ a1 a2 . . . an
(b). Let f : a → b be our isomorphism. Then, fk |a = f , and
fk (a) = fk (1) · a = ca
for each a ∈ a. Hence, f is merely the homothety mc : x 7→ cx, where

c := fk (1).
(c). Let f ∈ Hom(a, o). Certainly 1 ∈

/ a, and we may extend f to all
of k by linearity as in (b). Then the association
f 7→ fk (1) ∈ a−1
is an isomorphism. Note that well definedness follows since if f (a) ∈ o

for a ∈ a, then fk (1) · a ∈ o, so that fk (1) ∈ a−1 by definition.
Injectivity is easy since if fk (1) = gk (1), then for all a ∈ a, fk (1) · a =
gk (1) · a =⇒ f (a) = g(a), whence f ≡ g. Surjectivity follows from
part (b), so this is indeed an isomorphism.
In particular,
Hom(a, o) = a−1
and
a∨∨ = (a−1 )−1 = a =⇒ a∨∨ = a

13. Problem 13
M is projective, hence a direct summand of a free module F . This

immediately gives that M is torsion free, so the free module F 0 gen-
erated by the non torsion elements is contained in M . By definition
(since we have only removed torsion elements) the rank of F ad F 0
must coincide, since else F 0 would have nontrivial torsion. Thus, there
exists F and F 0 free such that
F 0 ⊂ M ⊂ F, rank F = rank F 0
(b). Proceed by induction on the rank of M . When n = 1, there is

nothing to prove.
Assume now that M has rank n. Choose generators e1 , . . . , en−1
linearly independent with span denoted by N . We have the short exact
sequence
0 / N / M / M/N / 0
By the inductive hypothesis, N = a1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ an−1 . Also, counting ranks

yields that M/N has rank 1, whence we may choose a generator of
M/N . Its preimage will by linearly independent with N since it has
nonzero class in M/N , in which case we see that M ∼
L
= i ai .
As o is Noetherian, an is finitely generated and M/N is torsion free/
Thus M/N is projective, so our sequence splits
=⇒ M = a1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ an
As desired.
(c). We may assume without loss of generality that the ai are pairwise
coprime. By Problem 12 part (a),
M = on−1 ⊕ a
where a = a1 . . . an . Suppose now that for any two fractional ideals a,

b ∈ o, that on−1 ⊕ a = om−1 ⊕ b. We want to show that this is possible
if and only if a = b and n = m.
If on−1 ⊕ a = om−1 ⊕ b, taking the rank of both sides immediately
yields m = n. If we take the (n + 1)th exterior power, we find that
D1 on−1 ⊗ a = D2 on−1 ⊗ b, Di ∈ o
=⇒ a = b
where we have used the fact that the exterior power converts our direct
sum to a tensor product (the Di are our determinants). Whence the
map M 7→ [a] is an isomorphism, and we are done.
14. Problem 14
We have the following commutative diagram with exact rows, which

will referenced each part of this problem:
φ ψ
M0 / M / M 00 / 0
f g h
φ0 ψ0

0 / N0 / N / N 00
(a). Suppose that f and h are monomorphisms. Let m ∈ Ker g. By

commutativity, there exists m0 ∈ M 0 with φ(m0 ) = m. By commuta-
tivity,
φ0 (f (m0 )) = 0
Since φ0 is injective by exactness, f (m0 ) = 0.

But f is also injective, so that m0 = 0 and φ(0) = 0 = m, and g is
also a monomorphism.
(b). Suppose that f and h are surjective. Let n ∈ N . Then, ψ 0 (n) Im Im h,

since h is surjective, so there exists m00 ∈ M 00 such that h(m00 ) = ψ 0 (n).
By exactness, ψ is surjective, so there exists m ∈ M such that

ψ(m) = m00 . By commutativity of the diagram, ψ 0 (g(m)) = ψ(n),
so that g(m) − n ∈ Ker ψ 0 = Im φ0 , so there exists n0 ∈ N 0 such that
φ0 (n0 ) = g(m) − n, and since f is surjective, there exists m0 ∈ M 0 such
that f (m0 ) = n0 . By commutativity of the diagram,
g ◦ φ(m0 ) = g(m) − n
=⇒ n = g(m − φ(m0 )) ∈ Im g
So that g is surjective.
(c). Assume 0 → M 0 → M and N → N 00 → 0 are exact. By the Snake

Lemma,
0 / Ker f / Ker g / Ker h
δ/ / / /
Coker f Coker g Coker h 0
is also exact. However, we observe that if any of the above two kernels
and cokernels vanish, so must the other. Hence the statement is a
triviality.
15. Problem 15
The diagram that will be referenced in each part of this question is

the following:
a1 a2 a3 a4
M1 / M2 / M3 / M4 / M5
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5
b1
b2
b3
b4

N1 / N2 / N3 / N4 / N5
Note the above is commutative with exact rows. The format of the
solutions will be a string of implications so as to make it very easy
for the reader to follow along the diagram. Also, any element of its
corresponding set will be denoted with the lower case letter with the
same index (ie, m3 ∈ M3 always).
(a). We have:
m3 ∈ Ker f3
=⇒ f4 (a3 (m3 )) = 0 (commutativity)
=⇒ a3 (m3 ) = 0 (injectivity of f4 )
=⇒ m3 ∈ Im a2 (exactness)
=⇒ a2 (m2 ) = m3 (by definition)
=⇒ b2 (f2 (m2 )) = 0 (commutativity)
=⇒ b1 (n1 ) = f2 (m2 ) (exactness)
=⇒ f1 (m1 ) = n1 (surjectivity of f1 )
=⇒ f2 (a1 (m1 )) = f2 (m2 ) (commutativity)
=⇒ f2 (a1 (m1 ) − m2 ) = 0
=⇒ a1 (m1 ) = m2 (injectivity of f2 )
=⇒ m2 ∈ Im a1 = Ker a2 (exactness)
=⇒ m3 = a2 (m2 ) = 0
=⇒ f3 is injective
(b). Employing the same convention as in part (a), we see

n3 Im N3
=⇒ f4 (m4 ) = b3 (n3 ) (surjectivity of f4 )
=⇒ f5 (a4 (m4 )) (exactness and commutativity)
=⇒ a4 (m4 ) = 0 (injectivity of f5 )
=⇒ a3 (m3 ) = m4 (commutativity)
=⇒ b3 (f3 (m3 ) − n3 ) = 0
=⇒ b2 (n2 ) = f3 (m3 ) − n3 (exactness)
=⇒ f2 (m2 ) = n2 (surjectivity of f2 )
=⇒ f3 (a2 (m2 )) = f3 (m3 ) − n3 (commutativity)
=⇒ n3 = f3 (m3 − a2 (m2 ))
So that f3 is surjective.
16. Problem 16
Let {Si , (fji }i∈I denote our inverse system, where each fji : Sj → Si
are all surjective. By simplicity, this implies that each fji is either
trivial or an isomorphism.
If every Si = 1, then we are done. Hence, suppose not. Given Si ,
Sj , there exists k such that k > i, j. Then
Sk ∼
= Si , Sk ∼
= Sj
=⇒ Si ∼
= Sj
Then any two nontrivial groups in our inverse system are necessarily
isomorphic. Let S denote the common isomorphism. By assumption
S is simple, it remains only to show that
lim Si = S
←−
The isomorphism is not so difficult to specify. Choose i such that Si is

nontrivial. The inclusion
I :S ,→ lim Si
←−
x 7→ (x)i∈I
is injective, since any nonzero element must represent a nonzero class
in some Si . It remains to show surjectivity. Let (xi ) ∈ lim Si . For
←−
every j 6 i, fji (xj ) = xi , and for every k > i, fik (xi ) = xk . Inverting
yields fki (xk ) = xi , so that every element is completely determined by
the ith spot; whence i(xi ) = (xi ), and we have an isomorphism.
17. Problem 17
(a). We have the inverse system
(Z/pn , πnm )
with
πnm (a + (pn )) = a + (pm )
By definition, πnn ≡ id. Now, set Zp := lim Z/pn . Let

←−
n
ρn :Zp → Z/p
(a + (pm ))m∈N 7→ a + (pn )

This is certainly surjective as any m + (pn ) has preimage
(n + (pn ))n∈N
There are no zero divisors, since if k is a zero divisor, then pn |k for all
n ∈ N, which is possible only if k = 0.
The maximal ideal is merely pZp , since one immediately sees that
Zp /pZp = Z/pZ
which is, in particular, a field. This is also the unique maximal ideal
since any other
x = (xi + (pn ))n∈N
is pointwise invertible by merely noting that Zp is isomorphic to Z/p[[p]].

An element in the ring of formal power series is invertible if and only
if the first term is a unit, which corresponds to elements x ∈
/ pZp , so
that every element not contained in pZp is a unit, so this is maximal.
This also gives that p is the only prime in this ring, since any other
prime would generate an idea contained in pZp , and hence divide p.
Finally, for the UFD property, we can actually do better, since Zp
is a PID. To see this, merely note that every ideal must be an ideal
in each entry, and ideals in every entry are principal. Hence, Zp is
principal, hence a UFD.
(b). By the Chinese Remainder theorem,
Z/(a) ∼
M
= Z/(pαi i )
i
where a = pα1 1 . . . pαk k is the prime factorization of a. Using this and

the fact that inverse limits preserve direct products,
Y
lim Z/(a) = lim Z/(pn )
←− ←−
(a) p prime n
Y
= Zp
p prime
As asserted.
18. Problem 18
(a). The diagram
An+1 × Mn+1 / Mn+1

An × Mn / Mn
commutes, so that
gn+1,n (an+1 mn+1 ) = fn+1,n (an+1 ) · mn
Then, let lim An act on lim Mn by

←− ←−
(an )n∈N (mn )n∈N := (an mn )n∈N
By the above commutative diagram, this action is well defined and

preserves the structure of the inverse limit.
(b). Using part (a), we consider our maps. Observe that Mn = A for
each n, and, An = /bbz/(pn ). Then, we have
ψ :A → A
a 7→ pa
φ :Z/(pn ) → Z/(pn+1 )
m + (pn ) 7→ m + (pn+1 )
with trivial action
Z/(pn ) × A → A
(m + (pn ), a) 7→ ma
We then see that
(m + (pn ), a) 7→ ma 7→ pma
and
(m + (pn ), a) 7→ (m + (pn+1 ), pa) 7→ pma

Whence the diagram in part (a) commutes, and using the result of (a),
lim A := Tp (A) is a module over lim Z/(pn ) = Zp .
←− ←−
(c). We see that
(m + (pn ), a, b) 7→ m(a, b) 7→ pm(a, b)
and,
(m + (pn ), a, b) 7→ (m + (pn+1 ), pa, pb) 7→ m(pa, pb)
And, since pm(a, b) = m(pa, pb), the diagram in (a) commutes so the
result follows immediately.
19. Problem 19
By definition, if a 7→ 0 ∈ lim An , then fik (a) = 0 for some k > i.

−→
20. Problem 20
Note that
lim lim Aij and lim lim Aij

−→ −→ −→ −→
i j j i
both satisfy the following universal property: for all (i, j) 6 (r, s), there
exist maps f(i,j) and f(r,s) for every
f(i,j),(r,s) : Aij → Ars
making the following commute:
limi limj Aij

−→9 − → e
f(i,j) f(r,s)
Aij / Ars
f(i,j),(r,s)
limj limi Aij

−→9 − → e
f(i,j) f(r,s)
Aij / Ars
f(i,j),(r,s)
And any other object satisfying the above must factor through the
direct limits. Whence they factor through each other, and we have a
natural isomorphism
lim lim Aij ∼

= lim lim A
−→ −→ −→ −→ ij
i j j i
Similarly, if we merely reverse the directions of the arrows in the above

diagram, limi limj Aij and limj limi Aij also satisfy the same universal
←− ←− ←− ←−
property, and are hence naturally isomorphic.
21. Problem 21
First, we need some notation. Elements of our direct limit can be

written as classes [Mi , mi ] with mi ∈ Mi and group operation
[Mi , mi ] + [Mj , mj ] := [Mk , φik (mi ) + φjk (xj )]
with k > i, j. By definition of direct limits, this is well defined. We

also have induced maps u, v such that
u[Mi0 , m0i ] = [Mi , ui (m0i )]
v[Mi , mi ] = [Mi00 , vi (mi )]
where
ui vi
0 / Mi0 / Mi / Mi00 / 0
is exact for every i. Now we may prove exactness. Suppose first that
u([Mi , mi ]) = 0. Then,
[Mi , ui (m0i )] = 0 =⇒ fij (ui (m0i )) = 0

for j > i. But,
fij (ui (m0i )) = uj (fij (m0i )) = 0
and since each uj is a monomorphism, fij (m0i ) = 0 for every > i, and
we see that
[Mi0 , m0i ] = [Mi0 , 0]
so that u is a monomorphism. We also see:

vu([Mi0 , m0i ]) = v([Mi , ui (m0i )])
= [Mi00 , vi ui (m0i )]
= [Mi00 , 0]
where the last equality follows from the fact that Im ui ⊂ Ker vi for
every i, and we thus deduce that Im u ⊂ Ker v. Let us consider the
reverse inclusion now; suppose
v([Mi , mi ]) = [Mi00 , vi (mi )]
= [Mi00 , 0]
Then, for all j > i, gij (vi (mi )) = vj (gij (ui )) = 0, so that given gij (mi ) ∈
Ker vj , there exists m0j ∈ Mj0 such that uj (m0j ) = gij (mi ), in which case
[Mi , mi ] = [Mj , uj (m0j )]
= u([Mi0 , m0i ]) ∈ Im u
So that Ker v = Im u. Finally, let [Mi00 , m00i ] ∈ lim Mi . Then for each i,
−→
00
ui (mi ) = mi for some mi ∈ Mi , so that
[Mi00 , m00i ] = Mi00 , ui (mi )]
= u([Mi , mi ]) ∈ Im u
And we conclude that
0 / lim Mi0
v / lim Mi
u / lim Mi00 / 0
−→ −→ −→
is also exact.
22. Problem 22
(a). Consider the universal property of the direct sum. If we apply

the contravariant functor Hom(−, N ), we reverse the direction of the
inclusion maps in our universa property. We then get an induced map
M Y
u : Hom( Mi , N ) → Hom(Mi , N )
i i
We also get an inverse map

Y M
Hom(Mi , N ) → Hom( Mi , N )
i i
(fi ) 7→ f
P L
Where f (mi ) = i fi (mi ), (mi ) ∈ i Mi . Whence,
Mi , N ) ∼
M Y
Hom( = Hom(Mi , N )
i i
(b). We have a similar universal property. When we apply the covari-

ant functor Hom(N, −), we preserve the direction of our arrows and
get an induced map
Y Y
u : Hom(N, Mi ) → Hom(N, Mi )
i i
And we have an inverse map

Y Y
Hom(N, Mi ) → Hom(N, Mi )
i i
(fi ) 7→ f
where f is such that
Y
f (n) = (fi (n)) ∈ Mi
i
and we conclude
Hom(N, Mi ) ∼
Y Y
= Hom(N, Mi )
i i
23. Problem 23
We have the diagram
limi Mi
←−
{ #
Mj / Mi
for i 6 j. Applying Hom(N, −), we have the induced diagram
Hom(N, limi Mi )
←−
v (
Hom(N, Mj ) / Hom(N, Mi )
So by the universal property, there exists a map
u : Hom(N, lim Mi ) → lim Hom(N, Mi )

←− ←−
i i
And we construct an inverse

lim Hom(N, Mi ) → Hom(N, lim Mi )
←− ←−
i i
[Hom(N, Mi ), fi ] 7→ f
where f is such that
f (n) = [Mi , fi (n)]
whence
Hom(N, lim Mi ) ∼
= lim Hom(N, Mi )
←− ←−
i i
24. Problem 24
Let M be an R-module. Consider the set of finitely generated sub-

modules of M , ordered by inclusion. We have the direct system
{Mi , iij }
where iij is the natural inclusion Mi ,→ Mj . We want to show that

M = lim Mi . The map is naturally defined as
−→
m 7→ [Mi , mi ]
Now, if m 7→ [Mi , 0], then m is 0 is some finitely generated submodule

of M , hence m = 0.
S
Now, given [Mi , mi ] ∈ lim Mi , note that M = i Mi , and we may
−→
take the preimage as mi ∈ M for any i. This is well defined, since if
i 6 j, iij (mi ) = mj , but iij (mi ) = mi , merely viewed as an element of
Mj . Hence,
M = lim Mi
−→
25. Problem 25
We have an exact sequence
0 / K / F / M / 0
Consider the poset
S := {(N, I) | |I| < ∞, N ⊂ K ∩ RI , N f.g}
Under the partial order

(N, I) 6 (N 0 , I 0 )
⇐⇒ N 6 N 0 and I ⊂ I 0
Now consider lim RI /N . We want to show that this is isomorphic to
−→
F/K, as F/K ∼ = M . The map is trivial, we merey send
f + K 7→ [RI /N, f + N ]
and by identical steps as in the previous problem, this is an isomor-

phism. For each RI /N , we have the exact sequence
N / RI / RI /N / 0
As N ⊂ K ∩ RI , this is a finite presentation.
26. Problem 26
We first show this is a monomorphism. Consider
lim Hom(E, Mi ) → Hom(E, lim Mi )

−→ −→
[Hom(E, Mi ), fi ] 7→ f
where f (n) = [Mi , fi (n)]. Suppose [Hom(E, Mi ), fi ] 6= 0, so fi 6= 0 for

some i. Then there exists n ∈ E such that fi (n) 6= 0, and injectivity
follows by taking the contrapositive.
Suppose now that E is finitely generated and free, so that E = Rn
for some n ∈ N. We then see
lim Hom(E, Mi ) = lim Hom(Rn , Mi )

−→ −→
n
= lim Hom(E, Mi )
−→
= lim Min
−→
n
= lim Mi
−→
and
Hom(E, lim Mi ) = Hom(Rn , lim Mi )

−→ −→
n
= Hom(R, lim Mi )
−→
n
= lim Mi
−→
So that these are indeed isomorphic in the free and finitely generated
case. Suppose E is finitely presented and choose a presentation
F0 / F1 / E / 0
Apply the left exact contravariant functor Hom(−, Mi ) and then the
exact functor (by Problem 21) lim to get the commutative diagram
−→
0 / lim Hom(E, Mi ) / lim Hom(F0 , Mi ) / lim Hom(F1 , Mi )

−→ −→ −→

0 / Hom(E, lim Mi ) / Hom(F0 , lim Mi ) / Hom(F1 , lim Mi )
−→ −→ −→
Where the vertical arrows are the natural maps. Then, using exactness
we easily deduce that first vertical arrow must be a surjection, since
we have already shown that the second 2 are. Whence we have an
isomorphism
lim Hom(E, Mi ) ∼
= Hom(E, lim M)
−→ −→ i
27. Problem 27
Define the product
(x + An−1 )(y + Am−1 ) := xy + An+m−1
This is well defined and preserves the graded structure as xy ∈ An+m ,

so
An Am An+m
· ⊂
An−1 Am−1 An+m−1
And this is the multiplication rule for the associated graded module
gr(A).
28. Problem 28
(a). We have the natural definition

gri (L) :gri → gri (B)
a + Ai−1 7→ L(a) + Bi−1

Let us show this is well defined. Suppose that a + Ai−1 = a0 + Ai−1 .

Then a − a0 ∈ Ai−1 , so that
L(a − a0 ) ∈ Bi−1 =⇒ L(a) + Bi−1 = L(a0 ) + Bi−1
So this is well defined.
(b). Let b ∈ Bi , and without loss of generality assume that b ∈

/ Bi−1 .
Since gri (L) is an isomorphism, there exists a0 ∈ Ai such that b −
L(a0 ) ∈ Bi−1 . Similarly, we may find a1 ∈ Ai−1 such that
(b − L(a0 )) − L(a1 ) ∈ Bi−2
Iterating this, after i + 1 times we have found ak ∈ Ai−k such that

i
X
b− L(ak ) ∈ B−1 = {0}
k=0
Pi
Whence b − k=0 L(ak ) = 0, implying that
i
X
b=L ak
k=0
so that L is surjective.
Suppose now that L(a) = 0 for a ∈ A. Then, a ∈ Ai for some i, and
since gri (L) is an isomorphism, a ∈ Ai−1 . Iterating this, we see that
a ∈ Aj for all j 6 i, and in particular, a ∈ A−1 = {0}, so that a = 0,
and L is an isomorphism.
29. Problem 29
(a). These are algebras just by definition, and indeed we see that
det(N − λI) = λn for N ∈ ni , whence N n = 0.
(b). Closure follows from
(I + X)(I + Y ) = I + X + Y + XY
Since n is an algebra, this remains in our set. Associativity follows

from associativity of matrix multiplication. Lastly, I = I + 0 is the
identity element.
Finally, suppose that X is nilpotent of degree i; we have
(I + X)(I − X + X 2 − · · · + (−1)i−1 X i−1 ) = I − X i = I
So all elements are invertible, and we have a group.
(c). Note that exp is a polynomial function, where

∞
X Xn
exp(X) =
n=0
n!
The sum is not actually infinite since X is nilpotent, so we have a
polynmial function. To show this is a bijection, we only need show
that log is the inverse. We see:
∞
X (−1)n+1 n
log(exp(X)) = exp(X) − I
n=1
n
∞ n
(−1)n+1 X

n−k n
X
= (−1) · exp(kX)
n=1
n k=0
k
∞ n ∞
(−1)n+1 X Xm m
X
n−k n
X
= (−1) · ·k
n=1
n k=0
k m=0
m!
∞ mX m n
X X 1 X n m
=− (−1)k k
m=0
m! n=1
n k=0
k
∞ n
X 1 X n m
+ (−1)k k
n=m+1
n k=0 k
Now, consider
n
X n
(−1)k k m xk
k=0
k
m
d
This is the resulting of applying the operator x dx so (1−x)n . When
n < m, we see that the end result will still have a factor of 1 − x, so
that, setting x = 1, whenever m < n we have
n
X n
(−1)k k m = 0
k=0
k
And the above sum becomes
∞ m n
Xm X 1 X

k n
X
− (−1) km
m=0
m! n=1 n k=0 k
∞ m n
Xm X X

k1 n−1
X
=− (−1) km
m=0
m! n=1 k=0 k k−1
∞ m m
Xm X

X
k m−1
X n−1
=− (−1) · k
m=0
m! k=1 n=k
k−1
Now consider
m
X n−1
n=k
k−1
k−1
This is the coefficient of x in the sum
(1 + x)k−1 + (1 + x)k + · · · + (1 + x)m−1
which, by the geometric sum formula, is just equal to

(1 + x)m−k+1 (1 + x)k−1
−
x x
This has no degree k − 1 terms, but for the form before that, xk−1 has
coefficient

m−k m
=
k k
So we find
m
X n−1 m
=
k=n
k−1 k
and our sum becomes
∞ m
Xm X

m−1 m
X
k
− (−1) · k
m=0
m! k=1
k
Now, when m > 1, we have already shown above that

m X m
m−1 m m−1 m
X
k k
(−1) · k = (−1) · k =0
k=1
k k=0
k
and, when m = 1,
1
k 1
X
(−1) = −1
k=1
k
So that all terms of order m > 1 vanish, and we are merely left with
X. Hence, log(exp(X)) = X. Also by rearranging the terms in our
series, we also see that
log(exp(X)) = exp(log(X)) = X
so this log is a left and right inverse, giving that exp is indeed a bijec-
tion, as desired.

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Algebra Lang I

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SERGE LANG’S ALGEBRA CHAPTER 1 EXERCISE

Show that every group of order 6 5 is abelian.

Show that there are two non-isomorphic groups of order 4,

Date: October 22, 2018.

Show that the commutator subgroup is a normal subgroups.

φ(h−1 gGc ) = 1 =⇒ φ(h) = φ(g)

And well definedness follows.

Let H and K be subgroups of a finite group K with K ⊂ NH .

By the second isomorphism theorem,

Goursat’s Lemma. Let G and G0 be groups, let H be a

In order to show that this is the graph of a homomorphism, we need

with g1 N = g2 N , then in fact g10 N 0 = g2 N 0 . Firstly, note that by

This is trivially a homomorphism. Suppose then that (g2−1 g1 , 1) ∈ N ;

Prove that the group of inner automorphisms of a group G

= cφ(g) (x) ∈ Inn(G)

Let G be a group such that Aut(G) s cyclic. Prove that G

is then cyclic as well, implying that G must be abelian.

Let G be a group and let H and H 0 be subgroups.

(a) Show that G is a disjoint union of double cosets.

where {xc } is a family of elements of H, depending on c.

(a). Define an equivalence relation by x ∼ y ⇐⇒ HxH 0 = HyH 0 .

(b). Define another equivalence relation on elements of H by x ∼c

So that {xc c}c∈C is a class of coset representatives.

(a) Let G be a group and H a subgroup of finite index. Show

(a). Consider the action

Consider then the induced permutation representation

(b). Note that we may find N1 E H1 , N2 E H2 by (a). Then,

Since N1 has finite index, we have that N1 ∩ N2 has finite index in N2 .

Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of finite index.

So this is well defined. Injectivity follows just by reading the above

Let G be a group, and A a normal abelian subgroup. Show

We only need show the action of G/A is well defined, when

Note first that gag −1 ∈ A by normality. Suppose now that g1 A = g2 A,

Let G be a group and let H, N be subgroups with N normal.

(a) Show that x 7→ γx induces a homomoprhism f : H →

(x1 , h1 )(x2 , h2 ) = (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 ), h1 h2 )

Show that this is a group law, and yields a semidirect

(a). Observe first that the association x 7→ γx is a homomorphism,

Now, as N is normal, γx (n) = xnx−1 ∈ N , so that γx ∈ Aut(N ) (in

(b). Let φ denote our product map. Surjectivity is trivial as (h, 1) 7→ h,

Hence H ⊂ CG (N ), implying x 7→ γx is the trivial morphism.

(c). Let ψ : H → Aut(N ). Define (x1 h1 )(x2 , h2 ) := (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 ), h1 h2 ).

= (x1 φ(h1 )(x2 )ψ(h1 h2 )(x3 ), h1 h2 h3 )

= (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 ψ(h2 )(x3 )), h1 h2 h3 )

= (x1 ψ(h1 )(x2 )ψ(h1 h2 )(x3 ), h1 h2 h3 )

(x, h)−1 = (ψ(h−1 )(x−1 ), h−1 )

And, (N, 1) ∩ (1, H) = (1, 1), so we have an isomorphism

(a) Let H and N be normal subgroups of a finite group G.

Let x ∈ H ∩ N . Then the order of x divides both |h| and |N |, so that

But then x−1 yxy −1 ∈ N ∩ H = 1, so

Let G be a finite groups and let N be a normal subgroup

(a) Let H be a subgroup of G having the same order as G/N .

(a). As H and N have coprime orders, H ∩ N = 1, so

(b). Let g ∈ Aut(G). By definition of automorphism, |g(N )| = |N |, so

so this is impossible. Hence g(N ) = N .

Let G be a finite group operating on a finite set S with

Anticipating the result of 19(b), note that |S/G| = 1 when G acts

By definition, |S e | > 1 (where e is the identity), so that |S g | = 0 for at

Let H be a proper subgroup of a finite group G. Show that

Hence, G cannot possibly be a union of conjugacy classes.

Let X, Y be finite sets and let X be a subset of X × Y . For

φ(x) := number of y ∈ Y such that (x, y) ∈ C

This is merely a dual perspective. For each x, let Cx = {y | (x, y) ∈

And this is a disjoint union since equivalence classes form a partition.

e(σ) = e(τ1 . . . τk ) = (−1)k = (σ)