Original Article
The Effect of Mindfulness Meditation
Techniques During Yoga and Cycling
Stephanie Bryan, PhD,
and Genevieve Pinto Zipp, PT, EdD
Abstract
Background: The majority of U.S. Americans do not par-
ticipate in regular physical activity or eat properly, resulting
in 69% of the population being obese and/or overweight. Self-
regulatory abilities can enable an individual to adopt health be-
haviors that enhance health outcomes. Mindfulness is the ability
to direct the mind to the current state while cultivating a sense
of nonjudgment. The purpose of this research was to assess the
effectiveness of mindfulness meditation techniques presented
while participants were engaging in both yoga and cycling.
Materials and Methods: Participants were randomly as-
signed to either an exercise intervention that included 30 min-
utes of yoga followed by 30 minutes of indoor cycling, or a
control group that received no intervention and did not cycle.
For the intervention group, during the yoga and cycling ses-
sions, mindfulness techniques, such as breathwork, visualiza-
tion, body scanning, and mindfulness-based readings were
provided. Participants assessed their feeling responses imme-
diately following both yoga and cycling using the Exercise-
Induced Feeling Inventory (EFI) scale. Additional data were
collected using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
(FFMQ), the Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ), and the
General Well Being Schedule (GWBS).
Results: For this study, 29 adults were randomly assigned
to the intervention group and 16 were assigned to the control
group. More participants were assigned to the intervention
group in order to detect a change if it existed. Participants en-
gaged in the physical activities continuously for two 1-hour
sessions per week, for 4 or 8 weeks, depending upon the sub-
jects’ availability during the summer months. The FFMQ re-
vealed a significant within-subjects increase in overall mind-
fulness score from pretest to post-test in the intervention group
(P < 0.048) and significant improvements occurred in the
facets of Observe (P < 0.008) and Non-judge (P < 0.035). A
significant between-subjects crossover effect in mindful eat-
ing (P < 0.029) was measured, with the control group’s scores
306 DOI: 10.1089/act.2014.20609 • MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6
DECEMBER 2014
decreasing and the intervention group’s scores increasing. The
GWBS data showed a within-group significant improvement
(P < 0.048). During both cycling and yoga, the participants re-
ported “feeling moderately” that they were upbeat, refreshed,
peaceful, happy, energetic, enthusiastic, calm, and revived.
Conclusion: Participating in physical activity while incor-
porating mindfulness meditation techniques is a productive
way to improve mindfulness. The positive feeling states fol-
lowing both yoga and cycling suggest that mindfulness tech-
niques may support the ability to direct the mind and reduce
negative sensations. Mindfulness promotes self-care and self-
awareness; ultimately, combining mindfulness with the par-
ticipation of physical activity may be a successful approach
toward the improvement of health-behavior management.
Introduction
Regular physical exercise and optimal nutritional intake are
associated with weight management, a decreased incidence of
diseases related to lifestyle, improvements in mood, increased
energy output, and increased lifespan.1 Despite the overwhelm-
ing body of evidence showing health enhancements through
exercise and proper nutrition, the majority of U.S. Americans
do not take the necessary steps to enhance disease prevention
by utilizing these methods.
Compared to “peer countries,” the health and longevity of U.S.
Americans is not as good; they live shorter lives and have poor-
er health throughout their lifespans.2 Joseph Donnelly, EdD—
chair of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
writing committee on physical activity and weight loss—
states that we are “[i]n the midst of a genuine crisis in Ameri-
cans’ health related to what we eat and how little we move.”3
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports
that 1 in 2 adults has least one chronic disease, such as type 2
diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or arthritis, and that these are
among the most preventable and treatable illnesses, account-
ing for 75% of health care costs. In addition, 7 of 10 deaths in
ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES

the United States are associated with chronic disease.4 Health-
promotion strategies that empower people to improve their
self-care and, in turn, optimize health outcomes are vital.
Self-regulatory abilities can enable an individual to adopt
health behaviors that enhance health outcomes. Buddhist monks
are recognized for using meditative techniques that involve di-
recting mental focus.5 Shapiro and Walsh6 suggest that medita-
tion is a kind of mental training that fosters mental control, and
that this ability may be applied to optimize health.
Meditation Methods
These researchers also suggest that there are two medita-
tion methods, one that cultivates concentration abilities and
one that fosters awareness.6 Concentration may be practiced
by focusing attention on a single item, such as a focal point;
for example, the air movement in and out of the nostrils with
breathing. Awareness enables a broader sense of the medita-
tor’s current state, noting sensations and possibly feelings as
they arise from moment to moment.
Mindfulness is a similar concept that refers to the ability to
be aware or connected to the self in the current state, while
involving a perspective framed by acceptance and nonjudg-
ment.7 Mindfulness meditation approaches have been histori-
cally used during yoga practice for pain-management in indi-
viduals who are ill,8 in women who are in labor,9 and in ath-
letes, for whom extreme physical performance is the norm.
Psychoregulative techniques,10 such as relaxation and im-
agery, are used in athletics to optimize both performance and
recovery. Research suggests that the more accomplished an
athlete is, the more likely he or she is to perform psychoregu-
lative techniques, such as muscle-relaxation techniques, deep
breathing, meditation, and use of imagery.11 Although com-
petitive athletes may include psychoregulative techniques in
their weekly routines, and yoga participants include mindful-
ness meditation during their practices, research has not inves-
tigated the use of these techniques in nonathletes during group
exercise sessions that include a cardiorespiratory component.
Yoga is a physical-exercise movement pattern that includes
mindfulness meditation techniques, such as breath awareness,
visualization, and body scanning. In essence, yoga enables
practice of mindfulness meditation or psychoregulative tech-
niques, while participating in a physical activity. Bryan, et al.12
found some evidence that yoga participation is associated with
adoption and maintenance of health-enhancing behaviors. A
group of 89 individuals with a weekly yoga practice reported
participating in an average of  239 minutes of physical activity
each week aside from yoga, and reported consuming an aver-
age of 5½ servings of fruits and vegetables daily. Bryan et al.
also found enhanced health outcomes, with 70% of the yoga
participants having a body mass index (BMI) in the desirable
range. The yoga participants in that study scored high on a
mindful eating assessment; mindful eating suggests an abil-
ity to be more aware of feelings and patterns associated with
eating.12 In addition, the mindful eating score was inversely
ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014
related to BMI, which supports the association between mind-
ful eating and weight management further.
Additional research investigated the effects of beginner
yoga classes on a population of previously physically inactive
adults.13 After 10 weeks of beginner yoga classes twice per
week, the subjects reported increases in physical exercise, im-
provements in eating patterns, and enhanced self-care and self-
awareness as a result of their yoga experience. Data analysis
in that study also showed significant increases in general well-
being. The yoga participants reported feeling happy, upbeat
and enthusiastic on an exercise-induced feeling inventory, and
qualitative data indicated that these feeling states supported
the subjects’ adherence to exercise.13
Study Rationale
Emerging literature suggests that effective instruction in
mindfulness meditation can occur during a yoga class and that
these techniques may enhance self-care12–14; however, mind-
fulness meditation techniques have not been studied as ad-
juncts to exercise sessions including group cardiorespiratory
activity (aerobic exercises). In a position paper on the promo-
tion and maintenance of cardiorespiratory fitness, the ACSM
recommends at least 150 minutes of cardiorespiratory activity
weekly for optimal health.1
Garber et al.1 stated: “Moderate-intensity exercise and ex-
ercise that is enjoyable can enhance affective responses to
exercise and may improve exercise adherence.” If mindful-
ness meditation techniques can be taught effectively during a
sustained bout of aerobic activity, it is possible that this may
lead to improvements in self-care while also meeting one of
the ACSM’s key recommendations for disease prevention and
optimal health.
For the current study, it was hypothesized that mindful-
ness meditation techniques could be taught effectively while
subjects participated in 30-minute beginner yoga classes and
30-minute indoor cycling classes. It was also hypothesized
that such participation could contribute to positive exercise-
induced feeling states, regardless of the very different move-
ment patterns and intensities involved in these activities. Fi-
nally, building on previous research that has suggested a re-
lationship between mindfulness and general well-being,13,15
and mindfulness and mindful eating,12,16 the current authors
hypothesized that significant improvements would be noted in
the areas of general well-being and mindful eating.
Materials and Methods
Design and Setting
The research for the current study was conducted at Saint
Peter’s University in the Recreation for Life Center (RLC)
with the participants drawn from Saint Peter’s students, fac-
ulty members, and staff members and from individuals in the
surrounding community. Following Saint Peter’s institutional
MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6
307
 ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014
review board approval, the researchers recruited adult partici-
pants through e-mail and campus flyers. After volunteers were
screened for inclusion, they were assigned randomly to either
the intervention or the control group. The intervention group
participated in either 4 weeks or 8 weeks of twice weekly, hour-
long exercise sessions based on the participants’ summertime
availability. The first 30 minutes of the intervention were spent
in a beginner yoga class and the last 30 minutes were spent in
a moderate-intensity indoor cycling class. The researchers col-
lected data from the control group and the intervention group
at baseline and at post-test. Data were also collected from the
intervention group after each 30-minute class.
Participants
Flyers were posted and e-mails were sent to solicit adults
between ages 18 and 70 who were interested in mindfulness
research involving beginner yoga and cycling. Potential par-
ticipants were screened by the research team using a Physical
Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q).17 Exclusion cri-
teria for participants included: (1) pregnancy; (2) answering
“yes” to any question on the PAR-Q; and (3) reporting a mus-
culoskeletal condition that limited physical activity substan-
tially. Every individual signed an informed consent document,
completed the PAR-Q, and, when cleared for participation,
completed all baseline measures. Each document was affixed
with a confidential numerical code and all data collection was
coded to protect participant anonymity.
Yoga Intervention
The beginner yoga classes were given in a group exercise
room for 30 minutes. This was followed immediately by
30-minute cycling classes in the indoor cycling room (both
rooms are located in Saint Peter’s RLC). The beginner yoga
classes were taught by the primary investigator (Dr. Bryan)
in a standard reproducible progression that had been used and
cited in previous research.13
However, the class was modified for the current research
to fit a 30-minute format. A mindfulness-based reading was
given before and at the close of each yoga class (see Mindful-
ness Readings Used in Yoga and Cycling). Following the yoga
session, participants recorded their exercise-induced feeling
states in their numerically coded notebooks. Yoga participants
started in a supine position, progressed to postures in a seated
position, moved to postures in a standing position, and then
ended the class on the floor in a seated position. While partici-
pating in the yoga postures, mindfulness meditation techniques
were used, including a body scan, visualization, and breath
awareness. The yoga postures used throughout the study were
derived from a master list of postures (Table 1); once again,
these postures were utilized in previous yoga research.13
Cycling Intervention
The indoor cycling sessions were conducted in the RLC cy-
cling room equipped with Matrix “Live Strong” series indoor
cycles. Following the yoga class in the RLC group exercise
room, the participants walked down a short hallway to the in-
308 MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6
door cycling room. The cycling was taught by the primary in-
vestigator. Mindfulness-based readings were given at the start
and the conclusion of each cycling session (see Mindfulness
Readings Used in Yoga and Cycling). The moderate-level cy-
cling sessions included 30 minutes of continuous cycling.
The participants were encouraged to work at their own paces
while they also checked their heart rates periodically and assessed
their perceived exertion. These self-monitoring practices are cus-
tomary in a group cycling class. This self-monitoring of exercise
intensity was also included to encourage the participants to be-
come more “mindful” and thus “aware” of  their bodies’ responses
to cardiorespiratory activity. Mindfulness meditation techniques
used throughout the cycling sessions included visualization, focal
points, counting, and breath awareness. Participants again record-
ed their exercise-induced feeling responses in their numerically
coded notebooks at the end of the cycling.
Data Collection and Instruments Used
Each day that the subjects in the intervention group exer-
cised, their acute responses to exercise after each bout of activ-
ity were recorded in the notebooks. The responses in the note-
books were measured by the Exercise Induced Feeling Inven-
tory (EFI). The EFI is a 12-item scale with a four-factor model
that shows sensitivity to exercise manipulations. The factors
are: (1) Positive engagement; (2) Revitalization; (3) Tranquil-
ity; and (4) Physical exhaustion. The perceptions are recorded
with a 5-item scale using the following ratings: Do Not Feel;
Feel Slightly; Feel Moderately; Feel Strongly; and Feel Very
Strongly. The EFI was designed to focus on states associated
with physical activity and has high internal consistency, facto-
rial validity, and concurrent validity.18,19
Additional data were collected from the control group at
baseline and at the end of the 8-week research period. There
were two time-lengths for the intervention group: one that last-
ed 4 weeks and one that lasted 8 weeks. This was dependent on
participants’ availability during the summer months.
Data were recorded at baseline and at the post-tests of the re-
spective intervention lengths. The baseline and post-test mea-
surements included the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire
(FFMQ), the Mindful Eating Questionnaire (MEQ), and the
General Well-Being Schedule (GWBS).
The FFMQ is currently the most widely studied mindful-
ness questionnaire.20 Data suggest that the FFMQ is robust
for testing various populations and has strong construct valid-
ity. The five facets of this mindfulness questionnaire include:
Non-judging; Describing; Non-reacting; Acting with aware-
ness; and Observing.
The MEQ is a 28-item questionnaire that assesses an indi-
vidual’s awareness of sensations, emotions, motivations, and
responses to eating (also referred to as “feeding”). Responses
are gathered with 4-point scale ranging from never/rarely to
usually/always. The MEQ has good internal consistency reli-
ability with a Cronbach’s a at 0.64.16
The GWBS was designed by the National Center for Health
Statistics, and includes six subscales covering the four constructs
of energy level, satisfaction, freedom from worry, and self-con-
 ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014

Table 1. Yoga Postures Used in Classes

Posture/position Description
Knee down twist Lying supine, one leg straight, other leg bent and moved across the body, bent knee toward the floor
Downward dog Hands and feet on the floor, straight arms and legs, body in inverted V
Upward dog Lying prone, legs straight and off the floor, hands on the floor, arms straight, chest and abdomen lifted off the floor
Cobra Similar to upward dog with legs on the ground
Chair Standing knees bent less than parallel to the floor, feet flat on the floor, arms overhead
Plank Prone position, arms straight, hands on the floor, toes and forefoot supporting the lower body, body suspended
off the floor
Side plank Same as plank, but one arm holds the body sideways to the floor, with the other arm extended into the air
Table Prone position on hands and knees, shoulder and hip distance apart
Reverse table Supine position, on hands and feet with knees bent into the air, abdomen parallel to the floor
Cat—in table position Arched back, rounding, abdomen pulled in
Dog—in table position Sway back, abdomen dropped toward the floor
Tree-balance posture Standing on one leg, other foot placed on standing leg above or below the knee, arms in various positions
Eagle-balance posture Standing on one leg, other leg wrapped around standing leg, arms wrapped in opposite rotation around one another
Cobbler’s pose Seated, bottoms of feet together, various movements performed in this position, forward flexion, rocking side-to-
side, feet extended away from the hips
Child’s pose Prone position, knees bent, upper body and hips sitting back on the lower legs and feet, forehead resting on the
floor, arms extended at shoulders
Bridge-supine position Feet on floor, knees bent, lifted hips and abdomen off the floor, back of shoulders down on the floor
Warrior postures Standing with one foot on horizontal line, other foot perpendicular to it, legs wider than shoulder distance apart
Variations: Facing horizontal foot–knee bent to almost 90º; arms extended over head from shoulder; facing perpen-
dicular; foot and arms extended laterally from shoulder; facing horizontal; foot, back, leg off the ground parallel to
the floor; arms extended overhead
Seated spinal twist One leg straight, other leg bent and foot placed over straight leg, same side, arms straight, leg wrapped around bent
knee, upper body rotated around away from straight leg
Lying down hip rocks Lying supine, feet on the floor, knees bent, movement from hips allowing knees to drop from side-to-side
One-legged locust Same position as above, one leg and one arm (opposing) lifted
Pigeon Prone position, one leg on the floor, other leg bent at the knee with gluteal region touching the floor, upper body
dropped down to the floor, arms extended overhead at the shoulder
Reclining hand Twist-lying supine, one leg straight, other leg straight out to the side, toe or foot held with corresponding hand out
to big toe to the same side of the body
Revolving knee Sitting with one leg extended straight out to side, other knee bent into pelvis, upper body bent sideways, one arm
to head along leg, other arm overhead
Sideways seated angle Seated legs with extended out one to each corresponding side, trunk turned toward one leg, upper body folded
over toward outstretched leg
Seated forward bend Legs extended out in front from the hip, upper body folded forward onto the legs
Boat Supine position, legs extended straight out at hips and in V position, arms straight out from shoulders parallel to the
floor
Seated stick Seated, leg extended straight from the hips, palms pressed into the floor at either side of the hip, emphasis on posture
Standing stick Balanced on one leg, other knee is bent into the chest, arms wrapped around bent leg
Gate crossbar On knees, body extended straight/upright, arms extended over the head, upper body bent to each side, one leg ex-
tended out to side, straight, other knee remained down on the floor, arms overhead, bent to the side with the upper
body
Mountain pose Standing straight on feet
Crossbar Gate position, standing forward bend: Upper body bent at hips down toward legs, arms reaching toward the floor
Sun salutations Starting in standing position (mountain pose), forward bend, one leg lunge, plank, yoga push up (four-limb stick),
cobra, downward dog, lunge, forward bend, back to standing (mountain pose)
Wide-legged Standing with legs wide apart, bent forward with hands reaching toward the floor
forward bend
Side angle pose Standing with legs wide apart, one knee bent toward 90º, upper body leaned toward bent leg, forearm laid on bent
leg, head rotated to look toward the ceiling
Extended side Same as above with arm extended over the head by the ear
angle pose (continued)

MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6

309
 ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014

Table 1. Yoga Postures Used in Classes (continued)

Sideways extended Legs much wider than hip distance apart, feet pointing in the same direction, hands in prayer position behind
pose back, upper body folded forward over legs
Half moon Legs wider than hip distance apart, one foot pointed horizontally, upper body bent forward at hip over foot, back
leg lifted up straight, arms extended
Extended triangle Standing with feet wide apart, one foot on horizontal line, the other foot perpendicular to the line, with legs straight,
upper body folded sideways, arms extended straight out at shoulder height, hand moved toward the floor
Five pointed star Standing with legs wider than hip distance apart, arms extended at shoulder height straight out
Yoga push up- In push up position, balls of feet on the ground, hands at sides of the body, elbows pointed back
(four limb stick) toward feet, body dropped to the ground without touching the abdomen or knees
Revolved lateral angle One leg lunged forward, other leg remained straight and back, elbow of arm opposite forward leg placed outside of
the bent knee, body rotated toward the bent knee and beyond
Camel Kneeling on knees, body lowered backward toward feet, arms dropped to ankles behind, abdomen swaying in
an extreme arch
Standing bow Standing on one leg, other leg extended back from hip, ankle of leg in air held with corresponding arm, allowing
body to move forward at the hip toward the forward standing leg, torso eventually parallel with the ground,
other arm extended over-head also parallel with the ground
Thread the needle In table position, one arm threaded it through the “table,” posterior shoulder dropped onto the floor, upper body
turned at waist in the direction of the threaded arm
Rising sun Standing, hands clasped behind the back, hands lifted with straight arms out away from the body, chin lifted,
chest and shoulders opened
Setting sun Standing, same position as above, but folded forward at hip toward the legs, arms lifted behind and away from
the body
Spread out foot leg Standing with widespread legs, body folded forward, while hands on ankles, upper body lifted up, looking out
with lifted head and shoulders as well
Seated angle Seated with legs completely straddled, hands outstretched to ankles or feet, upper body dropped from waist
between legs toward the floor
Sideways seated Same position as above, upper body turned toward one leg, body folded over leg, hands placed on opposite
angle sides of ankle
Tortoise-seated Feet on the floor, knees toward the ceiling, folded through legs with upper body, laced arms under knees
Bow pose Lying prone, bended knees and ankles held with hands, upper body and thighs lifted off the floor
One legged bridge Bridge position, one leg lifted toward the ceiling, body held with other leg on the floor
pose
Legs up the wall pose Lying on the ground with gluteals pressed into the wall, and legs straight up the wall toward the ceiling
Stomach abdomen Lying supine, arms out in a T, legs straight, bottoms of feet toward ceiling, legs dropped together
turning round to one side, allowing legs to hover over the ground
Upward spread Lying supine, arms over head or under posterior hip region, legs straight to ceiling, legs lowered down together
out foot in increments
The eternal one Lying on side, bottom leg straight, top leg lifted in line with body with a straight leg to the ceiling, toe held with
hand
Locust Lying prone, legs lifted straight off the floor, arms by the sides of the body with palms up on hands, arms lifted
parallel with torso, head lifted

trol. A high score on the GWBS indicates an absence of negative
feelings and the existence of positive feelings. The GWBS has
both high test–retest reliability and high internal consistency.21
Results
included 14 men and 31 women. The ethnic percentages were:
44% Caucasian; 13% African American; 13% Hispanic; 11%
Asian; 4.5% Dominican; 4.5% Puerto Rican; and 10% other.
More than 60% of the participants had at least an associate’s
degree, while 38% had a graduate degree. Participant ages
ranged from 19 to 67.

Personal Data Outcomes

The research team received 55 inquiries; 5 people did not at- Repeated measures multivariate analysis was conducted
tend the initial screening meeting, and 5 more were ineligible, on the FFMQ, MEQ, and GWBS data. Table 2 presents an
as they did not meet the inclusion criteria. The final sample overview of all the dependent variables. There were no sig-

310 MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6

 ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014

Table 2. Dependent Variables

Variable Baseline mean & (SD) Post-test mean & (SD) Group P-value
FFMQ 130.65 (20.18) 141.55 (26.72) Intervention P < 0.048
FFMQ 140.07 (29.95) 141.53 (26.72) Control
FFMQ 26.45 (6.80) 30.85 (5.77) Intervention P < 0.008
Observe facet
FFMQ 28.78 (7.28) 30.07 (7.13) Control
Observe facet
FFMQ 26.55 (7.00) 28.30 (4.90) Intervention P < 0.001
Non-judge facet
FFMQ 27.64 (6.54) 28.21 (7.07) Control
Non-judge facet
MEQ 2.76 (0.43) 2.93 (0.44) Intervention P < 0.029
MEQ 2.85 (0.32) 2.80 (0.34) Control
GWBS 69.81 (19.09) 78.95 (15.31) Intervention P < 0.048
GWBS 76.42 (18.11) 79.28 (21.00) Control
SD, standard deviation; FFMQ; Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire; MEQ, Mindful Eating Questionnaire; GWBS, General Well Being Schedule.

Figure 1. Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire data pre- and post-test. Figure 2. Mindfulness Eating Questionnaire data pre- and post-test.

nificant differences between the 4-week and 8-week inter-
vention groups’ outcome variables, so their data were ana-
lyzed together.
The FFMQ analysis revealed a significant within–sub-
jects increase in mindfulness in the intervention group
(P < 0.048), while no changes occurred in the control group
(Fig 1). Among the five facets of the mindfulness ques-
tionnaire, within-subjects significant improvements were
found in the facets of Observe (P < 0.008) and Non-judge
(P < 0.035). There was a significant between-subjects cross-
over effect in mindful eating (P < 0.029), with the interven-
tion group’s mindfulness scores increasing and the control
group’s mindfulness scores decreasing (Fig. 2). The GWBS
data revealed significant within-group improvements in the
intervention group from pretest to post-test (P < 0 .048; Fig.
3). The overall mean for each feeling response in the exercise-
induced feeling inventory was calculated for both yoga and
cycling (Table 3).
In both yoga and cycling, the participants reported “feeling
moderately” refreshed, enthusiastic, energetic, happy, revived,
calm, and upbeat. The facets of positive engagement and revi-
talization for yoga and cycling were virtually the same. During
yoga, participants “did not feel” fatigued or tired, while, in
cycling, they “felt slightly” fatigued and tired. During yoga,

MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6

311
 ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014

Table 3. Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory Mean Values

Feel response Mean of yoga sessionsa Mean of cycling sessionsa Subscales for EFI
Refreshed 2.70 2.54 Revitalization
Calm 2.94 2.60 Tranquility
Fatigued 0.74 1.21 Physical Exhaustion
Enthusiastic 2.46 2.79 Positive Engagement
Relaxed 3.06 2.75 Tranquility
Energetic 2.46 2.78 Revitalization
Happy 2.84 2.95 Positive Engagement
Tired 0.76 1.27 Physical Exhaustion
Revived 2.73 2.84 Revitalization
Peaceful 3.10 2.97 Tranquility
Worn Out 0.49 1.08 Physical Exhaustion
Up Beat 2.39 2.63 Positive Engagement
aKey: 0 = Do Not Feel; 1 = Feel Slightly; 2 = Feel Moderately; 3 = Feel Strongly; 4 = Feel Very Strongly.

EFI, Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory.

the participants “felt strongly” that they were peaceful and re-
laxed, while in cycling, they “felt moderately” peaceful and
relaxed. As one might anticipate, the facets corresponding to
physical exhaustion were heightened in cycling compared to
yoga, while, conversely, those associated with tranquility were
greater in yoga.

Discussion
Use of mindfulness-based interventions is growing among
health care professionals, with myriad applications in men-
tal health, pain management, stress management, and dis-
ease recovery. Currently, in the United States, we are facing
an epidemic of obesity and overweight, which is associated
with poor health behaviors such as physical inactivity and
poor diet. Mindfulness may be a mechanism for change
toward enhancing health-behavior management by pro-
ducing improvements in self-awareness, non-judgment,
and self-care.
The current authors’ research has demonstrated that prac- Figure 3. General Well Being Schedule data pre- and post-test.
ticing mindfulness meditation techniques while participating
in physical activity, including cardiorespiratory endurance, via MEQ testing. Mindful eating has been linked to optimal
promotes positive acute feeling states. Previous literature sug- BMI and adequate intake of fruits and vegetables in previ-
gests that positive acute feeling responses are associated with ous research.12
adherence to exercise.13,22 Currently 69% of the U.S. population > age 20 is obese and/
This study also noted an overall improvement in mind- or overweight.23 Improving exercise adherence and eating be-
fulness, as shown in the composite score on the FFMQ. haviors is essential for combating obesity and overweight. A
However, the particular facets of mindfulness that produced mindfulness-based intervention may improve an individual’s
these improvements were Observe and Non-judge, suggest- ability to become more self-aware or “mindful,” and, in doing
ing that the participants became more connected inwardly so, may influence that person’s health-related behaviors.
and developed a sense of acceptance of their current states There is a lack of health equity in the United States, re-
of being. In addition, the mindfulness practices influenced sulting in health disparities among various segments of the
the awareness of eating behaviors positively, as revealed population.24 The majority of participants in this study were

312 MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6


Mindfulness Readings Used in Yoga and Cycling
First Class: Before Yoga
Mindfulness is a set of skills that can be learned and practiced
to reduce psychologic symptoms and increase health and well-
being.a Mindfulness is usually defined as the act of bringing one’s
complete attention to an experience at a current moment in a
nonjudgmental, accepting manner. The antithesis of mindfulness
may be considered acting on autopilot, being preoccupied, and
not paying attention to the present moment.
First Class: After Yoga
In practicing mindfulness, we are practicing taking responsibil-
ity for being ourselves and learning to listen to and trust our own
being. It is impossible to become like somebody else; our hope is
to become more fully ourselves.
First Class: Before Cycling
Physical training is seen as important for strength, for disease pre-
vention, for optimal energy and ultimately to increase our chances
for long lives. There are also skills and activities that help us train our
emotion;  they are similar to physical training in that they are achiev-
able through practice. Today we will make our bodies busy while
using various mindful techniques in an effort to direct our attention
and awareness.
First Class: After Cycling
Our bodies have been perfectly formed to provide us with a
home for our hearts, minds, and spirits. We drive our physical
selves to work hard, serve others, and keep pace with the lives
we are living. Often, in doing so, we neglect our bodies’ basic
needs—for examples healthy food, physical activity, peace, and
rest—because we are too preoccupied with our surroundings to
pay attention to our physical cues. As we become more con-
nected to our physical selves, we will begin to understand that
our minds and our bodies are intricately entwined—whenever
our minds or our bodies sustain neglect, we are doing consider-
able harm.
Second Class: Before Yoga
In mindfulness practice, the focus of our attention allows for an
openness to what is, while also allowing us to be curious about what-
ever comes up without needing to assess or react to the information.b
Second Class: After Yoga
As we leave this session today, may we take with us that same
kindly curiosity that we refer to and apply it when we come across
people or moments that may be challenging—instead of reacting
to these moments, may we take a breath and simply observe the
person or issue without requiring a response from ourselves; let us
learn together how to simply see things around us without attach-
ing them to ourselves.
Second Class: Before Cycling
Even the degree to which we can really be of help to others—
if that is what we believe is most important—depends directly
on how balanced we are ourselves. Taking time to “tune” our
own instruments and restore our own energy reserves can
hardly be considered selfish. Intelligent would be a more
apt description.b
Second Class: After Cycling
There are probably circumstances of one kind or another in
our lives in which we have to be walking (for example, around
the campus or going from one office or meeting to another),
ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014
whether we want to or not. These can be wonderful occasions to
bring awareness to our moments when we are walking, trans-
forming walking from a dull, unconscious chore into something
rich and nurturing.
Third Class: Before Yoga
“Mindfulness meditation is really a non-doing. It is the only hu-
man endeavor I know of that does not involve trying to get some-
where else but, rather, emphasizes being where we are. Much of
the time we are so carried away by all the doing, the striving, the
planning, the reacting, the busyness, that when we stop just to feel
where we are, it can seem a little peculiar at first.”c
Third Class: After Yoga
Psychologists have discovered that the experience of being
thankful or appreciative of someone or something is one of
the best ways to increase happiness. One research study found
that 90% of people who expressed gratitude were more joy-
ful as a result. Take a moment now to focus in on someone or
something for which you are exceedingly thankful—hold that
thought in your mind’s eye and rest your heart in a place of
gratitude.
Third Class: Before Cycling
Once we begin to practice focusing through mindful awareness,
we can develop more conscious control of what we pay attention
to. This is because we grow stronger neural pathways in our brains.
Neuroscientists have identified critical areas of the brain (in the
prefrontal cortex) that enable us to concentrate, evaluate informa-
tion, and make decisions. Mindful exercises that include focusing
can strengthen these neural pathways.d
Third Class: After Cycling
“One of the mind’s favorite activities is to wander into the past
and into the future and lose itself in thinking. Some of its thoughts
are pleasant. Others are painful and anxiety producing. In either
case, thinking itself exerts a strong pull, blighting our awareness
in the present moment. Let’s recognize the pull our mind[s have]
on our emotions and allow the mind[s] to be open and quiet as a
means of gathering peace and generating calm.”c
Fourth Class: Before Yoga
“Thankfulness is a key to being able to bounce back from
difficulties and experience less stress in the face of ongoing
problems. When we focus on how grateful we are for what’s right
in our lives, even in the midst of challenges, we recognize that
a situation isn’t totally bleak and give ourselves the energy to
move forward.”d
Fourth Class: After Yoga
“As the mind develops stability and is less caught up in the
content of thinking, we strengthen the mind’s ability to concen-
trate and to be calm. We strengthen our ability to be mindful
each time we recognize a thought as simply a thought. We can
take a look at this thought as if viewing it on a screen; we can
register its content, discern the strength of the thought’s hold
on us and assess the accuracy of its content. We may come to
know that some thoughts are not worth having and therefore
drop them from our thinking. When we do this, we are coming to
know ourselves better, we are advocating for our well-being, and
becoming more accepting of ourselves, not as we would like to
be, but simply as we are.”c (continued)
MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6
313
 ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014
Mindfulness Readings Used in Yoga and Cycling (continued)
Fourth Class: Before Cycling
As we ride forward on our bikes today, let’s imagine that we are
clearing a path, or a lane, for us to safely move forward in our lives.
If there are disturbances, people, challenges, or painful experi-
ences that you would like to leave on the road behind you—do
that today as you comfortably and confidently ride forward. Let
the strength of your legs and the power of your mind guide you to
a place of clarity and peace.
Fourth Class: After Cycling
The body so aptly abides our habits; if we ignore what it needs,
our bodies desperately try to continue living despite our continuous
neglect. When we connect with the bodies’ needs, we come to know
that our bodies only ask for things that will make our lives easier—
proper nutrition, periods free from stress, adequate rest, and adequate
movement. Let’s take a moment and imagine our bodies as our allies
not our enemies and thank our bodies for not giving up on us.
Fifth Class: Before Yoga
Research demonstrates that across the globe individuals who
live to 100 years old, or centenarians, have many common at-
tributes, one of which is a strong sense of community. People who
live to 100 years old have several emotionally intimate connec-
tions with other people. They gather together on a regular basis to
find strength and blessing in their community. Understanding that
we are made healthy by our emotional connections with others
should place this as a priority in our lives—let’s be mindful of who
these people are in our lives and nurture those relationships in the
spirit of thankfulness as they serve to enhance our health.
Fifth Class: After Yoga
As we move through our yoga postures, we notice that we can
forge a connection between our minds and emotions, and the
simple, rhythmic movement of our bodies. Imagine the body as
a thread that weaves in both directions, from mind to body and
body to mind; each a segment of the whole, each as vital as the
other. May we go forward from here, being mindful of sustaining
that internal thread; not breaking ourselves into pieces, but find-
ing steadiness in the functioning of the whole.
Fifth Class: Before Cycling
Another attribute of centenarians is that their lives are full of
moderate physical activity, with activities, such as daily walking or
sheep herding, providing just the right amount of physical move-
ment. Imagine our bodies as buildings that need a certain amount
of attention and care to endure the stress of a century’s worth of
storms. The moderate physical activity strengthens the foundation
of our buildings, rendering them resilient. Let’s reflect on this: “If I
have the power to choose the house in which I live, would I choose
to live in a dilapidated, crumbling building?”
Fifth Class: After Cycling
We know that there are days when we are physically tired, emo-
tionally tired, or both. As we become more aware of the ebbs and
flows of our personal rhythms, we need to make peace with our
variability, without judging or resisting what is. We must practice
observing our feeling states for today without judging them. If we
accept our feeling states currently, that leaves us open and willing
to embrace what may come tomorrow.
Sixth Class: Before Yoga
As our ability to be present in the moment and pay attention
to what is continues to improve, might we consider transferring
this mindfulness ability to moments when we make choices that
affect our well-being? If we view food as a means of nourishment
314 MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6
and we accept that our bodies need food in specific quantities, no
more or no less, might we approach the act of eating with a little
more awareness. If we find that our feeding patterns are attached
to some other need aside from physical nourishment, might we
delve a little deeper to understand more clearly for what are we
searching? Food can become a means for dealing with sadness,
loneliness, despair, boredom, or stress. Taking a moment to be
mindful of our feeding patterns will help us to be more aware and
connected as a whole.
Sixth Class: After Yoga
“At different rates, all of our cells live for a time and then die, to
be replaced by new cells. This is true for our skin, for the lining of
our stomach and intestines, for muscle and nerve cells, for blood
cells, for our bones. Maybe even our cells are trying to tell us that
death is not such a bad thing, and nothing to be feared. Maybe
our knowing of death is not such a bad thing, and nothing to be
feared. Maybe our knowing of death, our ability to foretell its in-
evitability yet not know the timing of it is a goad for us to wake up
to our lives, to live them while we can, fully, passionately, wisely,
lovingly, joyfully.”e
Sixth Class: Before Cycling
As we note the increases in both our breathing rates and heart
rates during cycling, might we view that exertion from the per-
spective of improving the functioning of all the vital organs and
systems of our bodies? Each deep breath and each peddle stroke
drives us more fully into the place of optimal health. Rather than
viewing the exercise session as a whole, simply celebrate each mo-
ment as you roll along, delighting in the fact that you have chosen
to take care of you.
Sixth Class: After Cycling
As we expand our energy through exercise, we might think
that we will have little left to offer in the other areas of our lives;
however, it is simply the opposite. The more we reduce our stress,
improve our moods, increase our fitness, and obtain optimal
health, the more energy we cultivate and the more we have to give
in all other areas of our lives.
Seventh Class: Before Yoga
Today as we begin our yoga session, it is a good opportunity for
us to release any difficulties, stresses, or sadness that we may have
carried into this room this afternoon. Attending to our well-being
must include moments for releasing burdens and allowing for
peacefulness to prevail at least for this moment.
Seventh Class: After Yoga
“When a loss stirs great sadness and grief in us, after the wailing
and the tears and the tearing of our hair, there comes a time when
we have to fall silent. Silence is the ultimate prayer.”e
Seventh Class: Before Cycling
People with heart disease are at higher risk for cognitive impair-
ment, providing more evidence of the interconnection between
our physical and mental health. Mayo Clinic researchers found that
people ages 70–89 with heart disease, especially women, were
more likely to experience mild cognitive impairment affecting their
language, thinking, and judgment. As we continue to become more
aware of the connection between our minds and our bodies, we
see how our exercise patterns, eating behaviors, and stress-man-
agement practices affect every aspect of our lives and certainly how
well we will function into our later years.f (continued)

Mindfulness Readings Used in Yoga and Cycling (continued)
Seventh Class: After Cycling
“The bell of mindfulness tolls in each moment, inviting us to
come to our senses, reminding us that we can wake up to our lives,
now, while we have them to live.”e
Eighth Class: Before Yoga
Mindful dialogue invites true listening, and true listening
expands our ways of knowing and understanding. Ultimately,
this dialogue elevates discourse, and makes it more likely that we
will gradually learn and grow from understanding one another’s
perspectives rather than just fortifying our positions and stereo-
typing all those who disagree with us. Marking our last yoga class
for this session, may we bring to it a spirit of openness and ac-
ceptance not only within ourselves, but extend that kindness and
compassion to one another, now and going forward.
Eighth Class: After Yoga
We humans are all intimately interconnected. How we treat
each other matters to the health and well-being, perhaps even
the survival, of all of us as a species, not in some vague future,
but in this very moment. Kindness is the natural response to
recognizing interconnectedness. And in that kindness, is
true wisdom.
aBaer R, Smith G, Hopkins J. Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment 2006;13:27–45; bSegal Z, Williams, J, Teasdale J. Mindfulness-Based
Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A New Approach to Preventive Relapse. New York: Guilford Press, 2002; cKabat-Zin J. Letting Everything Become Your Teacher. New York: Bantam
Dell, 2009; dHawn G. 10 Mindful Minutes. New York: Penguin Group, 2011; eKabat-Zinn J. Arriving at Your Own Door. New York: Hyperion, 2005; fArcher S. Keep a healthy heart for a
fit brain. Fitness J 2013;10:9.
nonwhite. Thus, the current study findings contribute to the
data on effective health-promotion for non-white populations.
The results of this study did not provide data on a particular
dose–response relationship between mindfulness training and
positive outcomes, nor did this study distinguish between an
exercise intervention with mindfulness training and one with-
out mindfulness training; further research is necessary to ex-
plore these and many other questions.
Conclusion
Currently, Americans in the United States are experiencing
poorer health and shorter lifespans, compared to populations in
“peer countries.” Health-behavior management necessitates a
component of self-direction that enables individuals to engage in
positive health behaviors consistently. Mindfulness enhances self-
awareness while, at the same time, cultivates a state of nonjudg-
ment. Mindfulness meditation techniques can be taught success-
fully while people participate in a group yoga class and a group
cycling class. Combining physical activity and mindfulness activ-
ities can result in positive mood states and improvements in mea-
sures of mindfulness, which, in combination, may enhance health-
behavior management.
Disclosure Statement
No competing financial conflicts exist. n
ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014
Eighth Class: Before Cycling
As we continue to care for ourselves we might start to notice
that the better we feel, physically and emotionally, the more we
have to offer in other areas of our lives. In essence, the self-love
and self-care we cultivate ultimately results in more energy to be
expended in loving and caring for others. In addition, as we attend
to our physical and emotional needs, we develop heightened
resilience to stress allowing for an increased ability to persevere
through difficulties. The long and short of it is that the more we
care for ourselves, the more we have to offer the world.
Eighth Class: After Cycling
“One thought pattern that appears to be extremely powerful for
improving health status is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a belief in your
ability to exercise control over specific events in your life. It reflects
confidence in your ability to actually do things, a belief in your ability
to make things happen, even when you might have to face new, un-
predictable, and stressful occurrences. A strong belief in your ability
to succeed at whatever you decide to do can influence the kinds of
activities in which you will engage in the first place, and how much
effort you will put into something new and different before giving
up.”c The belief in your ability to carry out exercise as a matter of
course in your life is called exercise self-efficacy and often translates
into an increased belief in your abilities overall.
References
1. Garber C, Blissmer B, Deschenes M, et al. Quantity and quality of exercise
for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuro-
motor fitness in apparently healthy adults: Guidance for prescribing exercise.
Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011;43:1334–1359.
2. Institute of Medicine. U.S. Health in International Perspective: Shorter
Lives, Poorer Health. 2013. Online document at www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/
Report%20Files/2013/US-Health-International-Perspective/USHealth_Intl_
PerspectiveRB.pdf Accessed February 20, 2013.
3. ACSM in the News: ACSM Position Stand on Physical Activity and Weight
Loss Now Available. 2011. Online document at: www.acsm.org/about-acsm/
media-room/acsm-in-the-news/2011/08/01/acsm-position-stand-on-physical-
activity-and-weight-loss-now-available Accessed September 10, 2012.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chronic Diseases: The Power
to Prevent, the Call to Control. At-a-Glance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2009. Online document at: www.cdc.gov/chronicdis
ease/resources/publications/aag/pdf/chronic.pdf Accessed September 10, 2012.
5. Kozhevnikov M, Louchakova O, Josipovic Z, et al. The enhancement of
visuospatial processing efficiency through Buddhist Deity meditation. Psy-
chol Sci 2009;20:645–653.
6. Shapiro S, Walsh R. An analysis of recent meditation research and sugges-
tions for future directions. Hum Psychol 2003;31:86–114.
7. Kabat-Zinn J. Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Mind and
Body to Face Stress, Pain and Illness, rev. ed. New York: Bantam Dell, 2013.
8. Kabat-Zinn J. An outpatient program in behavioral medicine for chronic
pain patients based on the practice of mindfulness meditation: Theoretical
considerations and preliminary results. Gen Hosp Psychiatr 1982;4:33–47.
9. Stevens R, Heide F. Analgesic characteristics of prepared childbirth tech-
niques: Attention focusing and systematic relaxation. J Psychosom Res
1972;21:429–438.
MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6
315
 ALTERNATIVE AND COMPLEMENTARY THERAPIES • DECEMBER 2014
10. Kellman M. Under recovery and overtraining: Different concepts—similar
impact? In: Kellman M, ed. Enhancing Recovery: Preventing Underperfor-
mance in Athletes. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2002:3–24.
11. Kudlackova K, Eccles D, Dieffenbach K. Use of relaxation skills in dif-
ferentially skilled athletes. Psychol Sport Exerc 2013;14:468–475.
12. Bryan S, Parasher R, Cahill T, Zipp G. Yoga, mindful eating and weight
management. J Nutr Ther 2013;2:1–9.
13. Bryan S, Zipp G, Parasher R. The effects of yoga on psychosocial vari-
ables and exercise adherence: A randomized controlled pilot study. Altern
Ther Health Med 2012;18:30–39;questionnaire.
14. Kristal A, Littman A, Benitez D, et al. Yoga practice is associated with
attenuated weight gain in healthy middle-aged men and women. Altern Ther
Health Med 2005;11:28–33.
15. Brown K, Ryan R. The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role
in psychological well-being. J Pers Soc Psychol 2003;84:822–848.
16. Framson C, Kristal A, Schenk J, et al. Development and validation of
the mindful eating questionnaire. J Am Diet Assoc 2009;109:1439­–1444.
17. Expert Advisory Committee, Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology. Phys-
ical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q): PAR-Q & You, rev. ed. Ottawa,
Ontario, Canada: Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, 2002.
18. Gauvin L, Rejeski W. The exercise-induced feeling inventory: Develop-
ment and initial validation. J Sport Exerc Psychol 1993;15:403–423.
19. Gauvin L, Rejeski W, Norris J. A naturalistic study of acute physical activ-
ity on feeling states and affect in women. Health Psychol 1996;15:391–397.
316 MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • VOL. 20 NO. 6
20. Bruin E, Topper M, Muskens J, et al. Psychometric properties of the Five
Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) in a meditating and a non-meditat-
ing sample. Assessment 2012;19:187–197.
21. Fazio AF. A concurrent validation study of the NCHS General Well-Being
Schedule. Vital Health Stat 2 1977;2:1–53
22. Annesi J. Relationship between changes in acute exercise-induced feeling
states, self-motivation, and adults’ adherence to moderate aerobic exercise.
Percept Mot Skill 2002;94:425–439.
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. FastStats—Overweight
Prevalence. 2013. Online document at: www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/obesity-
overweight.htm Accessed March 4, 2013.
24. Healthy People 2020. 2014. Online document at: www.healthypeople.
gov/2020/about/default.aspx Accessed February 2, 2014.
Stephanie Bryan, PhD, is the director of the Health and Physical Education
Program, and an assistant professor, at Saint Peter’s University, in Jersey City,
New Jersey. Genevieve Pinto Zipp, PT, EdD, is a professor in the Depart-
ment of Interprofessional Health Sciences & Health Administration, and a
Generalized Empirical Method Fellow at Seton Hall University’s School of
Health and Medical Sciences, in South Orange, New Jersey.
To order reprints of this article, e-mail Karen Ballen at: Kballen@liebertpub.com
or call (914) 740-2100.