NYU Press

Chapter Title: The Mayor of Casterbridge

Book Title: Imagined Human Beings

Book Subtitle: A Psychological Approach to Character and Conflict in Literature
Book Author(s): Bernard J. Paris
Published by: NYU Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qffv8.13

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 10
The Mayor of Casterbridge

Critical discussio n o f The Mayor of Casterbridge ha s focuse d

on Michae l Henchard , a characte r muc h admire d bu t littl e understood .
For som e h e i s a n epi c o r tragi c her o wh o evoke s comparison s wit h
Achilles, Prometheus, Oedipus , Orestes , Lear, Macbeth, Faust , an d suc h
biblical figures a s Cain , Samson , an d Saul . Those wh o se e him primaril y
in term s o f plot , theme , o r archetyp e eithe r pa y littl e attentio n t o hi s
psychology o r discus s hi m i n term s o f traditiona l dichotomie s betwee n
reason an d passion , conscienc e an d impulse , virtue an d vice . He i s ofte n
regarded a s a towerin g figure i n th e gri p o f elementa l force s wh o i s
lacking i n emotiona l complexity . Josep h Warre n Beac h call s hi m "th e
original caveman, " " a bul l i n a china shop, " whos e "gentles t movemen t
is accompanie d b y th e cras h o f breakin g crockery " (Robinso n 1977 ,
313). A few critic s hav e see n hi m a s a masterful portrai t o f a n imagine d
human bein g wh o undergoe s significan t change s i n th e cours e o f th e
novel, bu t eve n the y hav e ha d difficult y accountin g fo r hi s ambivalence s
and inconsistencies . Thes e ca n b e understoo d i n term s o f hi s inne r
conflicts, whic h ar e of th e kin d tha t Kare n Horne y described .
Henchard i s such a n arrestin g figure that littl e attention ha s bee n pai d
to othe r characters . Althoug h Farfra e i s ofte n regarde d a s secon d i n
importance, Elizabeth-Jan e i s th e mos t full y draw n characte r nex t t o
Henchard. Henchar d i s th e protagonis t o f a tragi c educatio n plo t who ,
unlike Pip , learns hi s lesson to o late . Elizabeth-Jane i s the protagonis t o f
a comi c vindicatio n plo t who , lik e Jane Eyre , i s undervalued a t first bu t
wins recognitio n an d lov e b y th e end . Hard y celebrate s he r fro m th e
start an d offer s he r a s a foil t o Henchard .
Like Great Expectations an d jane Eyre, The Mayor of Casterbridge
is heavily rhetorical, bu t thi s time the rhetoric flows no t fro m a protago -
nist telling the story from hi s or her point o f view but from a n omniscien t
narrator wh o i s suppose d t o b e objectiv e an d reliable . Hardy' s omni -
scient narrato r als o present s interpretation s an d judgment s tha t ar e ou t

168
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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 16 9

of harmon y wit h th e mimesis , however . A s we sa w i n th e cas e o f Great

Expectations, novel s o f educatio n ten d t o celebrat e a s growth wha t the y
show t o b e th e collaps e o f on e defensiv e strateg y an d th e adoptio n
of another . Hardy' s judgment s see m appropriat e t o th e mimesi s whe n
Henchard i s predominantl y aggressiv e bu t inappropriat e afte r Hench -
ard's ambition s ar e crushe d an d hi s compliant tendencie s emerge . As we
saw i n th e cas e o f Jane Eyre, novel s o f vindicatio n ten d t o glorif y
protagonists wh o hav e bee n psychologicall y damage d i n childhood .
Hardy neve r make s clea r wha t wa s s o terribl e abou t Elizabeth-Jane' s
childhood, bu t h e frequentl y refer s t o he r earl y suffering an d glorifie s
her defensiv e strategies . Whe n analyze d fro m a Horneya n perspective ,
the mimeti c portrai t o f Elizabet h subvert s Hardy' s rhetoric , sinc e i t
shows what a fearful, rigid , self-imprisone d perso n sh e actually is.

The tragi c educatio n patter n o f Henchard' s stor y i s mad e explici t whe n

he return s t o Weydon-Priors , wher e h e ha d sol d hi s wif e ove r twenty -
one years before :

He experience d no t onl y th e bitternes s o f a ma n wh o finds, in lookin g

back upo n a n ambitiou s cours e tha t wha t h e ha s sacrifice d i n sentimen t
was wort h a s muc h a s wha t h e ha s gaine d i n substance ; bu t th e super -
added bitterness of seeing his very recantation nullified. He had been sorry
for all this long ago; but his attempts to replace ambition by love had been
as fully foiled a s his ambition itself. (Ch. 44)

Henchard's origina l "crime " i s committed i n th e nam e o f ambition , bu t

he finds hi s subsequen t succes s empt y withou t huma n companionship .
When hi s ambitio n ultimatel y fails , h e trie s t o replac e i t wit h love , bu t
his effor t t o d o s o i s foile d whe n h e lose s Elizabeth-Jane . Th e narrato r
tells u s tha t Henchard' s "ne w lights " hav e allowe d hi m t o achiev e
"higher thing s tha n hi s sou l i n it s half-forme d stat e ha d bee n abl e t o
accomplish" bu t tha t h e canno t mak e us e o f hi s "wisdom " becaus e h e
has los t hi s zes t fo r living . H e ha s learne d th e hollownes s o f ambitio n
and th e valu e o f love , bu t hi s educatio n i s rendere d futil e b y "th e
ingenious machinery contrive d b y the God s for reducin g human possibil -
ities of amelioratio n t o a minimum. "
From a Horneya n perspective , Henchar d i s a predominantl y aggres -
sive man wh o ha s conflicting complian t tendencie s tha t haun t hi m i n th e
midst o f succes s and becom e dominan t whe n hi s fortunes collapse . Wit h

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170 I THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

the failure o f his effort t o liv e for love , he feels everythin g t o b e folly an d
becomes predominantl y detached . H e change s i n muc h th e wa y th e
rhetoric suggests—fro m ambitio n t o lov e t o indifference—bu t hi s at -
tachment t o Elizabeth-Jane i s compulsive an d hi s loss of desir e is not th e
fault o f th e machiner y o f th e Gods . Hardy' s rhetorica l treatmen t o f
Henchard tend s t o b e crud e an d ma y b e partl y responsibl e fo r critic s
seeing hi m a s havin g a simpl e natur e drive n b y elementa l forces . Th e
mimetic portrai t show s a complicate d ma n wh o i s tormente d b y inne r
conflicts a t ever y stage o f hi s life .
Henchard i s torn fro m th e beginnin g b y a conflic t betwee n ambitio n
and a nee d fo r affection . Becaus e o f hi s cravin g fo r love , h e marrie s
at th e ag e o f eightee n bu t the n finds hi s aspiration s thwarte d b y th e
responsibilities h e ha s assumed . H e soo n come s t o despis e hi s emotion -
ally need y wife , a s h e despise s th e love-hungr y sid e o f himself . Terribl y
oppressed, h e tries to defen d himsel f b y withdrawing int o a "dogge d an d
cynical indifference " (ch . i) . I n th e openin g scen e o f th e nove l bot h
partners displa y a disillusione d resignatio n a s the y trudg e towar d Wey -
don-Priors.
In the furmit y tent , Henchard' s frustration , rage , an d self-hat e ris e t o
the surfac e unde r th e influenc e o f rum . Whe n th e conversatio n turn s t o
the thwartin g "o f man y a promisin g youth' s hig h aim s an d hope s an d
the extinctio n o f hi s energie s b y a n earl y impruden t marriage, " h e
attacks himsel f a s a "fool " fo r havin g married an d boast s tha t i f he were
free h e coul d bea t an y ma n i n Englan d i n th e fodde r trad e an d woul d
"be wort h a thousand pounds " befor e h e wa s don e (ch . i) . H e i s angr y
with himself , hi s wife , an d fat e fo r thwartin g hi s searc h fo r glor y an d
tries to gai n contro l o f his destiny b y selling his wife an d child .
Here, a s o n late r occasions , Henchar d impulsivel y act s i n a wa y fo r
which he suffers whe n the moment ha s passed an d his conflicting feeling s
emerge. His sale of his wife i s felt b y the company t o b e "a n indefensibl e
proceeding" (ch . i) , an d h e to o regard s i t a s immora l whe n hi s sobriet y
returns. Som e critic s depic t Henchar d a s a rebe l agains t socia l la w an d
the ironie s o f fortune , bu t h e i s a ver y conventiona l ma n wh o trans -
gresses becaus e he is desperate an d the n i s haunted fo r th e rest o f his lif e
by what h e feels t o b e his crime. He punishes himsel f b y swearing no t t o
drink fo r th e nex t twenty-on e year s an d spend s severa l month s an d al l
his mone y tryin g t o find hi s wif e an d child . H e fail s becaus e h e i s s o
ashamed o f wha t h e ha s don e tha t h e doe s no t publiciz e th e searc h
effectively.

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 1

Henchard i s stil l ful l o f conflic t whe n w e se e hi m again , afte r th e

passage o f ninetee n years . A "masterful , coercive " ma n (ch . 13 ) wit h
"no pit y fo r weakness " (ch . 5) , h e ha s "worke d hi s wa y u p fro m
nothing" t o b e a wealth y cor n facto r an d Mayo r o f Casterbridge . Al -
though h e ha s mor e tha n fulfille d hi s boas t t o b e wort h a thousan d
pounds, he confesses t o Farfra e tha t h e is not "s o thriving i n his mind a s
it seem s h e migh t b e fro m th e stat e o f hi s pocket " (ch . 12) . Becaus e o f
the lonelines s o f hi s domesti c life , h e i s subjec t t o "gloom y fits" whe n
"the worl d seem s t o hav e th e blacknes s o f hell , an d lik e Job , I coul d
curse th e da y tha t gav e m e birth. " Havin g sacrifice d hi s famil y i n orde r
to pursue hi s ambition, Henchar d no w suffer s fro m emotiona l isolation .
Although h e longs for companionship , he maintains a "haught y indiffer -
ence" (ch . 13 ) t o th e societ y o f wome n becaus e h e fear s tha t h e i s
unlovable an d tha t the y will b e a hindrance. O n becomin g involve d wit h
Lucetta whe n sh e nurse s hi m throug h a n illness , h e feel s unworth y o f
her affectio n an d regard s he r a s "foolish " fo r likin g him .
With the reappearance o f Susan , Henchard i s thrown int o a quandary .
He i s eager t o mak e amend s fo r hi s earlie r treatmen t o f her , bu t h e ha d
intended t o marr y Lucett a s o as to salvag e he r reputation . Tor n betwee n
what h e owes t o eac h woman , h e concludes tha t hi s first obligatio n i s t o
Susan, bu t h e blame s himsel f fo r havin g injure d Lucetta . H e regard s hi s
remarriage primaril y a s a mean s o f restitutio n an d penance . H e curse s
the "prid e an d mortificatio n a t bein g poor " tha t le d t o hi s earlie r un -
kindness an d seek s "t o castigat e himsel f wit h th e thorns " tha t hi s "resti -
tutory acts " wil l brin g i n thei r trai n b y unitin g hi m wit h "s o compara -
tively humbl e a woman " (ch . 13) . Henchar d ofte n trie s t o alleviat e hi s
guilt an d self-hat e b y punishing himself .

Henchard's relationship s with Farfra e an d Elizabeth-Jan e ar e profoundl y

influenced b y his inner conflicts . H e i s so attracte d t o Farfra e becaus e h e
promises t o gratif y th e need s fo r powe r an d huma n warmt h tha t hav e
hitherto seeme d incompatible. Farfrae wil l be a great help in his business,
but i t i s Henchard' s nee d fo r "som e huma n object " o n who m t o pou r
"out hi s heart " (ch . 19 ) tha t make s hi m read y t o offe r Donal d almos t
anything t o remai n i n Casterbridge . Farfra e remind s hi m o f hi s dea d
brother, an d whe n h e agrees to becom e hi s manager, Henchar d exult s i n
the feelin g tha t h e ha s a t las t foun d a friend . Th e relationshi p develop s
rapidly, o n Henchard' s side , a t least . Explainin g tha t h e i s " a lonel y
man" (ch . 12) , h e impulsivel y confide s i n Farfra e an d seek s hi s advic e

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172 I THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

about ho w h e should behav e toward Susa n and Lucetta . After sh e moves

into Henchard' s house , Elizabeth-Jan e observe s tha t h e alway s want s
Donald nea r hi m an d ha s a habi t o f layin g "hi s ar m familiarl y o n hi s
manager's shoulder , a s if Farfrae wer e a younger brother " (ch . 14) . This
is a n idylli c tim e fo r Henchard . H e ha s ease d hi s guil t i n relatio n t o
Susan, he is growing fond o f Elizabeth-Jane, an d h e has Farfrae a s helper
and friend .
The Abel Whittle affai r put s a n end to this happy interlud e b y activat -
ing Henchard' s conflicts . Whe n Farfra e revoke s hi s orde r tha t th e tard y
Whittle g o to wor k withou t hi s breeches , Henchard i s "bitterl y hurt " a t
having bee n rebuke d i n fron t o f hi s me n an d feel s tha t Farfra e i s takin g
advantage o f hi m becaus e h e ha s tol d hi m hi s secret s (ch . 15) . Angr y
with himsel f a s well a s with Farfrae , h e calls himself a "fool " fo r havin g
opened hi s heart . Althoug h the y quickl y mak e up , Henchar d continue s
to berat e himself fo r wha t h e now perceive s to b e a weakness an d feel s a
"dim dread " a t havin g pu t himsel f i n Farfrae' s power . H e become s
insensibly mor e reserve d an d give s u p hi s preciou s intimac y wit h hi s
friend.
Instead o f contributin g t o Henchard' s sens e o f success , Farfra e no w
threatens it , sinc e anothe r consequenc e o f th e Whittl e affai r i s tha t
Henchard learn s tha t hi s worker s regar d Farfra e a s th e bette r ma n an d
would prefe r hi m a s thei r master . Feelin g tha t h e ha s los t hi s plac e a s
"the mos t admire d ma n i n hi s circle " (ch . 15) , Henchar d hope s t o
outshine Farfra e b y offerin g a lavis h entertainmen t a t hi s ow n expens e
after Donal d plan s on e fo r whic h admissio n wil l b e charged . Whe n ba d
weather spoil s his plans while favoring Donald' s an d h e overhears a ma n
asking where hi s business would b e if it were not fo r hi s young manager ,
Henchard i s driven t o restor e hi s pride b y dismissing Farfrae .
Hardy tend s t o attribut e thi s kin d o f behavio r t o broa d trait s o f
character suc h a s temper , lac k o f moderation , an d strong-headedness ,
but Henchar d display s suc h traits onl y when h e feels severel y threatene d
or frustrated . Hi s dismissa l o f Farfra e i s impulsive , t o b e sure , bu t i t i s
an ac t t o whic h h e i s drive n b y dee p psychologica l needs . Succes s fo r
Henchard i s les s a matte r o f mone y tha n a sens e o f superiorit y an d
triumph. I f peopl e thin k hi s busines s depend s o n Farfrae , "he'l l b e
honeycombed clea n ou t o f al l th e characte r an d standin g tha t he' s buil t
up i n thes e eightee n year! " (ch . 16) . H e ha s sacrifice d everythin g t o
achieve hi s positio n an d canno t bea r t o b e deprive d o f it . H e imagine s

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 3

that onc e his rival i s removed, h e will prove h e can manag e withou t hi m
and wil l regain hi s preeminence .
Henchard's longin g fo r Farfrae' s friendshi p quickl y reassert s itself ,
however, an d hi s "hear t [sinks ] withi n him " whe n h e realize s wha t h e
has don e (ch . 17) . H e i s "hurt " whe n Farfra e take s hi s dismissa l seri -
ously, showing , a s Susa n ha d don e earlier , tha t h e doe s "no t mea n t o
put u p with hi s temper an y longer." Whe n Susa n an d Donal d thwar t hi s
expansive needs , Henchar d compulsivel y rid s himsel f o f the m bu t the n
is shocke d an d sorr y an d externalize s hi s self-hat e b y blamin g the m fo r
not knowin g tha t h e did no t reall y mean wha t h e had done .
The dismissa l o f Farfra e i s fata l t o Henchard' s fortunes , bu t i t nee d
not hav e bee n so , since the young man i s grateful fo r pas t friendshi p an d
tries to avoi d clashin g wit h him . Hard y make s muc h o f th e differenc e i n
their styles—"Norther n insigh t matche d agains t Souther n doggedness "
(ch. 17)—an d critic s have dwel t o n the conflict betwee n generation s an d
old an d ne w methods , bu t a s Hardy' s famou s citatio n o f Novali s sug -
gests, i t i s Henchard's characte r tha t determine s hi s fate . Whe n Donal d
sets u p a s a cor n an d ha y merchan t o n hi s ow n account , Henchar d feel s
that h e won't b e "wo't h a varden" i f he "can' t overbi d suc h a stripling. "
Because of his own psychology, he feels himself t o be in an all-or-nothin g
situation. H e i s an insecur e ma n wh o i s afraid tha t h e will feel worthles s
if h e canno t defea t hi s riva l an d wi n bac k hi s glory . Hi s irrationa l
resentment o f Farfra e an d nee d fo r vindictiv e triump h ar e primaril y
responsible fo r hi s downfall .
Henchard's rivalr y wit h Farfra e i s intensified b y the frustratio n o f hi s
need fo r love . Indeed, withou t thi s additiona l factor , h e ma y neve r hav e
behaved s o rashl y a s t o rui n himself . Soo n afte r hi s brea k wit h Farfrae ,
Susan dies , an d h e discover s tha t Elizabeth-Jan e i s no t hi s child . Thi s
leaves "a n emotiona l void " tha t h e hope s Lucett a wil l fil l (ch . 26) .
Farfrae's becomin g a riva l fo r he r affectio n add s "a n inflamin g soul " t o
Henchard's nee d fo r competitiv e triumph , an d h e hire s Jopp, givin g hi m
instructions t o "grind " Farfra e "int o th e ground " b y a "desperat e bi d
against hi m fo r th e farmer' s custom. " Henchard' s fortune s no w rapidl y
decline a s h e gamble s o n th e weathe r i n hi s desperat e effor t t o crus h
Farfrae, whil e Farfra e steadil y acquire s al l tha t Henchar d ha s lost —
Lucetta, hi s house an d business , his civic positions.
Henchard's reaction s t o hi s failur e reflec t hi s conflictin g defenses .
Although h e ofte n rebel s agains t hi s fat e an d seek s t o contro l it , h e

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 TR
174 I E MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

also ha s stron g tendencie s towar d detachment . Afte r hi s bankruptcy , h e

literally move s awa y fro m hi s fellows , lodgin g i n Jopp's cottage , wher e
he give s order s tha t h e will se e no one , not eve n Elizabeth-Jane . Hench -
ard's impuls e towar d withdrawa l lead s hi m t o contemplat e emigration ,
but h e relinquishe s th e ide a i n respons e t o th e kindnes s o f Farfrae , wh o
offers hi m room s i n his ol d house , an d o f Elizabeth-Jane , wh o insist s o n
nursing hi m whe n h e become s ill . Bore d wit h nothin g t o do , h e "sto -
ically" ask s t o b e take n o n a s a hay-trusse r i n th e busines s h e ha d
formerly owned , sayin g that hones t wor k i s "no t a thin g t o b e ashame d
of" (ch . 32) .
Under th e influenc e o f kin d treatmen t an d hi s ow n resignation ,
Henchard's injure d prid e seem s fo r a tim e t o b e quiescent . Hard y i s
careful t o poin t out , however , tha t h e i s " a fa r differen t journeyma n
from th e on e h e ha d bee n i n hi s earlie r days " (ch . 32) . The n h e ha d
dressed i n a clean an d colorfu l outfi t appropriat e t o hi s station , wherea s
now h e wears "th e remain s o f a n ol d blu e clot h sui t o f hi s gentlemanl y
times, a rusty sil k hat , an d a once blac k sati n stock , soile d an d shabby. "
His appare l expresse s hi s misery , self-pity , an d sens e o f degradatio n an d
shows that he cannot le t go of his gentlemanly statu s or of his resentmen t
at having lost it. It is a way of refusing t o accep t hi s fate an d dramatizin g
what ha s bee n don e t o him .
Henchard's suppresse d ange r erupt s whe n h e hear s tha t Farfra e wil l
soon b e proposed fo r Mayor , an d fro m thi s poin t unti l thei r fight i n th e
loft hi s aggressiv e tendencie s ar e predominant . Agai n perceivin g Farfra e
as a "triumphan t rival " wh o ha s ridde n "rough-sho d ove r him " (ch .
32), h e become s obsesse d b y th e reversa l o f thei r positions , whic h act s
"like a n irritan t poison " upo n hi m (ch . 33) .
Henchard seek s t o restor e hi s prid e b y triumphin g ove r Farfrae , bu t
he i s inhibite d b y hi s inne r conflicts . Intendin g t o revea l tha t th e letter s
in hi s saf e wer e writte n b y Lucetta , h e finds tha t "suc h a wreckin g o f
hearts appallfs ] eve n him " (ch . 34) . Hi s compunctiou s sid e manifest s
itself agai n whe n Lucett a meet s hi m a t th e Rin g an d beg s hi m no t t o
destroy her . Rememberin g hi s earlie r encounte r ther e wit h Susan , "an -
other ill-use d woman, " h e i s "unmanned " an d "hi s hear t [smites ] hi m
for havin g attempte d reprisal s o n on e o f a se x s o weak " (ch . 35) . Th e
aggressive Henchard ca n take no satisfaction i n hunting such "ver y smal l
deer," whil e th e complian t Henchar d i s move d b y Lucetta' s sufferin g
and woul d fee l guilt y i f he injured suc h a fragile creature . H e ha d begu n
to wan t Lucett a strongl y himsel f onl y whe n sh e becam e feist y an d wa s

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 5

enveloped b y th e glamou r o f havin g inherite d mone y an d bein g courte d

by anothe r man . No w tha t h e see s he r a s weak , "hi s ol d feelin g o f
supercilious pit y fo r womankin d i n general " returns . With hi s contemp t
for self-effacin g females , h e feel s tha t Farfra e ha s "marrie d money , bu t
nothing more, " an d hi s envy disappears .
Henchard nex t trie s t o restor e hi s prid e b y greetin g th e roya l visitor ,
even thoug h th e Tow n Counci l ha s refuse d hi s request . Whil e everyon e
else a t th e festivit y "shon e i n ne w vestur e accordin g t o means, " Hench -
ard "doggedl y retaine d th e frette d an d weather-beate n garment s o f by -
gone years " (ch . 37) . T o dres s i n a n appropriat e manne r woul d b e
accepting hi s positio n a s a commo n journeyman , wherea s throug h hi s
shabby gentil e appare l h e seem s t o b e assertin g a clai m t o specia l statu s
on th e basi s o f pas t grandeu r an d th e patho s o f hi s presen t lot . A t th e
same time , he i s ensuring tha t hi s claim wil l no t b e honored an d tha t h e
will hav e a n additiona l basi s fo r resentment . H e seem s t o wan t t o fee d
his sens e o f outrage . Whe n Farfra e roughl y prevent s hi m fro m greetin g
the Illustrious Personage , Henchard feel s this to b e "th e crowning degra -
dation" fo r whic h th e young Mayo r mus t pa y (ch . 38) .
Henchard mean s to kill Farfrae whe n h e fights him in the granary, bu t
when Farfra e challenge s hi m t o carr y ou t hi s intent, Henchard' s lov e fo r
him rise s t o th e surfac e an d h e canno t d o so . Overwhelme d wit h
"shame," "remorse, " an d "self-reproach, " h e invite s Farfra e t o hav e
him arreste d an d fling s himsel f dow n i n a stat e o f "abandonment " (ch .
38). Whe n Hard y write s tha t th e "womanliness " o f hi s "crouchin g
attitude" sa t "tragicall y o n the figure o f s o stern a piece of virility," h e is
pointing i n hi s wa y t o th e dissonanc e betwee n th e conflictin g side s o f
Henchard's personality .

Henchard ha d se t ou t t o restor e hi s prid e b y takin g reveng e o n Farfra e

and provin g himsel f th e bette r man , bu t thi s lead s hi m t o th e verg e o f
murder, and , torture d b y hi s "self-accusin g soul " (ch . 39) , h e become s
abjectly self-effacing . H e seek s pardo n fo r hi s "ma d attack " an d ago -
nizes ove r th e though t tha t Farfra e wil l hat e an d despis e hi m forever .
When hi s effor t t o redee m himsel f b y doin g Farfra e a servic e fails , h e i s
saved from despai r b y the presence o f Elizabeth-Jane , who seem s " a pin -
point o f light " i n "th e mids t o f hi s gloom" (ch . 40). With al l else lost, h e
begins to "drea m o f a future li t by her filial presence, as though tha t wa y
alone coul d happines s lie " (ch . 41).
Elizabeth-Jane i s bot h a sourc e o f affectio n an d a mean s o f restorin g

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176 I THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

his pride . Afte r h e discovere d tha t sh e wa s no t reall y hi s daughter , h e

became irritate d wit h he r humble , unrefine d way s an d wante d he r ou t
of hi s house , bu t jus t befor e sh e lef t h e caugh t a glimps e o f he r accom -
plishments an d wishe d sh e woul d stay . Hi s estee m continue d t o grow ,
enabling hi m to transfer hi s pride t o he r afte r hi s downfall. H e glorie s i n
Elizabeth-Jane's self-effacin g qualities , he r purit y an d goodness , an d
satisfies hi s need fo r preeminenc e vicariousl y throug h her .
Since ther e woul d b e "nobod y fo r hi m t o b e prou d of , nobod y t o
fortify him " (ch . 41) without Elizabeth-Jane , Henchar d become s desper -
ate a t th e prospec t o f losin g her . Hi s tellin g Newso n sh e i s dea d i s "th e
last defiant wor d o f a despair which [takes ] no thought o f consequences "
(ch. 42). In drea d o f Newson' s return , h e finds i t "unendurable " tha t h e
might liv e fo r anothe r thirt y o r fort y year s t o b e "scoffe d at " o r "pit -
ied" (ch. 41 ) an d i s o n th e verg e o f suicid e whe n h e i s "resuscitated " b y
Elizabeth-Jane's proposa l tha t the y liv e together .
Henchard's fea r o f losin g Elizabeth-Jan e make s hi m suppres s hi s ag -
gressive tendencies . H e woul d hav e decline d th e offe r o f a smal l see d
and roo t busines s o n hi s ow n account , bu t h e "fetter[s ] hi s prid e suffi -
ciently" t o accep t i t fo r he r sak e (ch . 42) . Sinc e he r "sympathy " i s
"necessary t o hi s ver y existence, " h e become s a "nette d lion " wh o i s
"anxious no t t o piqu e her. " He r "wor d [is ] law" an d sh e ha s "he r ow n
way i n everything. " H e i s i n anguis h a t th e though t o f a renewe d
acquaintance betwee n Elizabeth-Jan e an d Farfrae , bu t h e observe s he r
secretly and makes no complaint. Suc h stealth is not part o f his "origina l
make," say s Hardy, bu t "th e solicitus timor o f his love—the dependenc e
on Elizabeth' s regar d int o which h e had decline d (or , in another sens e t o
which h e had advanced)—denaturalize d him. "
As the preceding sentenc e shows, it is sometimes difficul t t o determin e
Hardy's attitud e towar d Henchar d i n thi s par t o f th e novel . I n general ,
he i s critical o f th e expansiv e Henchard , who m h e compare s t o Faust —
"a vehemen t gloom y bein g wh o ha d quitte d th e way s o f vulga r me n
without ligh t t o guid e hi m o n a bette r way " (ch . 17) ; an d h e i s sympa -
thetic towar d th e self-effacin g Henchard , wh o b y hi s ne w light s ha s
achieved highe r things . Thus he characterizes Henchard' s dependenc e o n
Elizabeth-Jane's regar d a s a n advance . Bu t h e als o characterize s i t a s a
decline. I t ma y b e th e expansiv e Henchar d wh o i s regardin g hi s depen -
dence a s a decline , bu t th e sentenc e doe s no t specificall y attribut e thi s
sentiment to him. Is Hardy tryin g to sugges t that what Henchar d regard s
as a declin e i s reall y a n advance ? O r i s ther e a conflic t i n th e narrato r

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 The Mayor of Caster bridge | 17 7

similar t o tha t i n Henchard , s o tha t hi s expansiv e sid e regard s th e

dependence a s a declin e whil e hi s complian t sid e regard s i t a s a n ad -
vance? I s Hard y tryin g t o invok e th e parado x o f th e fortunat e fal l i n
which Henchar d mus t declin e in order t o advance ? Th e text provide s n o
clear answe r t o thes e questions , an d w e mus t wonde r i f ther e i s a n
ambivalence i n Hard y tha t i s responsible fo r it s imprecis e languag e an d
slipperiness.
In a late r passag e Hard y write s tha t Henchar d woul d hav e bee n
content i f Elizabeth-Jane ha d los t her hear t t o an y man "tha n th e on e h e
had rivalled , cursed , wrestle d wit h fo r lif e i n day s befor e hi s spiri t wa s
broken" (ch . 42) . Fro m whos e perspectiv e ha s Henchard' s spiri t bee n
broken? Th e languag e doe s no t clearl y indicat e tha t th e perspectiv e i s
Henchard's, althoug h w e ca n se e fro m th e mimeti c portrai t tha t h e
regards hi s submissivenes s wit h contempt . I f thi s i s th e narrator' s per -
spective, the n th e assertio n tha t Henchard' s spiri t ha s bee n broke n i s i n
conflict wit h th e vie w that h e has advance d throug h hi s dependenc e an d
attained highe r things .
A psychological analysi s doe s no t sho w Henchar d a s havin g attaine d
higher things bu t a s having changed defensiv e strategie s a s a result o f th e
failure o f hi s predominan t solution . H e stil l ha s expansiv e attitude s tha t
lead hi m t o despis e hi s abjectness , bu t hi s nee d o f Elizabeth-Jan e i s s o
great tha t h e wil l g o t o almos t an y length s t o remai n par t o f he r life .
When h e see s tha t sh e an d Farfra e ar e headin g towar d marriage , h e
becomes convince d tha t the y regar d hi m a s "a n irksom e obstacl e who m
they would b e heartily glad to get out o f the way," and h e has an impuls e
to "escap e thos e wh o di d no t wan t him , an d hid e hi s hea d forever " (ch .
43). But he clings to the hope tha t a separation wil l not b e necessary an d
envisions a n alternat e scenari o i n which h e will liv e "lik e a fangles s lio n
about th e back rooms o f a house in which hi s stepdaughter wa s mistress ;
an inoffensiv e ol d man , tenderl y smile d o n b y Elizabeth , an d good -
naturedly tolerate d b y her husband." Althoug h i t is "terribl e t o his prid e
to thin k o f descendin g s o low, " "fo r th e girl' s sak e h e migh t pu t u p
with anything ; even from Farfrae ; eve n snubbing s an d masterfu l tongue -
scourgings." Th e dependenc y o f thi s onc e prou d ma n o n Elizabeth-Jan e
is pathetic.
The reappearanc e o f Newso n put s a n en d t o Henchard' s oscillatio n
between thought s o f submissio n an d o f runnin g away , bu t h e woul d
have ha d n o viabl e solutio n eve n i f Newso n ha d no t returned . H e feel s
that th e "privileg e o f bein g i n th e house " wit h Elizabeth-Jan e "woul d

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178 I THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

almost outweig h th e persona l humiliation " (ch . 43) . Th e crucia l wor d

here i s almost. I t i s impossibl e fo r Henchar d t o liv e withou t Elizabeth -
Jane's affection , bu t i t would b e agonizin g fo r hi m t o remai n wit h he r if
she married Farfrae .
After Newson' s return , Henchar d trie s t o cop e wit h hi s pain throug h
self-effacement an d resignation . Convince d tha t Elizabeth-Jan e wil l
"hate an d despis e him " a s "a n arch-deceiver, " h e seek s t o protec t him -
self fro m furthe r blow s b y gettin g "ou t o f sight " (ch . 43). Accepting hi s
station a t last , h e don s th e appare l o f hi s yout h an d goe s fort h a s a
journeyman haytrusser :

"If I ha d onl y go t he r wit h me—i f I onl y had! " h e said . "Har d wor k
would be nothing to me then! But that was not to be. I—Cain—go alon e
as I deserve—a n outcas t an d a vagabond . Bu t m y punishmen t i s not
greater than I can bear!"
He sternly subdued his anguish. . . . (Ch. 43)

Henchard deal s wit h hi s los s o f Elizabeth-Jan e i n a self-effacin g wa y b y

telling himsel f h e deserve s it . I n comparin g himsel f t o Cain , h e exagger -
ates hi s guilt, giving his sins a kind o f grandeur . Althoug h h e is ashame d
of his behavior , h e takes pride in his self-condemnation, whic h i s a mar k
of hi s high mora l standards . H e i s also prou d o f hi s abilit y to repres s hi s
anguish an d bea r hi s punishmen t stoically . Indeed , Henchar d i s no w
predominantly detached . W e hav e see n thi s sid e o f hi m befor e i n hi s
"cynical indifference " i n th e openin g scen e an d hi s resigne d respons e t o
the discover y o f Elizabeth-Jane' s parentage : " I a m t o suffer , I perceive "
(ch. 19) .
With th e collaps e first o f hi s ambitio n an d the n o f hi s attemp t t o
replace ambitio n b y love , Henchar d lose s interes t i n life , whic h h e
perceives t o b e absurd : "I t wa s a n od d sequenc e tha t ou t o f al l thi s
tampering wit h socia l la w came that flower o f Nature, Elizabeth . Part o f
his wis h t o was h hi s hand s o f lif e aros e fro m hi s perceptio n o f it s
contrarious inconsistencies—o f Nature' s jaunt y readines s t o suppor t
unorthodox socia l principles " (ch . 44) . The guilt-ridde n Henchar d ma y
well find i t puzzlin g tha t th e wonderfu l Elizabeth-Jan e i s the produc t o f
the illegitimat e unio n betwee n Susa n an d Newso n tha t wa s brough t
about b y hi s crime , bu t hi s desir e t o was h hi s hand s o f lif e arise s fro m
his persona l malais e rathe r tha n fro m th e "contrariou s inconsistencies "
of Nature . H e i s indulging i n th e sam e kin d o f externalizatio n tha t i s s o

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 17 9

typical o f Thomas Hardy : th e problem i s not in me but in the nature of

the univers e (se e Paris 1976a) .
Hardy attribute s th e departur e o f Henchard' s "zes t fo r doing " t o
"the ingeniou s machiner y contrive d b y th e God s fo r reducin g huma n
possibilities o f amelioratio n t o a minimum " (ch . 44). Henchard i s onl y
forty and , accordin g t o Hardy , ther e i s "nothin g t o hinde r hi s makin g
another star t o n the upward slope " an d achieving highe r thing s tha n h e
was capabl e o f before ; bu t he has "n o wish t o mak e a n aren a a secon d
time o f a worl d tha t ha d becom e a mer e painte d scen e t o him. " His
disillusionment ha s nothing t o d o wit h th e ingeniou s machiner y o f the
Gods (o r even wit h th e plot contrivance s tha t confir m Hardy' s visio n of
an ironi c universe). It is a result o f the collapse o f his expansive an d self-
effacing solutions , whic h ar e unworkable becaus e the y ar e compulsive ,
out o f touc h wit h reality , an d i n conflic t wit h eac h other . Lif e seem s
absurd whe n ou r defensive strategie s fail .
Henchard's sens e of the world a s "a mere painted scene " is not simply
a product o f disillusionment bu t is also a new defense: it reduces his self-
hate b y attributin g hi s pligh t t o th e natur e o f thing s an d alleviate s hi s
pain b y suggesting tha t ther e ar e no genuine satisfaction s fro m whic h he
is excluded sinc e al l is illusion an d vanity. His state of mind a t this poin t
is simila r t o that o f Macbeth i n his "Tomorro w an d tomorrow" speec h
(see Paris 1991a) .
But Henchar d canno t achiev e th e detachmen t t o whic h h e aspires .
His "centrifuga l tendency " t o distanc e himsel f fro m Casterbridg e i s
"counteracted b y the centripetal influenc e o f his love for his step-daugh-
ter" (ch . 44). Compliance an d detachmen t ar e so evenl y balance d tha t
Henchard's movement s towar d an d away fro m other s cance l eac h othe r
out. Th e circl e forme d b y hi s wandering s aroun d Casterbridg e i s a n
objective correlativ e o f his inner conflict . Althoug h h e feels that , havin g
seen throug h it s deceptive appearances , h e has washed hi s hands o f life ,
he continue s t o b e obsessed wit h Elizabeth-Jane , conjecturin g wha t sh e
is doing "ever y hour—nay , ever y few minutes."
Henchard call s himsel f a "fool " an d "sneer[s ] a t himsel f fo r hi s
weakness," bu t when he hears of the upcoming marriage he cannot resis t
making on e more attemp t t o b e reconciled wit h Elizabeth-Jane : "i t was
worth th e risk o f repulse , ay , of lif e itself " (ch . 44). The issue is one of
life an d deat h t o Henchard , sinc e h e feel s tha t h e canno t g o o n alone .
Despite hi s pride i n his ability t o endur e suffering , h e is not the stuff o f

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180 | THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

which stoic s are made. He determine s "t o plead hi s cause" an d "endeav -

our strenuously " t o hol d a place i n Elizabeth-Jane' s heart , bu t whe n sh e
taxes hi m wit h decei t an d say s tha t sh e canno t lov e hi m a s sh e did , h e
does no t plea d hi s cause . His lip s hal f par t t o begi n a n explanation , bu t
he "shut[s ] the m u p lik e a vice, " whil e th e narrato r rehearse s th e argu -
ments h e might hav e advance d t o extenuat e hi s behavior .
To understand Henchard' s strang e behavio r i n this scene , we must se e
it i n th e contex t o f th e oscillation s betwee n hop e an d despai r t o whic h
he becomes subject onc e he centers his life on Elizabeth-Jane. After bein g
on th e verg e o f suicide , h e i s resuscitated whe n sh e move s i n wit h him ,
but onc e sh e begin s seein g Farfrae , h e become s convince d tha t h e wil l
end hi s lif e i n "friendles s solitude " (ch . 42) . H e ha s a n impuls e t o ru n
away bu t the n reflect s tha t "th e throbbin g pair " ma y no t regar d hi m a s
an "irksom e obstacle " afte r al l an d begin s t o envisio n th e possibilit y o f
living wit h the m (ch . 43) . Whe n Newso n returns , Henchar d leave s be -
fore Elizabeth-Jan e ha s a chanc e t o denounc e hi m bu t the n begin s t o
wonder i f "hi s ow n absolut e separatio n fro m her " i s reall y necessar y
(ch. 44) . Hopin g tha t "hi s unanticipate d presence " wil l fill a "littl e
unsatisfied corner " o f he r heart , h e decide s t o atten d th e wedding , bu t
as th e reunio n approache s hi s spirit s sink . Fearin g "circumstance s h e
would formerl y hav e scorned, " h e "sadl y satirize[s ] himself " a s a "Sam -
son shorn " an d begin s t o wis h h e ha d no t come . He ask s a housekeepe r
to announc e hi m a s " a humbl e ol d friend. " Whe n Elizabeth-Jan e greet s
him coldl y a s "Mr . Henchard " an d attack s hi m fo r havin g deceive d he r
and he r rea l father , hi s hope s collapse , leavin g hi m unabl e t o plea d hi s
cause.
Having los t al l hop e o f a reconciliation , Henchar d trie s t o defen d
himself i n a variet y o f ways . No t wishin g t o b e perceive d a s a patheti c
figure, h e addresse s Elizabeth-Jan e "wit h prou d superiority, " tellin g he r
not t o distres s hersel f o n hi s accoun t (ch . 44) . Revertin g t o hi s detach -
ment, h e present s himsel f a s no t needin g he r concern . H e ask s forgive -
ness fo r havin g disturbe d he r o n he r weddin g day , thu s presentin g him -
self a s concerned abou t he r eve n thoug h sh e i s unforgivin g towar d him .
This may be a response to her accusation s o f cruelty an d wickedness . H e
tries to restore hi s moral positio n b y regarding "onl y her discomposure "
and behavin g wit h a certai n gallantry . Beneat h hi s words i s a grea t dea l
of rag e an d pai n tha t h e conveys indirectl y b y telling Elizabeth-Jane tha t
he will never trouble he r again , not t o his dying day, and biddin g her no t
only goo d nigh t bu t good-bye . H e seem s t o wan t t o leav e he r i n th e

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 18 1

position o f havin g wounded hi m mortally, hoping, perhaps, that sh e will

regret what sh e has done .
Henchard quickl y departs , befor e Elizabeth-Jan e ca n "collec t he r
thoughts," apparentl y wantin g t o nurs e hi s grievanc e an d t o leav e he r
feeling uncomfortabl e (ch . 44) . H e act s a s thoug h h e ha s bee n harshl y
rejected, bu t thi s i s not th e case . When h e pleads wit h Elizabeth-Jan e t o
"save a littl e room " fo r him , sh e flushe s u p an d "gentl y [draws ] he r
hand away. " Sh e does no t tel l him tha t sh e n o longe r love s him bu t tha t
she canno t lov e a s sh e "onc e di d a ma n wh o ha s serve d u s lik e this. "
Henchard coul d hav e explained tha t h e had bee n deceived b y her mothe r
and tha t hi s li e to Newso n cam e fro m hi s desperat e nee d o f her , bu t h e
refuses t o defen d himself . Hi s reticenc e i s partl y th e resul t o f hi s no t
sufficiently valuin g himsel f "t o lesse n hi s suffering b y a strenuou s ap -
peal," bu t ther e i s als o bitternes s i n i t an d a determinatio n t o fee d hi s
despair. A self-dramatizin g ma n t o th e end , Henchar d want s t o fee l
himself th e mos t alienated , abandoned , an d misunderstoo d o f mortals .
It would hav e give n him satisfactio n t o kno w tha t Elizabeth-Jan e relent s
and seek s "t o mak e he r peac e wit h him " (ch . 45) , an d h e woul d hav e
been pleased tha t sh e arrives to o late .
Michael Henchard's will reflects th e same kinds of conflicting feelings ,
needs, and defense s tha t ar e operative i n his last meeting with Elizabeth -
Jane. I t reassert s hi s prid e b y expressin g hi s lac k o f nee d o f other s an d
indifference t o thei r lov e an d respect . I t i s als o ful l o f self-hat e an d self -
condemnation: h e doe s no t deserv e t o b e burie d i n consecrate d groun d
or t o b e mourne d an d remembered . H e seem s t o b e continuin g hi s self -
punishment fro m beyon d th e grav e b y obliteratin g himself , a n extrem e
form o f self-effacement . Th e wil l i s also a n ac t o f control , a n attemp t t o
master hi s fat e i n a negativ e wa y sinc e h e canno t d o s o triumphantly .
Henchard appear s t o b e protectiv e o f Elizabeth-Jan e b y directin g tha t
she not b e told o f his death "o r mad e to grieve on accoun t o f [him] " (ch .
45), but ther e i s a good dea l o f posturing here , as there was i n their fina l
encounter. I s no t Henchar d tryin g t o heighte n th e patho s o f hi s fate ,
even whil e forbiddin g other s t o fee l fo r him ? Fo r who m i s th e wil l
written, i f no t fo r Elizabeth-Jane ? Sh e understand s th e bitternes s an d
reproach i t expresses: " O I would no t hav e minded s o much i f it had no t
been fo r m y unkindnes s a t tha t las t parting! " He r regret s fo r havin g
"misunderstood hi m o n hi s last visit " an d "fo r no t havin g searche d hi m
out sooner " ar e "dee p an d shar p fo r a goo d while, " whic h i s exactl y
what Henchar d woul d hav e wanted. H e i s hardly a caveman o r a bull i n

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182 I THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

a chin a shop , bu t a ver y complicated , vulnerabl e ma n wh o i s destroye d

by his inner conflicts .

While Henchar d i s the her o o f a tragi c educatio n plot , Elizabeth-Jan e i s

the protagonis t i n a comi c vindicatio n action . Whe n w e first mee t her ,
she i s a youn g woma n wit h excellen t qualitie s whos e socia l an d eco -
nomic deprivation s have prevented he r from developin g her physical an d
mental potentialities . He r situatio n quickl y change s whe n he r mother' s
remarriage t o Henchar d give s he r wealt h an d socia l position . Wit h
nourishing foo d an d ne w clothes , the plai n gir l turn s int o a beauty , an d
she no w ha s th e opportunit y t o educat e herself . He r goo d qualitie s ar e
recognized b y Donal d Farfrae , wh o woul d lik e t o marr y her . Thi s earl y
transformation o f he r conditio n i s suddenl y reverse d whe n Henchar d
turns agains t he r o n discoverin g tha t sh e is not hi s daughter an d Farfra e
falls i n love with Lucetta . Elizabeth-Jan e suffer s greatl y fro m thes e rejec -
tions, despit e he r effort s a t stoicism , an d ther e seem s t o b e littl e likeli -
hood tha t sh e wil l eve r b e treate d i n accordanc e wit h he r deserts . He r
fortunes ris e toward th e end, however, a s those of Henchard an d Lucett a
decline. Th e "educated " Henchar d worship s her , and , afte r hi s experi -
ence with Lucetta, Farfrae appreciate s her all the more. At the conclusio n
of th e novel , th e previousl y slighte d Elizabeth-Jan e marrie s th e town' s
most eligibl e man . Whe n sh e i s reunite d wit h Newson , hi s "prid e i n
what sh e had grow n u p t o b e was mor e tha n h e could express " (ch . 43),
and he r importanc e t o Henchard i s such that h e cannot liv e without her .
As i s typica l i n a vindicatio n pattern , Elizabeth-Jan e i s increasingl y
surrounded b y praise a s the nove l progresses . Sh e receives tribute s fro m
Lucetta, Henchard , an d Farfrae , a s wel l a s fro m Newson . A s i s als o
typical i n thi s pattern , ther e ar e rhetorica l device s tha t conve y th e im -
plied author' s assessmen t o f th e protagonist' s wort h eve n whe n sh e i s
being devalue d b y othe r characters . Whil e Henchar d harshl y criticize s
Elizabeth-Jane fo r bein g considerate o f the servants , using dialect words ,
and havin g serve d a t th e Thre e Mariners , th e narrato r describe s he r
thoughtfulness an d th e effort s a t self-educatio n o f whic h Henchar d i s
unaware: "Thu s sh e lived on , a dumb , deep-feeling , great-eye d creature ,
construed b y no t a singl e contiguou s being " (ch . 20) . Sh e i s construe d
by the narrator, however , wh o enter s into her feelings an d celebrate s he r
virtues.
Hardy tend s to praise Elizabeth-Jan e fo r characteristic s tha t ar e muc h

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 18 3

like hi s own , suc h a s he r dee p feeling , thirs t fo r knowledge , an d seri -

ousness o f mind . I n on e passag e h e ha s he r engagin g i n metaphysica l
reflections:

All this while the subtle-souled girl [was] asking herself why she was born,
why sitting in a room, and blinking at the candle; why things around he r
had taken the shape they wore in preference to every other possible shape.
Why they stare d a t he r s o helplessly, a s if waiting fo r th e touch o f som e
wand that should release them from terrestrial constraint; what that chaos
called consciousness, which spun in her at this moment like a top, tended
to, and began in. (Ch. 19)

Although thes e thought s ar e no t incommensurat e wit h he r psychology ,

as w e shal l see , the y ar e muc h mor e typica l o f Hard y tha n the y ar e o f
Elizabeth-Jane, who doe s not engag e i n suc h reflection s again .
If w e examin e th e novel' s rhetori c fro m a Horneya n perspective , w e
find tha t fo r th e mos t par t i t celebrates Elizabeth-Jane' s self-effacin g an d
resigned tendencies , which i t contrast s favorabl y wit h th e expansivenes s
of Henchar d an d Lucetta . Th e mimesi s subvert s th e rhetoric , a s i t doe s
with th e "educated " Henchard , b y showin g tha t th e behavio r bein g
glorified i s rigid an d defensive .
A timid , unassumin g perso n wit h lo w self-esteem , Elizabeth-Jan e i s
compulsively self-minimizing . Feelin g safes t i n a humbl e position , sh e
becomes anxiou s when sh e finds herself raise d abov e other s an d seek s t o
diminish hersel f i n som e way . Sh e i s uncomfortabl e whe n sh e become s
the "tow n beauty " an d tell s hersel f tha t perhap s sh e i s bein g admire d
"by those whose admiration i s not worth having " (ch . 15) . People woul d
despise he r i f the y onl y kne w "wha t a n unfinishe d girl " sh e is , that sh e
cannot "tal k Italian , o r us e globes, o r sho w an y o f th e accomplishment s
they lear n a t boardin g schools. " Althoug h Hard y assure s u s tha t sh e i s
more beautifu l an d intelligen t tha n Lucetta , Elizabeth-Jan e regard s Lu -
cetta a s vastly superior , subordinate s hersel f t o her , an d think s i t natura l
that Farfra e shoul d find he r mor e attractive . Th e narrato r attribute s th e
behavior towar d servant s tha t s o irritate s Henchar d t o Elizabeth-Jane' s
"considerate disposition " (ch . 20) , bu t i t i s anothe r instanc e o f he r
compulsive nee d t o avoi d a positio n o f superiority . Sh e goe s t o th e
kitchen instea d o f ringing , get s dow n o n he r knee s t o gathe r spille d
coals, and "persistentl y thank[s ] th e parlour-maid fo r everything. "
Elizabeth-Jane ha s numerou s othe r self-effacin g traits . Sh e feel s i t
degrading t o serv e a t the Thre e Mariners , but , lik e the mothe r o n who m

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184 I THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

she models herself, she always has " a willingness to sacrifice he r persona l
comfort an d dignit y t o th e commo n weal " (ch . 4) . Susa n return s t o
Henchard mainl y "t o advanc e Elizabeth. " Whe n Henchar d scold s he r
for usin g dialec t words, Elizabeth-Jane humbl y apologizes , an d whe n h e
treats he r s o cruell y tha t sh e wishe s sh e wer e dead , sh e blame s hersel f
instead o f him : "Al l i s owin g t o m y defects , I daresay " (ch . 20) . Afte r
Henchard i s disgraced, sh e "believe[s ] i n him still, " although n o on e els e
does, an d want s "t o b e allowe d t o forgiv e hi m fo r hi s roughness t o her ,
and t o hel p him i n his trouble" (ch . 31) . Although Henchar d ha s treate d
her unfairly , sh e canno t allo w hersel f t o fee l resentmen t an d i s ready t o
turn th e othe r cheek . Sh e ha s n o basi s fo r he r belie f i n hi m excep t th e
needs o f he r ow n defens e system . Sh e wants t o hel p him i n his trouble i n
part becaus e sh e ha s n o lif e o f he r ow n an d gain s a sens e o f meanin g
and purpos e b y livin g fo r others . Whe n Henchar d want s he r ou t o f th e
house i n hi s day s o f prosperity , sh e become s deepl y "depresse d b y a
sense o f he r ow n superfluity " (ch . 20) .
Elizabeth-Jane i s b y n o mean s entirel y self-effacing . Lik e Henchard ,
she ha s inne r conflicts . Sh e respond s t o he r sens e o f lowlines s an d
inadequacy no t onl y b y bein g modest , submissive , an d self-sacrificial ,
but als o b y developing a compensatory desir e for elevatio n an d triumph .
She simultaneousl y need s t o b e humbl e an d t o fee d he r pride . Althoug h
she i s uncomfortabl e whe n sh e assume s he r positio n a s mayor' s daugh -
ter, sh e feels a n initia l "elation " a t "discoverin g hersel f aki n t o a coach "
(ch. 5) . Sh e i s immediatel y draw n t o Farfra e becaus e h e i s "respectabl e
and educated—fa r abov e th e res t o f 'e m i n th e inn " (ch . 8) , just a s sh e
wishes t o b e herself . Despit e he r humility , sh e i s hur t whe n h e leave s
without sayin g good-bye , indicatin g tha t sh e has loft y claims . Elizabeth -
Jane's ambitio n i s mos t eviden t i n he r intens e desir e fo r "wide r knowl -
edge" an d "highe r repute " (ch . 4) . Sh e feel s inferio r becaus e sh e lack s
the accomplishment s tha t girl s lear n a t boardin g schools , an d he r min d
runs "o n acquirement s t o a n almos t morbi d degree " (ch . 22) . Sh e i s
driven t o engag e i n th e laboriou s stud y tha t th e self-taugh t Hard y s o
admires b y her profound sens e of inadequac y an d he r desir e to rise .
Another o f Elizabeth-Jane' s morbi d preoccupation s i s he r concer n
with respectability . This , too , i s apparentl y compensatory , bu t Hardy' s
account i s s o confusin g tha t i t i s har d t o tel l wha t sh e i s compensatin g
for. Whe n sh e take s th e uncompromisin g positio n tha t i n vie w o f thei r
past relationshi p Lucett a mus t marr y Henchar d o r n o on e a t all , th e
narrator explain s tha t

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 The Mayor of Caster bridge | 18 5

any suspicion of impropriety was to Elizabeth-Jane like a red rag to a bull.

Her cravin g fo r correctnes s o f procedur e was , indeed , almos t vicious .
Owing t o he r earl y trouble s wit h regar d t o he r mothe r a semblanc e o f
irregularity had terrors for he r which those whose names are safeguarde d
from suspicio n know nothing of. (Ch . 30)
Earlier, Elizabeth-Jan e ha d tol d Lucett a tha t Henchar d wa s col d towar d
her "becaus e h e doe s no t thin k I a m respectable . I hav e trie d t o b e s o
more tha n yo u ca n imagine , bu t i n vain ! M y mother' s separatio n fro m
my fathe r wa s unfortunat e fo r me . Yo u don' t kno w wha t i t i s t o hav e
shadows lik e that upo n you r life " (ch . 24) .
This i s confusin g becaus e nea r th e beginnin g o f th e nove l w e ar e
informed tha t Susa n ha d no t tol d Elizabeth-Jan e abou t Henchar d an d
had n o misgiving s abou t he r unio n wit h Newson . I t wa s no t unti l he r
daughter was close to eighteen years of age that a friend ridicule d Susan' s
acceptance o f he r positio n an d destroye d he r peac e o f mind . Perceivin g
this, Newso n ha d new s sen t tha t h e ha d bee n los t a t sea , an d Susa n fel t
free t o see k ou t Henchard, who m sh e described t o Elizabeth-Jane simpl y
as a relative. If, a s the narrator tell s us, Elizabeth-Jane "ha d grow n u p i n
the belie f tha t th e relation s betwee n th e genia l sailo r an d he r mothe r
were th e ordinar y one s tha t the y ha d alway s appeare d t o be " (ch . 4) ,
what were the early troubles an d th e shado w upo n he r life that produce d
her intens e cravin g for respectability ?
Whatever th e source , Elizabeth-Jan e ha s a n anxiet y abou t bein g re -
spectable tha t make s he r punctilious i n he r ow n behavio r an d moralisti c
in he r dealing s wit h others . Thi s i s i n keepin g wit h he r overal l sens e o f
deficiency, fo r whic h sh e need s t o compensat e b y gainin g highe r repute .
Driven b y tyrannica l shoulds , sh e compulsivel y complie s wit h estab -
lished manner s an d moral s an d ha s a grea t fea r o f th e increase d self -
contempt sh e woul d fee l i f sh e faile d t o d o so . Sh e i s s o read y t o blam e
herself an d t o accep t criticis m fro m other s becaus e sh e is ashamed o f he r
origins an d o f what sh e feels to b e her persona l inadequacies .

Elizabeth-Jane i s driven i n opposit e directions : toward meekness , humil -

ity, an d unobtrusivenes s o n th e on e han d an d towar d socia l elevation ,
personal accomplishment , an d mora l superiorit y o n th e other . He r pre -
dominant defense , however , i s detachment . Sh e i s deepl y resigned . Sh e
feels tha t lif e i s " a tragica l rathe r tha n a comica l thing ; that thoug h on e
could b e ga y o n occasion , moment s o f gaiet y wer e interludes , an d n o
part o f th e actua l drama " (ch . 8) . Durin g th e "triumphant " tim e whe n

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186 | THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

she i s bein g indulge d b y Henchard , sh e guard s hersel f agains t he r

"lighter moods " (ch . 14) . Becaus e sh e ha d "know n roug h times , light -
heartedness seemed to her too irrational and inconsequent to be indulged
in excep t a s a reckles s dra m no w an d then ; fo r sh e ha d bee n to o earl y
habituated t o anxiou s reasonin g t o dro p th e habi t suddenly. " Thu s sh e
tempers her triumph "b y circumspection": "sh e had stil l that field-mouse
fear o f th e coulte r o f destin y despit e fai r promise , whic h i s commo n
among the thoughtful wh o hav e suffere d earl y from povert y an d oppres -
sion" (ch . 14) .
Here an d elsewher e Hard y attribute s Elizabeth-Jane' s guardednes s t o
her hars h childhood , jus t as he had attribute d he r craving for correctnes s
to earl y troubles . Again , however , th e fe w detail s h e provide s abou t he r
childhood giv e a differen t pictur e fro m hi s broa d characterization s o f it .
Susan Henchar d goe s wit h Newso n t o Canada , wher e he r daughte r b y
Henchard die s an d sh e ha s anothe r chil d who m sh e als o name s Eliza -
beth-Jane. Although the y live there "withou t an y great worldly success, "
Susan work s har d "t o kee p thei r cottag e cheerfu l an d well-provided "
(ch. 4). When Elizabeth-Jan e i s twelve years old , they return t o England ,
where Newso n make s a living a s boatman an d genera l hand y shoreman .
They canno t provid e th e chil d wit h opportunitie s fo r development , bu t
they ar e no t impoverished , an d i t is difficult t o se e why Elizabeth-Jan e i s
habituated t o anxiou s reasonin g an d ha s com e t o regar d lif e a s tragic .
Her mothe r i s devoted t o her , an d sh e tells Henchard tha t Newso n "wa s
very kind— O s o kind! " (ch . 19) . Fro m wha t "oppression " ha s sh e
suffered?
There i s on e passage , I think , tha t ca n hel p u s t o understan d th e
sources of Elizabeth-Jane's resignation . Afte r receivin g news of Newson' s
death, Susa n sit s one da y "survey[ing ] he r daughte r thoughtfully" :

Her face, though somewhat wan and incomplete, possessed the raw mate-
rials of beaut y i n a promising degree . There was an under-handsomenes s
in it, struggling to reveal itself throug h the provisional curves of immatu -
rity, an d th e casua l disfigurement s tha t resulte d fro m th e straitene d cir -
cumstances o f thei r lives . She was handsom e i n th e bone , hardl y a s yet
handsome in the flesh. She possibly might never be fully handsome, unless
the carkin g accident s o f he r dail y existenc e coul d b e evade d befor e th e
mobile parts of her countenance had settled to their final mould.
The sight of the girl made her mother sad . . . . They both were still in
that strait-waistcoat of poverty from which she had tried so many times to
be delivere d fo r th e girl' s sake . Th e woma n ha d lon g perceive d ho w

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 The Mayor of Caster bridge | 18 7

zealously and constantly the young mind of her companion was struggling
for enlargement ; and yet now, in her eighteenth year, it still remained bu t
little unfolded . Th e desire—sobe r an d repressed—o f Elizabeth-Jane' s
heart wa s indee d t o see , t o hear , an d t o understand . Ho w coul d sh e
become a woma n o f wide r knowledge , highe r repute—'better, ' a s sh e
termed it—this was her constant inquiry of her mother. She sought furthe r
into thing s tha n othe r girl s i n he r positio n eve r did , an d he r mothe r
groaned as she felt she could not aid in the search. (Ch. 4)

Before I commen t o n th e psychologica l implication s o f thi s passage , le t

me observ e tha t i n additio n t o th e narrato r Elizabeth-Jane' s mothe r
appreciates he r fro m th e beginning . Sh e seek s ou t Henchar d i n a "des -
perate effor t t o advance " he r daughter , an d a s a resul t Elizabeth-Jan e
ultimately become s al l tha t he r mothe r ha d envisioned . Fro m on e poin t
of view , Elizabeth-Jane' s i s th e stor y o f th e fulfillmen t o f he r mother' s
dream o f glor y fo r her . Newson' s prid e i n wha t Elizabeth-Jan e ha s
grown u p t o b e i s wha t Susa n woul d fee l a s wel l i f sh e wer e aliv e an d
suggests tha t h e an d Susa n ha d simila r hope s fo r thei r daughter , al -
though Newso n ha s a fa r mor e cheerfu l an d easy-goin g temperamen t
that ma y hav e mad e hi m mor e conten t tha n hi s "wife " an d daughte r
with thei r lot .
My interpretatio n o f Elizabeth-Jan e i s tha t she , lik e th e younge r
Henchard, ha s suffere d fro m thwarte d ambition . Sh e is a bright, curiou s
girl wh o ha s intellectua l aspiration s tha t canno t b e fulfille d becaus e o f
the family' s socia l an d economi c position . He r mothe r recognize s he r
potentialities, bot h o f min d an d o f body , an d engage s i n th e kin d o f
anxious reasonin g Hard y attribute s t o Elizabeth-Jane . Perhap s Eliza -
beth-Jane caugh t i t from her . He r mother' s anxiet y i s not abou t surviva l
but abou t ho w t o foste r th e developmen t o f thi s specia l child , ho w t o
give her th e opportunitie s sh e long s fo r an d deserves . Aware o f he r ow n
abilities an d he r parents ' hig h regar d fo r them , Elizabeth-Jan e develop s
a sens e o f hersel f a s superio r t o he r conditio n i n life . I n th e atmospher e
of frustrated hope s in which sh e lives, she sees no possibility o f achievin g
the "wide r knowledge " an d "highe r repute " t o whic h sh e aspires , how -
ever, an d respond s b y becomin g resigned .
Henchard develope d a "cynica l indifference " whe n hi s ambition s
were frustrate d b y hi s earl y marriag e (ch . 1) , bu t hi s searc h fo r glor y
was irrepressible an d drov e him to sell his wife. He reverts to detachmen t
later, whe n havin g los t bot h hi s positio n an d Elizabeth-Jane , h e see s th e
world a s a mer e painte d scene . Hi s i s a bitte r resignatio n i n whic h h e

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188 | THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

wants t o was h hi s hand s o f a lif e tha t h e see s a s capricious . Eve n then ,

as I hav e said , h e i s no t th e stuf f o f whic h stoic s ar e made , an d h e
remains obsesse d wit h Elizabeth-Jane .
Elizabeth-Jane is th e stuf f o f whic h stoic s ar e made . He r resignatio n
does not hav e the bitternes s o f Henchard's bu t i s rather a defense agains t
such bitterness . A majo r differenc e i s tha t sh e develop s a dar k vie w o f
life earl y o n an d doe s no t expec t he r desire s t o b e fulfilled . Thu s sh e i s
not subjec t t o th e rag e an d frustratio n tha t come s wit h intens e desire s
and high aspirations lik e Henchard's. She begins by wanting a great deal ,
but onc e sh e i s convinced sh e canno t hav e it , he r desire s becom e "sobe r
and repressed. " Sh e detache s hersel f fro m he r feelings , become s a n
onlooker a t life , an d protect s hersel f agains t disappointmen t b y alway s
anticipating th e capriciousnes s o f fate . Sh e no doub t derive s her resigna -
tion t o som e exten t fro m he r mother , a s sh e doe s he r ambitio n an d self -
effacement. Whe n w e se e Susa n trudgin g towar d Weydon-Prior s wit h
Henchard a t the beginning o f the novel, she has "th e hard, half-apatheti c
expression o f on e wh o deem s anythin g possibl e a t th e hand s o f Tim e
and Chanc e except , perhaps , fai r play " (ch . i) . Man y year s later , whe n
Elizabeth-Jane i s eighteen , Susa n stil l see s th e worl d a s on e i n whic h
"everything" ha s bee n "inopportune " (ch . 4).
Elizabeth-Jane's resignatio n i s so important t o he r an d s o deeply fixed
in he r psych e tha t sh e cling s t o i t whe n he r mothe r marrie s Henchar d
and he r prospect s greatl y improve . Sh e remains sobe r an d represse d no t
only becaus e sh e distrust s fat e bu t als o becaus e sh e thinks to o poorl y o f
herself t o fee l tha t sh e deserve s he r goo d fortune . Hard y present s Eliza -
beth-Jane a s a wonderful perso n who m th e characters i n the nove l com e
to appreciate , bu t sh e measure s hersel f agains t a n idealize d imag e o f
herself a s sh e woul d hav e bee n ha d sh e receive d th e upbringin g an d
education sh e desired , an d a s a resul t sh e alway s feel s hersel f t o b e
wanting. Whe n Farfra e remain s i n Casterbridg e partl y a t he r urgin g
but doe s no t resum e hi s courtship , Elizabeth-Jan e conclude s tha t "he r
appearance o n the evening of the dance [was ] such as to inspire a fleetin g
love a t first sight " an d tha t b y thi s tim e h e ha s "discovere d ho w plai n
and homel y wa s th e informin g spiri t o f tha t prett y outside " (ch . 17) .
When sh e feel s "he r hear t goin g ou t t o him, " sh e say s t o herself , "No ,
no, Elizabeth-Jane—suc h dream s ar e no t fo r you! " Hard y hint s tha t
Farfrae migh t hav e bee n mor e aggressiv e wit h encouragemen t (Lucett a
has no t ye t appeared) , bu t Elizabeth-Jan e trie s t o preven t hersel f fro m
seeing and thinkin g o f him .

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 18 9

Although Hard y i s capabl e o f seein g th e morbidit y o f Elizabeth -

Jane's craving s fo r acquirement s an d correctness , h e i s blin d t o th e
compulsiveness o f her resignatio n an d it s negative effects . Perhap s thi s is
because i t correspond s t o hi s ow n predominan t defens e an d i s founde d
on a basi c distrus t o f lif e tha t h e share s (se e Paris 1976a) . I am speakin g
here o f Hard y th e implie d author , bu t I suspec t tha t o n thi s matte r
there i s n o grea t distanc e betwee n th e implie d autho r o f The Mayor of
Casterbridge an d Hard y th e person . Th e rhetori c o f th e nove l consis -
tently celebrate s Elizabeth-Jane' s resignation , whic h i t describe s a s th e
product o f "wisdom " (ch . 14 ) an d a "straightforwar d mind " (ch . 25) .
Because sh e doe s no t allo w hersel f t o b e "to o gay, " Elizabeth-Jan e
experiences "non e o f those ups an d down s o f spiri t which bese t so man y
people withou t cause " (ch . 14)—Henchar d an d Lucetta , fo r example .
"The reasonablenes s o f almos t everything " sh e doe s i s wel l illustrate d
by he r refusa l t o "mak e a foo l o f herself " b y dressin g u p whe n sh e ha s
the money to do so. The resigned defens e i s designed abov e all to preven t
us fro m makin g fool s o f ourselves . Th e "unsophisticate d girl " keep s
"in th e rea r o f opportunit y i n matter s o f indulgence " b y "a n innat e
perceptiveness tha t [is ] almost genius. "
Elizabeth-Jane i s proved t o hav e bee n wis e i n no t allowin g hersel f t o
be deceive d b y goo d fortun e whe n Henchar d turn s agains t he r an d sh e
loses Farfra e t o Lucetta . He r defense s fai l momentaril y whe n sh e feel s
that Henchar d scorn s her : "quit e broke n i n spirit, " sh e exclaims , "O , I
wish I wa s dead , wit h dea r mother! " (ch . 20) . Sh e i s rescue d fro m he r
"unbearable position " whe n Lucett a invite s he r t o b e he r companio n
and i s soon abl e t o resum e he r usua l subdue d bu t no t depresse d stat e o f
mind. Sh e doe s muc h bette r wit h regar d t o Farfrae , quenchin g he r
interest i n hi m "wit h patien t fortitude. " Sh e "stoically " contemplate s
"her fate " whe n h e begin s courtin g Lucett a (ch . 25 ) an d "corkfs ] u p th e
turmoil o f he r feeling s wit h gran d control " whe n sh e learn s o f thei r
marriage (ch . 30) .
Elizabeth-Jane defend s hersel f agains t troublin g emotion s b y distanc -
ing herself fro m difficul t situation s an d findin g the m curiou s o r amusing .
She is initially "terrified " whe n Henchar d trie s to gree t the roya l person -
age, but "he r interes t i n the spectacle a s a strange phenomenon [gets ] the
better o f he r fear " (ch . 37) . The pai n sh e experience s "fro m th e almos t
absolute obliviousness t o her existence" show n b y Henchard an d Farfra e
while bot h ar e courtin g Lucett a i s "a t time s hal f dissipate d b y he r sens e
of it s humourousness. When Lucett a ha d pricke d he r finger the y were a s

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190 | THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

deeply concerne d a s i f sh e wer e dying ; whe n sh e hersel f ha d bee n seri -

ously sic k o r i n dange r the y uttere d a conventional wor d o f sympath y a t
the news, and forgo t al l about i t immediately" (ch . 25). Whereas Hench -
ard i s maddened b y the fickleness o f fate , Elizabeth-Jan e regard s lif e a s a
curious spectacle . Sh e anticipate s "th e wrec k o f eac h day' s wishes " bu t
has observe d tha t lif e i s less " a serie s o f pur e disappointments " tha n " a
series of substitutions" : "Continuall y i t had happene d tha t wha t sh e ha d
desired ha d no t bee n grante d her , an d tha t wha t ha d bee n grante d he r
she had no t desired. " When sh e loses Farfrae, sh e wonders with a certai n
amusement "wha t unwished-fo r thin g Heave n migh t sen d he r i n plac e
of him. " Thank s t o he r detache d perspective , sh e i s abl e t o thin k o f
the day s whe n h e wa s he r undeclare d love r wit h "a n approac h t o
equanimity."
Her detachmen t ma y accoun t fo r Elizabeth-Jane' s speculation s abou t
why sh e wa s born , wh y thing s hav e th e shap e the y do , an d wher e
consciousness cam e from , sinc e thes e question s aris e whe n w e ar e no t
involved i n lif e bu t ar e contemplating i t from a distance . To a significan t
extent, Elizabeth-Jan e i s alienate d fro m he r ow n feeling s an d fro m th e
world aroun d her . He r defensivenes s make s i t impossibl e fo r he r t o
experience anythin g i n a spontaneous, wholehearte d way .

When thing s tur n ou t wel l fo r he r a t th e end , Elizabeth-Jan e cling s

grimly t o he r defenses , a s sh e ha d don e durin g he r earlie r perio d o f
prosperity. Sh e ha s regret s abou t he r behavio r towar d Henchard , bu t
they fade , a s d o "th e livel y an d sparklin g emotion s o f he r earl y marrie d
life," an d sh e finds "hersel f i n a latitud e o f cal m weather " i n whic h sh e
is blessed wit h "a n equabl e serenity " (ch . 45) . Her missio n become s no t
to fulfil l hersel f o r t o rela x an d enjo y lif e bu t t o teac h he r defense s t o
others:

the finer movement s o f he r natur e foun d scop e i n discoverin g t o th e

narrow-lived one s aroun d he r th e secre t (a s sh e ha d onc e learn t it ) o f
making limite d opportunitie s endurable ; whic h sh e deemed t o consis t i n
the cunning enlargement, b y a species of microscopic treatment , o f thos e
minute form s o f satisfactio n tha t offe r themselve s t o everybod y no t i n
positive pain ; which , thu s handled , hav e muc h o f th e sam e inspiritin g
effect upo n life as wider interests cursorily embraced. (Ch. 45)

There i s wisdo m i n thi s philosophy , o f course , especiall y whe n ou r

opportunities hav e bee n narrowe d b y force s ove r whic h w e hav e n o

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 The Mayor of Casterbridge | 19 1

control an d i t behoove s u s t o relis h th e smal l pleasure s availabl e t o us .

But there are wider interest s within Elizabeth-Jane' s reac h tha t sh e seem s
afraid t o embrace lest the gods become jealous. While magnifying minut e
satisfactions, sh e tends t o devalu e large r ones , which nee d no t b e curso -
rily embraced . I n th e mids t o f plent y sh e continue s t o defen d hersel f
against povert y an d give s meanin g t o he r lif e b y teachin g th e secre t o f
endurance t o the les s fortunate .
Although Elizabeth-Jan e ha s desire d socia l elevation, sh e has ambiva -
lent feeling s abou t i t becaus e o f he r inne r conflicts . Sh e need s bot h t o
have he r wort h vindicate d an d t o b e humble an d unassuming . No w tha t
she is the wife o f the most prominent ma n i n town, sh e finds there is "n o
great persona l differenc e betwee n bein g respecte d i n th e nethe r part s o f
Casterbridge an d glorifie d a t th e uppermos t en d o f th e socia l world "
(ch. 45). Sh e at onc e defend s hersel f agains t takin g prid e i n he r positio n
by depreciating it s worth an d protect s hersel f agains t a possibl e reversa l
of fortun e b y feelin g tha t it s los s woul d no t matte r ver y much . I f sh e
enjoys he r triump h a t all , it is in a guarded, indirec t way .
Elizabeth-Jane remain s sobe r an d repressed . He r positio n seem s t o
afford "muc h t o b e thankful for, " bu t sh e is presented a s being too wis e
to b e "demonstrativel y thankful" :

Her experienc e had bee n o f a kind t o teac h her , rightly o r wrongly , tha t
the doubtful honou r o f a brief transit through a sorry world hardly called
for effusiveness, eve n when the path was suddenly irradiated at some half-
way point b y day beams rich as hers. But her strong sense that neither she
nor an y huma n bein g deserve d les s than wa s given , di d no t blin d he r t o
the fac t tha t ther e wer e other s receivin g les s wh o ha d deserve d muc h
more. And in being forced to class herself among the fortunate sh e did not
cease t o wonde r a t th e persistenc e o f th e unforeseen , whe n th e on e t o
whom suc h unbroke n tranquillit y ha d bee n accorde d i n th e adul t stag e
was sh e whos e yout h ha d seeme d t o teac h tha t happines s wa s bu t th e
occasional episode in a general drama of pain. (Ch. 45)

This remarkable passag e show s th e lengths t o which Elizabeth-Jan e goe s

in he r effor t t o maintai n he r resignatio n a t a tim e whe n mos t peopl e
would rejoice .
Elizabeth-Jane feel s threatene d b y he r prosperit y an d mus t kee p re -
minding hersel f o f it s meaningles s an d impermanence . Thu s sh e contin -
ues t o se e th e worl d a s a n absur d plac e i n whic h ther e i s n o relatio n
between people' s fate s an d thei r desert s an d i n whic h frustratio n i s fa r

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192 I THE MAYOR OF CASTERBRIDGE

more frequen t tha n happiness . Wherea s a predominantl y self-effacin g

person woul d se e happines s a s a rewar d fo r virtu e an d fee l a stron g
obligation t o b e "demonstrativel y thankful, " fo r Elizabeth-Jan e bein g
thankful woul d impl y tha t sh e wa s th e beneficiar y o f a jus t orde r an d
that goodnes s wa s a mean s o f controllin g fate . I f thi s wer e th e case , sh e
might reasonabl y expec t t o continu e bein g happy , bu t suc h a n expecta -
tion frighten s he r an d sh e mus t remin d hersel f tha t ther e ar e "other s
receiving les s who ha d deserve d muc h more. " Sh e turn s he r "unbroke n
tranquillity," whic h i s on e o f th e highes t value s o f th e resigne d person ,
into anothe r reaso n fo r distrustin g life . I t i s furthe r evidenc e o f th e
unpredictability o f fate , sinc e her yout h ha d hel d ou t n o suc h hope , an d
of it s unfairness , sinc e reward s ar e no t distribute d accordin g t o deserts .
By affirmin g tha t n o on e deserve s les s tha n i s given , Elizabeth-Jan e
asserts th e claim s o n whic h he r sens e o f injustic e i s based , whil e b y
feeling tha t man y deserv e more tha n she , she maintains he r humility .
Uncomfortable a t being "force d t o class herself amon g the fortunate, "
Elizabeth-Jane soothe s hersel f b y rememberin g tha t happines s i s "bu t
the occasiona l episod e i n a genera l dram a o f pain. " Thi s enable s he r
to remai n steele d agains t misfortune , instea d o f bein g delude d b y he r
happiness, an d i t i s als o a metho d o f wardin g of f misfortune . I n he r
belief syste m fat e i s no t onl y capricious , i t i s als o sometime s malicious ,
and seein g oneself a s fortunate invite s bein g struc k down . B y refusing t o
feel ver y happy , sh e show s a prope r fea r o f th e coulte r o f destin y an d
preserves a stat e o f obscurit y tha t wil l no t arous e th e enmit y o f th e
powers tha t be .
This i s on e o f th e stranges t happ y ending s i n literature . Elizabeth -
Jane's i s th e stor y o f a woma n wh o ultimatel y get s wha t sh e want s bu t
who cannot allo w herself t o want it very much o r to enjoy th e fulfillmen t
of her desires. Presented a s a victim of fate a t the beginning, she is clearly
a victim o f her defense s a t the end. Hardy doe s not se e this because thes e
are hi s defense s a s well . H e i s a s uncomfortabl e wit h happ y ending s a s
his heroine an d ha s create d a resolution tha t i s compatible wit h hi s dar k
view of life . We are to understan d tha t fat e ha s more disappointment s i n
store fo r Elizabeth-Jan e an d tha t he r presen t happines s i s bu t a passin g
episode. W e ar e als o t o understan d tha t Elizabeth-Jan e wil l no t b e
crushed b y misfortune , lik e Henchard , becaus e sh e wil l neve r allo w
herself t o b e tricked int o expectin g muc h fro m life .

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