The Production

of Radioactive Ion Beams

Introduction
● Exotic nuclei: what and why
Production and handling of radioactive isotopes
● Methods: ISOL and in-flight
● Overview of facilities

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 Aims of the lecture

● Learn about the main techniques for production

and manipulation of unstable isotopes
● Give a flavour of present-day research with RIBs

● Pay attention to orders of magnitude!

● References:
●European Physical Journal Plus 131 (2016) 362
●Nobel Symposium 152: Physics with Radioactive Beams
in Physica Scripta T152 (2013)
For this part:
Y Blumenfeld, T Nilsson and P Van Duppen, Facilities and methods
for radioactive ion beam production, Phys. Scr. T152 (2013) 014023

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 Introduction – 1/6
The chart of nuclei

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 Introduction – 2/6
The chart of nuclei

3rd dimension:
excitation energy

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 Introduction – 3/6
Exotic nuclei: halo nuclei

Halo nuclei
● Low binding energy,
clusterisation
● Low angular momentum
● Large spatial extension

Tanihata, Savajols and Kanungo, 2013

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 Introduction – 4/6
Exotic nuclei: cluster structures, molecular-type bonds
Clusters
Molecular bonds
● Appear close to the
● Nucleons exchanged
corresponding breakup
between the clusters
threshold

12C: Hoyle state

at 7.6 MeV

Ikeda diagram

Be isotopes: 2 α clusters
and exchange neutrons

Figures: M. Freer
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 Introduction – 5/6
Exotic nuclei: shape coexistence
A. Andreyev et al., Nature 405 (2000) 430

Shape coexistence 186Pb

● States with different shapes

appear at similar excitation
energies

Figure: T. Cocolios (2010)

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 Introduction – 6/6
Exotic nuclei: the nucleon-nucleon interaction revealed

● Shell model describes well

the properties of stable nuclei
● Far from stability:
new structures, new magic numbers
T. Otsuka et al.
Review Modern Physics 92 (2020) 015002

• Spin-Orbit potential:

O. Sorlin, M.-G. Porquet,

Prog. Part. Nucl. Physics 61 (2008) 602

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 Production methods – 1/11
eniL-nO-rotarapeS epotosI nevueL
Studying “exotic” states: Radioactive
nortolcyC
Ion Beams
This part: RR, Eur. Phys. J. Plus (2016) 131: 362
1. Primary production
VeM 03
● Mainly through
reffuB reactions
maeB notorP
1.
between stable
saG
nuclei; ediuG noI 2.rotarapeS sschemistry
aM
)GIPS( stable
sometimes decay of primordial physics
lleC saG stable target
nuclei beam
dezinoi-resaL
2. Manipulation stegraT U832 stcudorp noitcaer
)2mc/gm 01(
● May include ionisation, noitisiuqca-ataD AIX
metsyS C4-FGD
selection,-e transport,
+ +A

post-acceleration
*A
ROGI
3.
● Time scale: aA few ns sresaL pu-teS noitceteD g-b

to few hundreds ms

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 Production methods – 2/11
eniL-nO-rotarapeS epotosI nevueL
Studying “exotic” states: Radioactive
nortolcyC
Ion Beams
3. Measurement: radiation
VeM 03
● Low beamreenergy
ffuB (max ≈80 keV) 1.
maeB notorP
saG 2.rotarapeS sschemistry
Methods: ediuG noI aM
)GIPS( stable physics
laser spectroscopy,
lleC saG decay stable target
→ ground state properties: beam
dezinoi-resaL
masses, sradii, momenta
tegraT U832 stcudorp noitcaer
→ transition )2mprobabilities,
c/gm 01( spins
noitisiuqca-ataD AIX
metsyS
● High beam -e + +energy
C4-FGD
A

(at least Coulomb

*A
barrier) ROGI
3.
Methods: Reactions
A sresaL pu-teS noitceteD g-b
→ short-living states and
resonances

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 Production methods – 3/11
Production of radioactive species
● Decay of primordial nuclides (very long half lives)
● Neutron capture followed by decay
- Nuclei in the vicinity of stability
- Fission sources
CARIBU facility
at ARGONNE National Labs
(near Chicago)

Yields for 1 Ci 252Cf source

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 Production methods – 4/11
The Isotope Separation-On-Line (ISOL) method
● Idea: create a source that can be “switched” on and off
● Process:
- Irradiate a material with a beam to induce reactions
- Extract the (reaction or decay) products
- Manipulate them (ionise, separate, guide to detection station)

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 Production methods – 5/11
The “in-flight separation” method
● Heavy-ion accelerator, E ≈ some hundreds MeV/nucleon
● Thin production target (light element, rotating wheel)
● Fragment separator
● Transport to the experiment

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 Production methods – 6/11
Production reactions
● Protons or neutrons spallation +

+ heavy (fissile) nucleus: 201

Fr
1 GeV p
● Fission: distribution of products fragmentation
+ +
depends on energy of reaction 238
U 11
Li X

● Fragmentation (few 100 MeV/A) n

fission
p + +
● Spallation (≈GeV/A) 143
Cs Y

● Transfer and fusion-evaporation:

tailored reactions to reach specific isotopes

Cross sections do not depend

upon the kinematics!
However, in inverse kinematics (in-flight
separation) the production is more
directly related to the cross section

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 Production methods – 7/11
Isotope Separators
ISOL
● Low-energy beam (30 to 60 keV), charge 1+
● Goal: selection of one mass, possibly separation of isobars
M/ΔM ≈ 5000 to 10000
LeuvenaIsotope
● Essentially Separator-On-Line
mass separator based on magnetic rigidity
Cyclotron
● Sometimes: Wien filter (cross E and B fields),
MR-TOF, traps for bunching 30 MeV
Proton Beam Buffer
Mass Separator Ion Guide Gas
(SPIG)
Gas Cell
𝑚𝑣
𝐵𝜌 = Laser-ionized
𝑞 reaction products 238UTargets
(10 mg/cm2)
XIA Data-acquisition
DGF-4C System
A+ + e-
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IGOR
 Production methods – 8/11
Isotope Separators
In-flight
● High-energy beam (50 MeV/A to 1 GeV/A), fully stripped
● Goal: time and spatial separation
particle-by-particle identification by ΔE and TOF
● Magnetic elements and degraders

DE ­

experiment

production
target
degrader
¬ TOF

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 Production methods – 9/11
Comparison ISOL – in flight
Challenges
● Low production cross sections
● Overwhelming presence of unwanted species
● (Very) short half lives for the species of interest

ISOL In-flight
● High-quality beams ● Fast and universal
(purity, emittance) ● Ions readily available at high
● Depends on chemistry energy
● Slow (diffusion from the target) ● Low-quality beams

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 Production methods – 10/11
Gas catcher: IGISOL and combining ISOL and in-flight
Ion-Guide ISOL (IGISOL)
Use a gas catcher to
avoid chemistry

In-flight + gas catcher

Produce the rarest isotopes
and slow them down to
manipulate them
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 Production methods – 11/11
Efficiency
● Luminosity: 𝐿 = 𝑁! Φ Y Blumenfeld, T Nilsson and P Van Duppen, Phys. Scr. T152 (2013) 014023
Phys. Scr. T152 (2013) 014023

Table 3. Partial efficiencies.

target nuclei primary beam ✏delay Probability of survival against radioactive decay during
intensity ✏ion
the time needed to extract the ion from the TISS
Ionization efficiency
Efficiency of mass analysis and transport to the
● RIB intensity: 𝐼 = 𝜎𝑁! Φ𝜖
✏trans
experimental set-up
✏cool bunch Cooling and bunching efficiency
✏breeding Charge-state breeding efficiency
cross section efficiency ✏accelerator Efficiency of the post-accelerator
✏ Total efficiency: the product of the above
● For ISOL: mentioned terms

- 𝜖"#$%& , 𝜖'() cannot be quantified universally

timing and can also be used for further purification
- 𝜖*+%), ≈ 80% of the RIB [4].

- 𝜖-(($./0)-1 ≈ 20% to 60% 6.4. Efficiencies

- 𝜖/+##"')2 ≈ 2% to 15% The intensity of the RIB (I ) can be expressed in the following
equation:
- 𝜖%--#$#+%*(+ ≳ 90% I= N 8 (1)
target

● For in-flight: 𝜖 ≈ 𝜖*+%), with being the reaction cross section (cm ), N the 2
target

but it depends upon many factors (kinematics, acceptances…)

2
number of target atoms per surface area (cm ) and 8
the primary beam intensity. Often to make a more general
optimised for the ion of interest but quantitative comparison between different beam–target
combinations the luminosity (L), defined as
G0S95A – Exotic Nuclei – 2021/2022 17/02/2022 – RIB Production
L=N 8 (2)
 Facilities – 1/19
RIB facilities: world map

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 Facilities – 2/19
In-flight: BEVALAC at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

● Combination of a low-energy
heavy ion linear accelerator
and a proton synchrotron
● Transfer line from the Linac
to the Bevatron
● Heavy ion 11B and 20Ne beam
at 800 MeV/A
fragmented on a Be target

I. Tanihata et al
Phys. Lett. 160B (1985) 380

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 Facilities – 3/19
In-flight: Europe
GANIL (Caen, France)
● Two coupled cyclotrons
E < 100 MeV/A
● Fragment separator LISE
● 36S 1013 pps, 48Ca 2´1012 pps

LISE

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 Facilities – 4/19
In-flight: Europe
GSI (Darmstadt, Germany)
● LINAC+ Synchrotron
Energy 2 GeV/A, 1010 pp spill
● FRagment Separator FRS

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 Facilities – 5/19
In-flight: National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory
NSCL at MSU, USA
● Two cyclotrons for the
acceleration, E≈150 MeV/A
40Ar 5´1011 pps
K500
● Liquid-cool
K1200
Be production target A1900
focal plane
● A1900 fragment separator target
● Example:
wedge
Production of 78Ni
from 140 MeV/A 86Kr

Morrissey et al., NIM B 204, 90 (2003)

P. Hosmer et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 94, 112501 (2005)

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 Facilities – 6/19
New generation in-flight: RIKEN

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 Facilities – 7/19
New generation in-flight: FAIR

FAIR at Darmstadt
● Broad science case
● 238U at 1.5 GeV/A,
1012 pp spill
● Super-FRS
high acceptance separator

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 Facilities – 8/19
New generation in-flight: FRIB
● 200 MeV/A uranium,
400 kW
● 3-stage fragment separator
large acceptance,
high suppression
● Areas for fast, stopped
and reaccelerated beams
● To be completed in 2020

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 Facilities – 9/19
ISOL: brief history
● 1951, Niels Bohr Institute Copenhagen
Deuteron beam, neutron converter, n-induced fission
on a uranium target. 89,90,91Kr isotopes extracted
● 1965: Orsay
Protons on a stack of C foils. 6,7,8,9Li extracted
● 1964 start of the ISOLDE project
600 MeV protons (now 1.4 GeV)
on fissile targets
1967 first measurements

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 Facilities – 10/19
ISOLDE at CERN

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 Facilities – 11/19
ISOLDE at CERN

target
station 1.4 GeV protons
from PS booster
separator

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 Facilities – 12/19
ISOL method once again

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 Facilities – 13/19
Ion sources

Hot surface ion source

● The ioniser is a hot tube
● Material with a higher work function
than the element of interest
● Heated up to 2400 degrees

Plasma ion source

● Plasma: gas mixture (Ar and Xe)
ionised by accelerated electrons
● Hot or cool transfer line

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 Facilities – 14/19
Ion sources
Laser ion source
● 2- or 3-step ionisation
● Isotope and isomer
selection
● Universal (almost)

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 Facilities – 15/19
Isotopes produced at ISOLDE

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 Facilities – 16/19
ISOL: Post-acceleration
Cyclotron Research Centre
at Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
● 2 coupled cyclotrons
● Light beams from He to Ne

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 Facilities – 17/19
Other ISOL + post-acceleration: HIE-ISOLDE

High-energy and intensity ISOLDE

From 3 MeV/nucleon (REX)
to 5.5 MeV (nucleon (stage 1)
and 10 MeV/nucleon (stage 2)

Post-acceleration Charge-breeding

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 Facilities – 18/19
Other ISOL facilities
TRIUMF at Vancouver, Canada
● Primary beam: protons 500 MeV
New: electrons, g-induced fission
● Post-acceleration: LINAC, 10 MeV/A

SPIRAL at GANIL
● GANIL beams on carbon target
→ light beams
● Post –acceleration: cyclotron, 10 to 30 MeV/A

(near) Future
● SPES at Legnaro:
p 60 MeV, fission target, +LINAC
● SPIRAL2: LINAC injector, fission, +cyclotron
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 Facilities – 19/19
Progress in isotope production
1966
2000

2022 FRIB

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