Nuclear Reactions

for Structure Research

Transfer reactions with radioactive ion beams

● Transfer reactions: characteristics, information
● Relevance
● Experimental arrangement:
particle detectors, magnetic spectrometers, γ-ray arrays
● Inverse kinematics: kinematic compression, resolution
● Solenoidal spectrometers
● Active targets

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 Information from direct reactions – 1/5
Characteristics of direct reactions
● Direct reactions: inelastic scattering, transfer, breakup
- Fast, only few nucleons involved
- Likely to occur at small exit angles (peripheral)
- Modelled as one-step processes
- Time scale 𝜏 ≪ 10!"" s
● Very selective
Provide information about the similarity
between initial and final states
More in detail:
● The Q-value (difference in kinetic energies)
identifies the energy of the populated state
● The initial and final spins are connected through
the transferred angular momentum, which can be measured
● The cross section is a measure of the overlap
of initial and final states

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 Information from direct reactions2/11
Information from direct reactions – – 2/5Char
Q-value and excited states
Q-value and excited states
3000.0

● The Q-value (difference in kinetic energies) 2500.0

● The Q-value (difference in kinetic energies)

identifies the energy of the populated state
identifies the energy of the populated state
● Here: 90Zr(d,p)91 Zr at 15 degrees lab
2042.4
● Here: Zr(d,p) Zr at 15 degrees lab
90 91 2000.0

1882.2
● Q-value from the energy of the outgoing particle
● Q-value from the kinetic energy of the outgoing particles
1500.0
1466.4

1204.8

1000.0

500.0

0.0 0.0
91 Zr

HP Block
HP Blok et al, Nucl Phys et al, Nucl Phys A 273 (1976) 142
A 273 (1976) 142

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 Information from direct reactions – 3/5
Angular distributions: ℓ and spectroscopic factor

Transferred angular momentum

• First maximum around 𝜃 ≈ ℓ/𝑘𝑅 )
→ the transferred ℓ can be identified
→ constraints on the spin
Spectroscopic factor
• The cross section is calculated by
assuming a “pure” single-particle
configuration of the state
→ the ratio to the experimental value
(normalization) gives the actual single-
particle content of the state

The spectroscopic factor is a measure

of how much the populated state BL Cohen et al., Phys Rev 126 (1962) 698
contains the “pure” cluster (single-
particle) configuration

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 Information from direct reactions – 4/5
Spectroscopic factors - caution

1. Absolute spectroscopic factors depend upon

- the approximation used for the calculation (DWBA, ADWA, CRC...)
- the potentials (interaction and binding)
→ usually, relative spectroscopic factors are used to derive structure information

2. A configuration can be present in different states

(the SPIN is the only constraint)
We call this “fragmentation” of the strength of a configuration

The energy gaps in the shell model can be calculated from the “centre of mass”
of all the strength
however
it is usually difficult to measure all the strength!

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 Information from direct reactions – 5/5
Strength fragmentation

● If the strength is fragmented:

the single-particle energy is taken to be
the centroid (mean energy, weighted
by the spectroscopic factor)
● Need to detect as much strength as possible!
𝐸#.%. = . 𝑆& 𝐸&

DC Kocher and W Haeberli

Nucl Phys A 196 (1972) 225
S Rusk and CM Class
Nucl Phys 61 (1965) 209

Example: p3/2-p1/2 spin-orbit splitting in 41Ca

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 Relevance – 1/5
Relevance: single-particle energies to study the N-N force
stable nuclei
● Halos, cluster structures observed nuclei
unknown nuclei (predicted)
82
● Shape transitions and coexistence 208 Pb

(macroscopic picture)
50
● Changes in the shell structure 126
78 Ni
28 82
20
50
8 20 28
2 8
Why these changes?
An excess of neutrons or protons enhances
particular aspects of the N-N interaction
● Matter distribution (shape potential well)
● Spin-orbit force
● Three-body forces
● Tensor interaction
● …

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 Relevance – 2/5
Example I: The emergence of N=16
…and the disappearance of N=20
● Historically this was the first identification
of shell evolution far from stability (mid-’70)

28 p3/2
f7/2
20
1. Tensor interaction between πd5/2 and νd3/2
d3/2 T. Otsuka et al., PRL 95 (2005) 232502
s1/2 s1/2
14
d5/2 d5/2
π ν
Y. Utsuno et al.,
PRC 60 (1999) 054315
16
20

N=20

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 Relevance – 3/5
Example I: The emergence of N=16
2. 3-body forces in O isotopes
T Otsuka et al, PRL 105 (2010) 032501

2p3/2
1f7/2
20
1d3/2
16
32501 (2010) P 2s
HYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS
1/2
1d5/2
ν for the G matrix formalism, where a standar
coupling [22] was used and all 3N diagrams
order as Fig. 3(d) are included. We observe th
sive FM 3N contributions become significant w
ing N and the resulting SPE structure is simi
phenomenological forces, where the d3=2 orb
high. Next, we calculate the SPEs from
momentum interactions Vlow k , including the
to the leading (N2 LO) 3N forces in chiral E
Figs. 3(f)–3(h). We consider also the SPEs wh
contributions are only due to ! excitations [24
G0S95A – Exotic Nuclei – 2021/2022 ing chiral
25/03/2022 3NReactions
– Nuclear forces 3/3
include the long-rang
 Relevance – 4/5
Example I: The emergence of N=16
Experiments at GANIL and TRIUMF
● 24Ne(d,p) W Catford et al, PRL 104 (2010) 192501

● 26Ne(d,p) M Brown et al, PRC 85 (2012) 011302(R)

● 25Na(d,p) GL Wilson et al, PLB 759 (2016) 417

2p3/2
1f7/2
20
1d3/2
16
2s1/2
1d5/2
ν

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 same nucleus
Relevance – 5/5
Example II: Single-particle and collectivity
“Type II” shell evolution 2p3/2
● From Ni to n-deficient
28
Figure 1. Illustration of the ty
force. Closed (open)g 9/2
circles d
1f7/2 40
● Deformation can induce changes in Pb region…
20
ll p1/2
3.2.
f5/2 Shell evolution due to tensor fforce
occupancies… we need information
1d3/2
llllll
llll
5/2
p3/2
The tensor force has been known for a l
…which, in turn, modify the gaps 16
on energy gaps!
2s1/2
28
angles. Those studies include an extracti
between β-decayshells Transfer Outlook/Summary
1d5/2 f7/2 llllllll interaction
nucleon–nucleon llllllll f7/2
by Schiffer a
ν π ν
NN interaction (i.e., the so-called ‘G-matri

tion ● Examples: 32Mg, 68Ni, 186Pb…

J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 43 (2016) 024009
→ nucleon-transfer
T. Otsuka and Y. Tsunoda,
32JPG 43 (2016) 024009
Mg
measurements
68Ni
T Otsuka and Y Tsunoda
Ni
68 Kuo and Brown [16],
tensor force by
second-order tensor-force contributions b
[18], and so-called TOSM calculations of
Type I: different isotopes The robust, systematic and first-orde
have, however, been discussed since 2
Riccardo Raabe (KU Leuven) Bo
monopole interaction of the tensor force,
proton orbits and a neutron orbit. The pro
n j l 1 2, j l 1

where l denotes the orbital angular mome

with an intuitive picture, the coupling be
: Type II: within the same nucleus
force. On the other hand, the coupling bet
between j and j . (For a more elaborat
e neutron j orbit is shown on top of the cor
if two neutrons occupy this j orbit. Du
line), the single-particle energy of the pro
the attractive monopole interaction (blue
Tj Otsuka
orbit isand Y Tsunoda,
lowered. These changes combi
JPG 43 (2016)
Since 024009 effect is linear, f
the monopole
double the effect exhibited in figure 1(
smaller and smaller, as more neutrons oc

G0S95A – Exotic Figure 28

– Illustration
Nuclei1. 2021/2022 of the type I and II shell evolutions. Wavy lines indicate tensor
25/03/2022 – Nuclear Reactions 3/3
 Experimental considerations – 1/14
General setup
Keys:
● Efficiency
gamma-ray array ● Position resolution
● Energy resolution

spectrometer

target
charged-particle array
E, angle, particle ID focal-plane detector
E, angle, part ID

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 Experimental considerations – 2/14
Exotic nuclei: inverse kinematics
light ejectile: charged-particle array
beam
`
beam-like: magnetic spectrometer

Reaction: 1(2,3)4 𝑚! ≈ 𝑚" 𝑣'

𝑚" < 𝑚' 𝑣'(
𝑣)*
𝑣'( +≪- 𝑚" 𝑚. 𝑚" pick-up (p,d)
≈ ≈ 𝜃)*
𝑣)* 𝑚/ 𝑚' 𝑚'

inverse
kinematics
𝑣'(
𝑚" > 𝑚' 𝑣' 𝑣)*
stripping (d,p) 𝜃)*

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 Experimental considerations – 3/14
Exotic nuclei: inverse kinematics source: Wilton Catford

Light particles
Kinematics depends:
● mainly on the masses
of the light particles
● not so much on
beam mass or velocity

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 Experimental considerations – 4/14
Exotic nuclei: inverse kinematics source: Wilton Catford

● Most particles at 90 deg

but maximum of cross sections
at forward and backward angles
● Kinematic compression:
very small differences
in energy of the light particle
for different E*

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 Experimental considerations – 5/11
Experimental considerations – 5/14
The luminosity dilemma
The luminosity dilemma
● We have weak beams
● We have weak beams
→ we could increase the target thickness
→ we could increase the target thickness
but
but
● ●We do not know the energy of the beam
We do not know the energy of the beam same angle
same angle
at the reaction point
at the interaction point from same reaction (Q-value)
from same reaction (Q-value)
but different
but energies!
different energies!

● Limit for (d,p):

● Limit for (d,p):
resolution in E*≈300 keV
resolution in E*≈300 keV
for ≈200 μg/cm2 target
for ≈200 μg/cm 2 target
(depends on many factors!!)
(depends on many factors!!)

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 Experimental considerations – 6/14
Limits in resolution
Resolution in E*
● Light beam:
better detect
beam-like particle
(limit on angular
resolution)
● Heavier beam:
better detect light
recoil (limit on
E resolution from
energy loss in the
target)
● In general:
much worse than
direct kinematics

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 Experimental considerations – 7/14
Examples of experimental setups
GANIL: MUST2+SPEG
L Gaudefroy et al, PRL 97 (2006) 092501

US es
CD2

M odul
T
380µg.cm-2

8m
10cm. SPEG
40,44,46Ar p
11A.MeV, 20kHz
170°
GANIL/SPIRAL
CATS 41,45,47Ar

110°

Identification

Light charged particles: Si array Beam-like particles: spectrometer

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 Experimental considerations – 8/14
Examples of experimental setups
M Brown et al, PRC 85 (2012) 011302(R)
GANIL: TIARA+VAMOS+EXOGAM
● Light charged particles: TIARA “barrel”
around the target
● Beam-like particle: VAMOS spectrometer
● 𝛾 rays: EXOGAM array Ge detectors

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 Experimental considerations – 9/14
Examples of experimental setups
ISOLDE: T-REX+MINIBALL
● Light charged particles:
T-REX cubes + CD
● 𝛾 rays: Miniball array Ge detectors
● No spectrometer

Jan Diriken,
PhD thesis

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 Experimental considerations – 10/14
Importance of particle-𝜸 coincidences
● (Much) Better resolution than Experimental consideratio
charged-particle detectors
66 Ni(d,p) 2.85 MeV/nucleon
● Decay pattern give constraints 66Ni(d,p)2.85 MeV/nucleon
Jan Diriken, PhD thesis, PLB 736 (2014) 533
on spins
but
● Poor efficiency
● No long-living states

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 Experimental considerations – 11/14
Beam intensities

Limits on beam intensities

for various reactions:
● Elastic scattering: 103 pps
● Coulomb excitation: 104 pps
● Transfer: 104 -105 pps
● Typical target thickness:
Charged particle detection only: 100-200 μg/cm2
particle-𝛾 coincidences: 500-1000 μg/cm2
● Maximize detection efficiency
● Thicker target → loss in resolution
● Inverse kinematics → kinematic compression

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 Experimental considerations – 12/14
Overcome the kinematic compression
Solenoidal Spectrometers
Solenoidal spectrometer Recoil

Target in a strong uniform magnetic field Beam Target detector

Silicon array

● Light particles from target follow helical

orbits, returning to the axis after one
Solenoidal Spectrometers
cyclotron period •
d(132Sn,p)133Sn @ 8 MeV/u 2T
Particles from target follow helical orbits, returning to the
axis after one cyclotron period – can measure upstream or
● Position-sensitive charged-particle downstream
Recoil
of target as appropriate.
• Dispersive along axis according to parallel velocity
detectors along the axis
Beam Target detector
component in LAB.
Silicon array
• Measure light ejectiles in hollow position-sensitive array.
● Measure: position z, cyclotron period
Tcyc and energy Elab of the light particle
MEASURED QUANTITIES: position z, cyclotron period
Tcyc and lab particle energy Ep z
• Particles from target follow helical orbits, returning to the 2
vlab v0
axis after one cyclotron period(Ref.
– can measure
[11] for
73 upstream
example), -delayed or [12] and
spectroscopy

downstream of target as appropriate.

a variety of multi-nucleon transfer reactions (Refs. [13–
74
2 m
250
1432
θlab θcmMg(d,p)
28

Tcyc =
=3
Particle
15]). Single-neutron knock-out reactions
75 fromID:Mg have 30
0+55

• Dispersive along axis accordingbeentomeasured

parallel velocity 200B qe Vcm z
Sn=3.655 MeV
76 [16], but these probe hole states and only =0+2

Counts per 20 keV

weakly populate the negative-parity states of interest
77
2
component in LAB. here. Recently a measurement of the Mg(d,p) Mg
78

= 𝐸 + 𝐴 − 𝐵𝑧
CM Energy:
28

[17], which E
29

ex-cm = Elab +
mVcm 1092 mzVcm
reaction has been made
79 #$% at TRIUMF 150 =1 3906+4045

• Measure light ejectiles in hollow position-sensitive

tracted
80 array.fragments of
cross sections for the strongest
100
2 2501
=1
Tcyc =1

81 single-particle strength. The resolving power of the tech- 4360

2 2
82 nique used in the present work allowed a more compre- vlab V2270 v02
3220
=2
=3

83 CM Angle:
hensive study of 29 Mg, in particular cos
the detailed frag- cm50=
cm 2900

2v0 Vcm
=1 5811
=3
MEASURED QUANTITIES: position z, cyclotron period
mentation of single-particle states.
84 5623
6043
85
P Tare
Single-nucleon transfer-reactions MacGregor et for
an ideal probe al 0 θLAB6
Tcyc and lab particle energy E 86

87
extracting single-particle information. Their angular dis-
p
0 1 2
• Linear relationship of Ecm and Elab
2021, submitted
tributions allow the assignment of the orbital angular
3
Energy (MeV)
4 5

A. Wuosmaa et al. NIMA 580 (2007) 1290 vlab in the reaction.

momentum ` transferred Comparison
avoids
v0 predictions kinematic compression.
88

89 of the experimental cross sections with FIG. 1.of aExcitation energy spectrum for states populated
29 28 29
in Mg via the Mg(d,p) Mg reaction at a beam energy
2 m
90

tors. These are reducedθlab For

9.47 conventional
• ofarray.
θcm dependent on the
cross sections
MeV/u, comprising datasystem,
reaction model allows the extraction of spectroscopic fac-
from all detectors on the

Tcyc =
91

Particle
Nuclei –ID:
States are labeled with the energy in keV and angular-
G0S95A – Exotic 2021/2022 92
25/03/2022 – Nuclear Reactions
kinematic
overlap between the initial and final states, providing a
momentum 3/3 shift
transfer. limits
The dotted the the neutron-
line indicates
 corresponds to the fitted trajectory used for determining the range of the proton.
Experimental Active target –
considerations 1/1
– 13/14
Active target
From the projected angle in the horizontal pad plane, the vertical angle deduced from the drift
Active target
Overcome the degradation in thick foils
times,Fromandthe
be deduced.
theprojected
times, andUsing
determination
angle inofthe
the level scheme
the determination
thehorizontal
position pad
for of
of the position
of the
133
Bragg
plane, the peak
Snthededuced
(range),
vertical
Bragg peak
the proton
angle deduced
in Ref.[10],
(range), the theproton
fromenergies
kinematics
the driftcan
energiescurves
can
Improve luminosity
obtained from the
be deduced. simulation
Using the levelofscheme
this reaction 133
for Sn anddeduced
showingin the different
Ref.[10], the states populated
kinematics curvesare
Improve luminosity
Active obtained from
summarized target in Fig.the5.simulation
These events of this
arereaction
restrictedandtoshowing
those stop the in
different
the gasstates
volume populated
and thus arethe
summarized
angular range isinlimited
Fig. 5. toTheseaboutevents
110 toare170restricted
degrees to in
those
the stop in the gas
laboratory volume
frame and thuson
depending thethe
● Detection of the reaction vertex
angular range isthe
limited to about 110 tothe 170majority
degrees ofin the laboratory frame thedepending gas volume
on the of
●● 133
Detection ofprotons. reaction vertex
energy of the protons. At this pressure, protons populating ground state
Detection of the reaction vertex
Sn133escape the gas volume. The simulated energy resolution based on the gas alone of
energy of the At this pressure, the majority of protons populating the ground gas volume
state
→ the energy of the beam is known
→ the
determined
energy the of
→ the energy of the beam is known
Sn escape gas the
volume.beam The is known
simulated energy resolution
to be 110 keV (FWHM) for protons populating the 2.005 MeV state in133 Sn. based on the gas alone
133 was
was
range
rangeAt electric
→ We
large can use
determined
lab angles, to
theacharge
be 110 very thick
keV (FWHM)
deposited target
for protons populating the 2.005
by the low-energy protons begin to overlapMeV state Incoming
in
Incoming
Sn.
withAtthe electric
● We can use a “thick target”
large lab angles, the charge deposited by the low-energy protons begin to overlap
● We can use a “thick target”
without
beamwith the field
field
from losing resolution
charge from the beam itself and the range determination becomes very difficult.
beam In this
charge the beam itself and the range determination becomes very difficult. In this
without losing resolution
analysis,
analysis, pads that were touchedbybythe
pads that
without losing resolution were touched thebeam
beam were
were turned
turned offoff in
in the
theanalysis
analysisofofthetheproton
proton
● tracks
From and
tracks
simulations:
thisthis
and ledledto tothethe“tails”
“tails”that
thatarearepresent
present inin Fig.
Fig. 5 at large
5 at large lablabangles.
angles. Note Notethatthat
thethe
● 1.56 Sn(d,p)
From simulations:
MeV
1321.56
● determine
From simulations:
MeV resolution
(9/2−)
(9/2−)statestate ≈110
is isnot keV toto populated
notexpected
expected populated in this reaction.
in this reaction. ItItwas wasincluded
includedto tosegmented
segmented
determinewhether
whetheror ornotnot excited
excitedstates
statesthat
thatdiffer
differinin energy
energy by by only
only200 200keVkeVcan canbeberesolved. plane
resolved.plane
Example
● The
We
Example
The
132
still
projection Sn(d,p)
suffer
132
projection of from
Sn(d,p)
of thesethese the kinematic
kinematics
kinematics curves
curvescan compression
can be
be compared
compared with with that
thatofofFig.
amplification
amplification
Fig.2zone
2ofofRef.
zone
Ref.[10][10]
where the the
resolution ≈110 keV
where resolution
resolution was was≈ 300
≈ 300keVkeV[11].
[11].
resolution ≈110 keV

ACTAR TPC
ACTAR TPC
ACTARSim report
ACTARSim report

Simulations

Fig. 5: Reconstructed kinematics plot for the different excited states populated in 133133 Sn for
Fig.protons
5: Reconstructed kinematics plot for the different excited states populated
stopped in the gas at a pressure of 400 mbar. Note that the majority of protonsin Sn for
G0S95A – Exotic Nuclei –
protons stopped
populating 2015/2016
thein the gas
ground stateatescape
a pressure
the gas of
and400 28/04/2016 –
mbar. Note
the resolution Nuclear Reactions 3/3
that
is thus the majority
slightly degraded.of protons
0S95A – Exotic Nuclei – 2015/2016
populating the ground 28/04/2016 –
state escape the gas and the resolution Nuclear Reactions 3/3
is thus slightly degraded.
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 Experimental considerations – 14/14
Best of both worlds
d itsSpecMAT:
correlation
Active target in magnetic field
rays ● Cylindrical geometry (E∥B)
● 𝛾-ray array of plastic scintillators

+10 detectors (from 10.2020)

=

40 CeBr3
9

SpecMATscint:
70Zn(d,3He)69Cu - 50 events

Work of
O. Poleshchuck
Nucl Instr Meth A 1015 (2021) 165765
29

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