Excel Year 12 physics PASS CARDS

EXCEL Year 12 physics PASS CARDS
This set of cards is designed for you to use as the final step in

your revision program. The author has carefully selected the Your path
most important facts of the course for you to focus on just before to success!
your exam or test. You can use your Excel Year 12 Pass Cards:
3 ON THE GO. If you are by yourself, read over each card again and again until
you completely master its content. If you’re with a friend, revise as a team by
turning the bullet points into questions and quizzing each other on key points.
Your answers will be there on the cards.
3 AT HOME. Read each card thoroughly and make sure you understand all the
points. You should also know more detailed information on each topic—if you
are not completely sure of a topic, revise it in your Excel Year 12 study guide.
3 ON YOUR DIGITAL DEVICE. Download a FREE digital copy of these cards at

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CO NTE NTS (1)
MODULE 5: ADVANCED MOTION IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS 23 Trajectory of moving charge in a magnetic

MECHANICS field
12 Gravitational force and gravitational fields
24 Comparing forces in electric and magnetic
PROJECTILE MOTION 13 Satellite motion fields
1 Galileo’s analysis 14 Artificial Earth satellites 25 Combining electric and magnetic fields
2 Components of motion 15 Kepler’s laws and the satellite equation
THE MOTOR EFFECT
3 Writing the equations of motion for 16 Elliptical orbits and transfer orbits
projectile motion 26 Force on a current-carrying wire in a
17 Satellite energy and escape velocity magnetic field
4 Time of flight of a projectile
27 Measuring the motor effect
5 Range of a projectile and maximum height MODULE 6: ELECTROMAGNETISM
28 Magnetic field around a current-carrying
6 Energy and projectile motion wire
CHARGED PARTICLES, CONDUCTORS
CIRCULAR MOTION AND ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS 29 Force between parallel current-carrying
wires
7 Angular displacement and angular 18 Electric fields
velocity 30 Defining the ampere
19 Potential differences in electric fields
8 Centripetal acceleration and force 20 Charged parallel plates
9 Banked tracks 21 Charge trajectory in an electric fields
10 Torque and equilibrium 22 Magnetic fields and moving charges
11 Energy
CO NTE NTS (2)
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION MODULE 7: THE NATURE LIGHT: QUANTUM MODEL

31 Electromagnetic flux OF LIGHT 57 Black-body radiation and quanta
32 Faraday’s law THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 58 The photoelectric effect
33 Lenz’s law 45 Maxwell and electromagnetic waves LIGHT AND SPECIAL RELATIVITY
34 Example of electromagnetic induction 46 Electromagnetic waves 59 Postulates of special relativity
35 The transformer 47 Propagation of electromagnetic waves 60 Michelson–Morley experiment
36 Transformer efficiency and power 48 Measuring the speed of light 61 Relative quantities
37 AC electrical distribution systems 49 Spectra 62 Evidence of time dilation and length
50 Stellar spectra 1 contraction
APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTOR
EFFECT 51 Stellar spectra 2 63 Understanding relative motion
38 The DC motor 64 Mass–energy equivalence
LIGHT: WAVE MODEL
39 The DC generator 52 Diffraction MODULE 8: FROM THE UNIVERSE
40 The AC generator 53 Double-slit interference TO THE ATOM
41 Back emf (Lenz’s law and E conservation) 54 The diffraction grating ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
42 Principle of the AC induction motor 55 Early models of light 65 The expansion of the universe
43 The AC induction motor 56 Polarisation 66 Hubble’s law
44 Electromagnetic braking
67 The Big Bang theory: Matter from energy
CO NTE NTS (3)
68 Stars: Energy from matter QUANTUM MECHANICAL NATURE 93 Nuclear fission 1

69 Spectra OF THE ATOM 94 Nuclear fission 2
70 Stellar spectra and classification 81 The spectrum of hydrogen 95 Nuclear stability 1
71 The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 82 Bohr’s model of the atom 96 Nuclear stability 2
72 Types of stars on the HR diagram 83 Predictions of the Bohr model 97 Nuclear stability 3
73 Evolution of stars 84 Using Bohr’s model
DEEP INSIDE THE ATOM
74 Hydrogen fusion and stellar evolution 85 Limitations of the Bohr model
98 Subatomic particles
86 De Broglie’s matter waves
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM 99 Fundamental forces
87 The Davisson–Germer experiment
75 Early cathode ray experiments 100 Quantum field theories
88 Schrödinger’s wave mechanics
76 Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment 101 Elementary particles 1
77 Millikan’s oil drop experiment PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEUS 102 Elementary particles 2
78 Geiger–Marsden experiment 89 Radioactive decay 1 103 The standard model of particle physics
79 Rutherford’s model of the atom 90 Radioactive decay 2 104 Particle accelerators
80 The discovery of the neutron by 91 Radioactive decay 3
Chadwick 92 Half-life
PROJECTILE MOTION
Galileo’s analysis 1
A projectile is an object that is moving freely under the influence of gravity.

�
Galileo showed that projectile motion

� horizontal
could be analysed by treating the horizontal displacement
and vertical components of the motion
independently.
Figure PC.1 shows that the horizontal

�
component of the velocity remains constant
but the vertical component changes due to the
force of gravity. projectile
vertical motion
displacement
Figure PC.1
MODULE 5: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 4

advanced mechan ics
PROJECTILE MOTION
Components of motion 2
We can break up the initial velocity (u) into its vertical (uy) and horizontal (ux)
�
components, as shown in Figure PC.2.
The initial vertical velocity is given by uy = u sin q

�
The initial horizontal velocity is given by ux = u cos q

�
u
uy = u sin θ
θ
Figure PC.2 ux = u cos θ

advanced mechan ics
PROJECTILE MOTION
Writing the equations of motion for projectile motion 3
To take the vector nature of motion into account we call the upwards vector quantities
�
positive, and the downwards vector quantities negative. Hence the acceleration due to
gravity is g = –9.8 ms–2.
� The acceleration due to gravity affects only the vertical component of the motion
and this allows us to use the equations of motion to describe the horizontal and vertical
motion.
� Calling the vertical displacement y and the horizonal displacement x we can apply the
equations of motion to each of the components as follows:
For the horizontal component: x = uxt
For the vertical component: y = uy t + 21 gt 2
vy = uy + g t

vy = uy + 2g y
2 2
You should learn how to derive these equations from the equations of motion rather
�
than trying to remember them.
advanced mechan ics
PROJECTILE MOTION
Time of flight of a projectile 4
� vy = 0 at the top of the motion, for all projectiles.
For objects that are projected and land at the same height the motion will be
�
symmetric. This means that the final vertical velocity is equal in magnitude but in the
opposite direction of the initial vertical velocity (vy = –uy ) and it will take the same
time to go up as it takes to fall down.
The time of flight for a projectile that is launched and lands at the same height is
�
obtained by combining vy = uy + gt with vy = –uy to obtain t = –2uy /g .
If the projectile lands at a different height (h) we can find the time of flight by setting y = h and
�
solving the quadratic equation 0 = uy t + 21 g t 2 – h.


advanced mechan ics
PROJECTILE MOTION
Range of a projectile and maximum height 5
The range of all projectiles is given by x = uxt.
�
For projectiles that are launched and land at the same height, the range will be given by:
�
2
x = ux t = ux(–2uy /g) = −u sin 2θ
g
� We can use vy2 = uy2 + 2g y to find the maximum height. As vy = 0 at the top of the
motion, the maximum height will be given by:
−u y2
y max =
2g
� Note that the negative sign will disappear when we substitute
g = –9.8 ms–2 in the denominator of the equations for the time
of flight, maximum height and range.
You should learn how to derive these equations rather than memorising them.
�

advanced mechan ics
PROJECTILE MOTION
Energy and projectile motion 6
If we ignore friction, an object undergoing projectile motion is in free flight and the
�
only force operating on the body is gravity.
Because no forces other than gravity act on the body, its total energy must remain
�
constant and hence:
Total energy of the projectile = kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy
1
We can write this as 2 mv 2 + mgh = a constant.
�
When h = 0, the projectile possesses only kinetic energy but as it moves upwards
�
it slows down and some of its kinetic energy is converted into gravitational potential
energy.

advanced mechan ics
CIRCULAR MOTION
Angular displacement and angular velocity 7
Figure PC.3 shows how an object undergoing uniform circular motion increases its
�
angular displacement (q ) at a constant rate.
The rate at which the angular displacement changes is called the angular velocity
�
(w). Hence w = Dq/t.
If the angular displacement is measured in radians, the angular velocity is measured
�
in radians per second. ∆s
The
� period and frequency of an object undergoing
uniform circular motion are related to the angular
velocity by w = 2p f = 2p/T.
∆θ
∆s = (∆θ )r
ω = ∆θ /∆t
Time = ∆t
Figure PC.3

advanced mechan ics
CIRCULAR MOTION
Centripetal acceleration and force 8
The tangential velocity (v) of an object undergoing uniform circular motion is related
�
to the period by v = s/t = 2p r/T= 2p f = w r.
An object moving with uniform circular motion has a constant tangential velocity,
�
but because the direction of the velocity constantly changes, the object is accelerating.
The centripetal acceleration (ac ) is directed towards the centre of the circle and is
�
related to the radius and the rate of rotation by ac = v 2/r = w 2r .
Because the object is accelerating a net force must be acting on the object. We
�
call this force the centripetal force and, like the centripetal acceleration, this force is
directed towards the centre of the circle.
The centripetal force is given by Fc = mac = mv 2/r = mw 2r .

�

advanced mechan ics
CIRCULAR MOTION
Banked tracks 9
When a car moves around a flat, unbanked corner the centripetal force on the car
�
is provided by the reaction force (friction) when the tyres of the car push sideways on
the road.
The ability of a car to negotiate a corner depends on the car’s mass and the
�
coefficient of friction between the tyres and the road.
FN
If the corner is banked at the correct angle the
� θ
normal reaction force provides the centripetal mg
force, as shown in Figure PC.4. The banking
angle (q ) required to achieve this is given by
tanq = (mv 2/r)/m g = v 2/r g.
mv 2
r
mg θ
Figure PC.4

advanced mechan ics
CIRCULAR MOTION
Torque and equilibrium 10
A torque (t ) is a measure of the turning force applied to an object.

�
As shown in Figure PC.5, torque is defined as the product of the force times the
�
perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the pivot:
t = r^ F = rF sin q
F sin θ
For a body to be in equilibrium the vector
� F
sum of the net force acting on the object must
be zero and the net torque around any turning
point must be zero.
θ
F cos θ
Figure PC.5 r

advanced mechan ics
CIRCULAR MOTION
Energy 11
Because objects undergoing uniform circular motion move with constant velocity
�
the kinetic energy remains constant.
Even though a force operates on the object, no work is done on the object because it
�
moves perpendicular to the applied force.
The kinetic energy of an object moving in uniform circular motion

� is k = 12 mv 2. We
can replace v in this equation with the period, frequency or angular frequency of the
motion, for example:
k = 21 m(w r)2 = 21 m(2p r/T )2
If a net torque is applied to a body it will rotate at an increasing rate and hence the
�
torque does work on the body and its energy will increase.

advanced mechan ics
MOTION IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS
Gravitational force and gravitational fields 12
GM m.
All objects attract one another with a force of gravity given by F =
�
r 2
Objects are surrounded by a gravitational field directed towards the object.
�
The gravitational field strength is defined as the force per unit mass and hence can
�
be expressed as g = GM .
r 2
Note that the gravitational field strength at any point in space is equal to the
�
acceleration due to gravity at the point.
We can calculate the acceleration due to gravity (gravitational field strength) on the
�
surface of a planet of mass (M) and radius (r)
GM m GM
using the equation F = mg = 2 and hence g = 2 .
r r
MODULE 5: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 31–32

advanced mechan ics
Satellite motion 13
Satellites orbit massive central bodies because gravity provides the centripetal force
�
required for them to remain in orbit.
To remain in orbit with an orbital radius (r) a satellite must have a specific orbital
�
velocity (v). With this velocity, the centripetal force (Fc ) is equal to the force that
gravity exerts on the satellite.
mv 2 = GM m and hence the orbital
As gravity provides the centripetal force, Fc =
�
r r 2
velocity of a satellite with orbital radius r is given by v = GM r .
Note that the centripetal acceleration of a satellite is the acceleration due to

�
gravity (i.e. ac = g = Gm ) and the satellite is therefore a free-falling body.
r 2
advanced mechan ics
Artificial Earth satellites 14
Geostationary satellites stay above one point on the equator because the Earth and
�
the satellite move together. They have a period of 24 hours, an equatorial orbit and an
orbital radius of 42 000 km.
Geostationary satellites have a range of applications, including communication,

�
TV broadcasting and weather forecasting.
Low Earth orbit satellites (LEOs) have orbital radii from 150 to 2000 km.
�
LEOs have periods from about 90 to 130 minutes. LEO applications include
�
communication, space telescopes, remote sensing and space stations.
Low altitude orbits are degenerate because LEO satellites are slowed in the outer
�
atmosphere and eventually spiral back into the atmosphere.

advanced mechan ics
Kepler’s laws and the satellite equation 15
Kepler proposed three laws of planetary motion:
�
1 The law of orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
2 The law of areas: A straight line joining the planet to the Sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal times.
3 The law of periods: The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube
of the semimajor axis (half the maximum diameter of the ellipse). For a circular orbit
we can express
the law of periods as r 3/T 2 = a constant.
� Newton showed that Kepler’s laws could be derived from Newton’s law of universal
gravity.
2
� For example, substituting v =2p r/T into mv = GMm enables us to
r r2
3
write the satellite equation, r = GM , which is Kepler’s third law.
T 2 4π 2
advanced mechan ics
Elliptical orbits and transfer orbits 16
The most efficient way to move from one circular orbit to another is to use an
�
elliptical transfer orbit, illustrated in Figure PC.6.
To move to a higher orbital requires two posigrade rocket burns and to move
�
to a lower orbital requires two retrograde burns at each extreme of the elliptical
transfer orbit.
geostationary transfer
When a satellite moves to a higher orbit it
� orbit orbit
decreases its kinetic energy but increases its
potential energy and total energy.
LEO
Figure PC.6

advanced mechan ics
Satellite energy and escape velocity 17
Because a satellite is a free-falling body its total energy remains constant (provided
�
no external forces other than gravity act on the satellite).
The kinetic energy of a satellite is given by:
�
K = 12 mv 2 = 12 m( GM r )2 = GMm/2r
� The potential energy of the satellite is given by U = –GMm/r.
� The total energy of the satellite is E = K + U = –GMm/2r.
� We can find the escape velocity from a planet by equating the initial kinetic energy to
the magnitude of the potential energy on the surface:
2
12 mvesc = GM r or vesc = 2GM /r
Note that the escape velocity is
� 2 times the orbital velocity.

advanced mechan ics
CHARGED PARTICLES, CONDUCTORS,
AND ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
Electric fields 18
The force between charged particles is given by Coulomb’s law:
�
1 q1q 2
F=
4πε 0 r 2
� We can also analyse the force on a charge using electric fields.
� The electric field strength is defined as the force
per unit positive charge (E = F/q).
+ –
� We can picture the electric field by
drawing lines of force around charged
objects to show the direction that a + + + + + + +
positive test charge placed at each point

would experience a force. Figure PC.7 + –
shows some electric fields.
Figure PC.7 – – – – – – –

electromagn etism
Potential differences in electric fields 19
The force on a charge (q) placed in an electric field (E) is given by F = qE.
�
A positive charge placed in an electric field will accelerate at a = F/m = qE/m in the
�
direction of the electric field.
If a charge moves parallel to an electric field, as shown in Figure PC.8, work will be
�
done on or by the field.
We define the electric potential difference (V) between two points in an electric field
�
as the work done per unit positive charge moving between the points, V = work/q.
Because potential difference is defined for positive
�
+q
charge, we say point A in Figure PC.8 is at a higher electric
A B
electrical potential than at point B. field
Figure PC.8
electromagn etism
Charged parallel plates 20
–
Charged parallel plates can be used to produce a uniform electric field.
� +
+ –
When a positive charge moves from the positively charged plate to
� + + + –
+ –
the negatively charged plate, as shown in Figure PC.9, a force (qE) is + –
applied to the charge (q) over the separation of the plates (d) and the + –
work done will be W = Fs = qEd. + –
+ –
The potential difference between the plates will be given by
� d
V = work/q = qEd/q = Ed. Figure PC.9
We can calculate the velocity of the charge when it reaches the negative plate from
�
the acceleration of the charge (a = qE/m = V/m) and the equations of motion, or by
equating the work done to the
2qV
kinetic energy gained, work = qV = 21 mv 2 and hence v = m.
electromagn etism
Charge trajectory in an electric field 21
A charged particle moving in an electric field is analogous to a mass moving in a
�
gravitational field.
If the charged particle is initially at rest, the force on the particle will cause it to
�
accelerate in the direction of the field if it is positively charged or in the opposite
direction if it is negatively charged.
If a charged particle is moving when it enters a uniform electric field it will follow
�
similar trajectories to a mass moving in a uniform gravitational field. That is, the
charge will be a projectile but its acceleration will be a = qE/m rather than g.
A positively charged particle moving with an initial velocity in the opposite direction in
�
an electric field would be analogous to throwing a mass upwards in a gravitational field.
If the charged particle moves across the electric field its trajectory can be analysed by
�
breaking the motion into components parallel to and perpendicular to the electric field.
electromagn etism
Magnetic fields and moving charges 22
Crosses represent a field into the page and dots represent a field directed out of
�
the page.
If a charge is at rest in or moves parallel to a magnetic field no force will be exerted
�
on the charge.
If a charge moves with some component of its velocity perpendicular to a magnetic
�
field a force will be exerted on the charge that is direction of
perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the velocity v
velocity of the charge, given by F = qvB sin q. of positive charge
direction of
� The direction of the force on a moving charge magnetic field B
in a magnetic field is given by the right-hand
palm rule shown in Figure PC.10.
direction of
Figure PC.10 force F (out of palm)

electromagn etism
Trajectory of moving charge in a magnetic field 23
Because the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is perpendicular to the
�
velocity of the charge it is a centripetal force and will cause the charge to follow a
circular trajectory in the field. Thus we can write qvB = mv 2/r or r = mv/qB.
v X X X X
B
If the charge’s initial velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic
� X X X X
F
field it will move in a circle, as shown in Figure PC.11. X X
F
X X
X X X X
If the charge enters the magnetic field at an angle, the
� v
Figure PC.11
component of the velocity perpendicular to the field that X X X X
will result is a centripetal force that will produce circular B

motion but the component of the velocity parallel to the
field will be constant. Combining these two motions
causes the charge to follow a helical path, as shown in
Figure PC.12.
Figure PC.12
electromagn etism
Comparing forces in electric and magnetic fields 24
The force on a charge is quite different in electric and magnetic fields.
�
In an electric field the force is parallel to the field and acts on moving and
�
stationary charges.
In a magnetic field there is no force on a stationary charge or on a charge moving
�
parallel to the magnetic field. However, if the charge is moving and has some
component of the velocity perpendicular to the field, a force will appear that is
perpendicular to this component of velocity and to the magnetic field.
Charges entering a magnetic field at 90° to the field
�
will follow a circular path but, as shown in Figure – – – – – – –
PC.13, a charge entering an electric field at 90° will
u
follow a parabolic path.
electron
+ + + + + + +
Figure PC.13
x

electromagn etism
Combining electric and magnetic fields 25
If two types of fields act on a charged particle, the net force on the particle will be
�
the vector sum of the active forces.
Because the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is proportional to its

�
velocity, we can find the velocity of a charge by passing a charge through mutually
perpendicular electric and magnetic fields.
X X X X X X X X X X
Figure PC.14 shows a velocity selector that uses

� X X X X X X
+++++++++++++++++++++
X X X X a
crossed electric and magnetic fields. For a charge X X X
EX
X X X X X X X
to pass without being deflected the forces must be – X X X X X X X X X

b
balanced. That is, qE = qvB or v = E/B. Only
X X X X X X X X X X
–––––––––––––––––––––
X X X X X X X X X X
charges moving at this velocity will pass through X X X X X X

BX X X X
c
without being deflected.
Figure PC.14

electromagn etism
THE MOTOR EFFECT
Force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field 26
Because a magnetic field exerts a force on a charge that moves with some
�
component of its velocity perpendicular to the field, a magnetic field will also exert a
force on a current-carrying wire placed across the field.
The force exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field is called the motor
�
force.
A wire of length I, oriented at an angle q to a magnetic field B, will experience a
�
motor force given by F = lI^B = lIB sin q.
As shown in Figure PC.15, the direction of the
� force
motor force is given by the right-hand palm
rule, with the thumb pointing in the direction direction
of the current (i.e. the direction that positive of current
charges move). external
magnetic field
Figure PC.15 wire

electromagn etism
THE MOTOR EFFECT
Measuring the motor effect 27
Figure PC.16 shows how we can measure the motor force on a current-carrying
�
wire.
Because of Newton’s third law if the magnetic field exerts a force F on the wire, an
�
equal and opposite force will be exerted on magnets.
The force on the electronic balance will change when the current is switched on and
�
this change in mass (Dm) can be used to determine the motor force using F = Dmg.
Investigations of this type can be used to
�
horseshoe
show that the motor force is proportional to magnet
the current in the wire and the length of the
wire in the magnetic field.
298
100
Figure PC.16 electronic balance

electromagn etism
THE MOTOR EFFECT
Magnetic field around a current-carrying wire 28
You will recall from the Year 11 course that a long, straight, current-carrying wire is
�
surrounded by a magnetic field, as shown in Figure PC.17.
The magnetic field is in concentric circles around

�
the current-carrying wire and the direction of the I
field can by determined using the right-hand grip
rule (see Figure PC.17).
The strength of the magnetic field a distance r from

�
µ0 I
the wire is given by B = .
2π r
Figure PC.17 B

electromagn etism
THE MOTOR EFFECT
Force between parallel current-carrying wires 29
Parallel current-carrying wires exert a force on each other because each wire is
�
affected by the magnetic field of the other wire.
The force per unit length between long, straight parallel wires is given
�
µ II
by F = 0 1 2 .
l 2π r
� We can determine the force direction by using the right-hand grip rule to find
the magnetic field around each wire and the right-hand palm rule to find the force
direction on each wire.
� Another method, shown in Figure PC.18, is to draw F F
the magnetic field around the wires. The wires will
F F
experience a force towards the weaker part of the field.

� Parallel wires carrying current in the same direction a b
attract each other, and wires carrying current in the

opposite direction repel each other. Figure PC.18

electromagn etism
THE MOTOR EFFECT
Defining the ampere 30
All measuring systems are based on standards for each of the fundamental units used
�
in the system.
A good standard of measurement is one that does not change (i.e. is invariant) and is
�
easily reproducible.
The ampere was chosen as the SI fundamental unit of current because parallel
�
current-carrying wires can be used to reproduce the standard ampere anywhere in the
world.
Other electrical quantities are derived using the ampere; for example, a coulomb =
�
ampere × second.
The ampere is defined as that current which, if maintained in two straight, parallel
�
wires of infinite length and placed one metre apart in vacuum, would produce a force
per unit length of 2 × 10−7 Nm–1 on each wire.
µ II
Thus the relationship F = 0 1 2 is used to define the SI standard ampere.
�
l 2π r
electromagn etism
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Electromagnetic flux 31
Magnetic flux (F ) is a measure of the magnetic flux density (B) passing through a
�
specific surface measured in Tm2 or webers (Wb).
� If the surface is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnetic flux is given by
F = BA but if the surface is at another angle to the magnetic field, we use the
component of the surface perpendicular to the field for the area (A).
� To find the magnetic flux in this case we define the area vector as a vector
perpendicular to the area with a magnitude equal to the area, and then find the
component of the
magnetic field that is parallel to this vector.
B
� The magnetic flux is therefore given by B cos θ
F = B||A = BA cos q, where q is the angle θ
between the area vector and the magnetic =BA
field, as shown in Figure PC.19. area A
||
= BA cos θ
Figure PC.19

electromagn etism
Faraday’s law 32
Producing a current in a loop by changing the magnetic environment of the loop is

�
called electromagnetic induction.
An electromotive force (emf or e) is the potential difference in volts that a source of

�
electrical energy (battery or generator) possesses when the source is not connected to
a circuit (i.e. is not providing energy).
Faraday’s law states that the electromotive force induced in a circuit is proportional to
�
the negative rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the circuit or e = –N DF.
D t
We can induce potential difference across a coil in a magnetic field by changing the
�
magnetic field or by changing the area of the coil perpendicular to the field.

electromagn etism
Lenz’s law 33
Because energy must be conserved in electromagnetic induction, work must be
�
done to produce electrical energy.
Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced current is such that it will produce
�
magnetic fields that oppose the change in magnetic flux that produced the current.
Lenz’s
� law is a consequence of the conservation of energy.
� Consider the rod moving on the rails in Figure PC.20. Free positive charges on the
rod will experience an upwards force as the rod is moved to the right,
producing an upwards current in the rod. X X X X X X X
This current will oppose the motion of the
rod (i.e. apply the right-hand palm rule). X X X X X X X
40 cm 10 ms–1 0.1 Ω
X X X X X X X
B
Figure PC.20 X X X X X X X

electromagn etism
Examples of electromagnetic induction 34
Figure PC.21 shows that when a permanent magnet is inserted into or removed from a
�
solenoid a current will be induced in a direction that will cause the solenoid to produce
a magnetic field that opposes the change.
Figure PC.22 shows another example of Lenz’s law. The solid aluminium plate
�
quickly comes to rest because of induced eddy currents but the slits in the second plate
reduce the eddy currents and it swings for much longer.
A S N N S
pivot pivot
sheet slotted
aluminium aluminium
G pendulum pendulum
B S N S N
Figure PC.21 G Figure PC.22

electromagn etism
The transformer 35
A transformer is used to increase (step-up) or decrease (step-down) AC voltage.
�
Figure PC.23 shows a simple transformer. When AC is placed on the input (primary)
�
coil it produces a continually changing magnetic field that is intensified and confined
by the iron core.
The iron core links the changing magnetic
�
field to the output (secondary) coil, which laminated iron core
induces an AC voltage on the output coil.
The ratio of the input and output voltages
� AC input AC output
voltage voltage
in a transformer is equal to the ratio of turns
on the primary and secondary coils:
primary secondary
Vp Np coil coil
=
Vs Ns Figure PC.23

electromagn etism
Transformer efficiency and power 36
Transformers are very efficient devices. They often have efficiencies over 95%.
�
If we assume a transformer is 100% efficient, the input power will be equal to the
�
output power and we can write Vp Ip = Vs I s.
To conserve energy, a step-up transformer increases the voltage but the maximum
�
current that can be supplied is reduced. Similarly, a step-down transformer reduces
the AC voltage but can provide an increased current.
Power is lost in transformers due to eddy currents in the core, incomplete flux
�
linkage and resistance of the windings (which increases with temperature).
To improve efficiencies the core of the transformer is laminated to reduce eddy currents
�
and the transformer is air- or oil-cooled to reduce resistance losses in the windings.
Transformer cores are also carefully designed to maximise flux linkage between the
primary and secondary coils.

electromagn etism
AC electrical distribution systems 37
The main source of power loss in the transmission of electricity is resistance
�
heating in the lines.
Line loss is proportional to the square of the current, Ploss = I 2R. Thus the efficiency
�
of transmission can be greatly increased by transmitting electricity at low current and
high voltage.
AC distribution systems are very efficient because they use step-up transformers to
�
produce high voltages (and low current) for transmission and step-down transformers
to reduce the voltages after transmission.
DC electricity is more difficult to efficiently step up and down and hence the
�
vast majority of the world’s electrical distribution systems use transformers and AC
electricity.
Transformers are also used in a wide range of other applications such as battery
�
charges, computers and microwave ovens.

electromagn etism
APPLICATIONS OF THE MOTOR EFFECT
The DC motor 38
Figure PC.24 shows a simple DC electric motor. In the position shown, the torque
�
on the coil will be a maximum because the motor force on each side of the coil is
perpendicular to the line joining the point of application of the force to the axis of
rotation.
A split-ring commutator is used to reverse the connection to the power supply each
�
half-cycle, which reveres the direction of force on each side of the coil each half-cycle
to ensure the torque remains in one direction and the coil continues to rotate.
The torque at any point in the rotation is
� F armature
coil
given by t = nIA^B = nIAB sin q, where A is
the cross-sectional area of the coil, n is the N
number of turns of wire on the coil and q is the split-ring S
angle between the area vector and the applied commutator –
+
magnetic field. F
Figure PC.24 graphite brush

electromagn etism
The DC generator 39
A generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. A DC

�
generator has the same structure as a DC motor but it has the opposite function.
A DC motor converts electrical energy to mechanical energy of rotation, while a DC
�
generator converts mechanical energy of rotation to electrical energy.
An emf is induced in the coil as it is rotated because the amount of magnetic flux
�
linking the coil will be continually charging.
The split-ring commutator will ensure that the polarity
Output
voltage
�
of the induced emf does not change as the coil is rotated
and that current will therefore flow in one direction in
the external circuit. T 2T
Period of rotation
The output of a single-coil DC electric generator is
�
shown in Figure PC.25. Figure PC.25

electromagn etism
The AC generator 40
mechanical energy in
A simple AC generator can be produced by replacing
�
the split-ring commutator in a DC generator with a
slip-ring commutator, as shown in Figure PC.26.
The slip-ring commutator simply connects the
� N S
coil to the external circuit and, because the induced
voltage will change polarity each half-cycle, the output
slip-rings
from the generator will produce an AC output, as AC output
illustrated in Figure PC.27.
Figure PC.26
Most industrial AC generators operate differently.
�
The armature is an electromagnet that is powered by
Output voltage
an external power supply connected to the armature
via a slip-ring commutator. AC is induced in stationary T 2T
(stator) coils placed around the rotating electromagnet. Figure PC.27 Period of rotation

electromagn etism
Back emf (Lenz’s law and E conservation) 41
Because DC motors act as generators when they are operating they generate an
�
emf and a current in the coil, which by Lenz’s law will oppose the change in flux that
produced the current.
This induced emf is called back emf because it opposes the supply voltage.
�
The voltage across and current in the armature coil will be reduced as the speed of the
�
rotation increases because the back emf will also increase.
If the motor is prevented from turning there would be no back emf and a large
�
current would pass through the armature that could ‘burn out’ the motor.
The torque provided by the motor is proportional to the current in the armature
�
coil. When a load is placed on the motor it will slow down, reducing the back emf and
increasing the current in the coil and the torque.
We can explain the increase in current when the load is increased in terms of
�
conservation of energy because the motor will consume more electrical power (P = IV)
when the load is increased.
electromagn etism
Principle of the AC induction motor 42
The AC induction motor works on the principle illustrated in Figure PC.28. If a

�
magnet is spun around a non-magnetic conductor, eddy currents will be induced in the
conductor, which by Lenz’s law will cause the conductor to rotate with the magnets.
By replacing the permanent magnets with electromagnets and connecting each to AC
�
power with a slightly different phase, the central cylinder would experience a magnetic
field that moved like the rotating permanent magnets in Figure PC.28.
N
N
S
S
Figure PC.28
electromagn etism
The AC induction motor 43
squirrel
cage C
Figure PC.29 shows an AC induction motor
� rotor
and PC.30 shows the squirrel cage rotor in A B
stator coils
supplied with
which current is induced by AC coils that N AC voltages
produce a magnetic field that moves around the S
with different
phases
squirrel cage rotor. B A
When a load is placed on an induction motor

� C
the rotor slows compared with the rotating field, Figure PC.29
which causes a greater current to be induced in
copper
the rotor. This increased current increases the end
torque applied by the motor (and increases the plates
electrical power that must be supplied to the copper
conducting
stator coils—ensuring energy is conserved). rods
axis of rotation
Figure PC.30
electromagn etism
Electromagnetic braking 44
Electromagnetic induction can be used to provide a braking
�
electromagnet
force because the mechanical energy must be supplied to
produce electrical energy. eddy currents
Figure PC.31 shows an electromagnetic disc brake. The
�
rotating disk experiences a changing magnetic field that induces
eddy currents in the disc.
By Lenz’s law the induced currents will be in a direction that
� aluminium
will produce a magnetic field that will oppose the change that disk
produced the currents. Hence the induced currents will cause Figure PC.31
a magnetic field to be produced that will slow the disc.
Energy is conserved because the mechanical energy of the disc goes into currents
�
that produce resistance heating in the disc and hence the disc’s energy is converted
into thermal energy.
Electric generators also can act as brakes. The more current that is drawn from a
�
generator, the harder it will be to turn.
electromagn etism
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Maxwell and electromagnetic waves 45
In the 1860s James Clerk Maxwell combined all the existing equations and observations
�
of electricity and magnetism into a single, coherent field theory of electromagnetism.
Classical (non-quantum) electromagnetism is still based on Maxwell’s equations.
�
In 1864 Maxwell showed that his equations could be combined to produce a wave
�
equation and that the equation gave the wave speed as
v= 1 = 3 × 10 8 ms −1
. oscillating
electric field
µ0 ε 0 charge
These electromagnetic waves were

�
transverse waves produced by oscillating magnetic field
charges and made up of mutually
perpendicular changing electric and direction of
magnetic fields, as shown in Figure PC.32. propagation
Figure PC.32

th e nature of light
Electromagnetic waves 46
� In 1887 Hertz experimentally demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves. He
produced radio frequency waves by oscillating charges in a spark gap.
� Hertz showed that electromagnetic waves travelled at the speed of light and could be polarised,
reflected, refracted and diffracted, just like light waves.
� To find the speed of the waves Hertz set up standing waves of known frequency, measured their
wavelength and then applied the wave equation v = f l.
� We call the wide range of electromagnetic wave frequencies predicted by Maxwell the
electromagnetic Short wavelength Long wavelength
spectrum
(see Figure PC.33).
10–5 nm 10–3 nm 1 nm 103 nm 106 nm 1m 103 m
gamma rays x-rays ultraviolet infrared microwaves radio waves

1024 Hz 1022 Hz 1020 Hz 1018 Hz 1016 Hz 1012 Hz 1010 Hz 108 Hz 106 Hz 104 Hz 102 Hz
High frequency Low frequency
Visible light
Figure PC.33 7 × 1014 Hz 4 × 1014 Hz

Propagation of electromagnetic waves 47
Electromagnetic waves are produced by oscillating charges. The frequency of
�
oscillation of the charge determines the frequency of the electromagnetic wave.
Electromagnetic waves passing a charge will exert a force on the charge that will
�
cause the charge to oscillate at the same frequency as the wave.
Electromagnetic waves are self-sustaining because a changing electric field produces
�
a changing magnetic field that is perpendicular to the changing electric field. The
changing magnetic field then produces a changing electric field that is perpendicular
to the changing magnetic field.
A polarised electromagnetic wave is one in which the electric field changes in only
�
one plane.
Unpolarised electromagnetic waves have electric fields oriented in all planes
�
perpendicular to the wave velocity.
Measuring the speed of light 48
The speed of light was first measured in 1676. Table PC.1 shows it has been
�
measured with increasing accuracy ever since.
Year Scientist Method Result (kms–1)
1676 Romer Eclipse of Jupiter’s moon Io 220 000
1728 Bradley Aberration of star light 301 000
1849 Fizeau Rotating toothed wheel 313 300
1862 Foucault Rotating mirror 309 000
1926 Michelson Rotating mirror 299 796 ± 4
1976 Woods (and others) Frequency and wavelength of a laser 299 792.459 ±
0.001
From Value fixed and metre defined in 299 792.458
1983 terms of the speed of light
Table PC.1
Spectra 49
A spectrum is produced when light is passed through a dispersive element such as a
�
prism, which separates the different wavelength components of the light.
Continuous spectra contain all the wavelengths of light and are produced by very hot
�
objects such as the filament of an incandescent lamp.
Emission spectra are produced when gaseous atoms are excited by an electric
�
discharge or a flame. Atomic emission spectra are made up of specific wavelengths
that are characteristic of the type of element being excited.
Absorption spectra are produced when a continuous spectrum is sent through an
�
unexcited gas or vapour. The gas absorbs the same unique wavelengths that it emits
when it is excited, leaving dark lines in the spectrum.
The wavelengths emitted or absorbed by an element act as the spectral signature of
�
the element. The presence of the spectral signature indicates the presence of the element.

Stellar spectra 1 50
Stellar spectra are obtained
� by passing the light from a telescope through a grating or
prism spectrograph.
Spectroscopy can tell us a great deal about the
�
Radiant intensity (arbitrary units)

motion and composition of stars.
As shown in Figure PC.34, stellar spectra
�
consist of a continuous black-body spectrum
with absorption lines produced by atoms and
ions in the star’s atmosphere absorbing some
wavelengths.
By applying Wien’s law (lmax = b/T) to the
�
wavelength of maximum emission in the
broad black-body spectrum, we can determine 400 450 500
the surface temperature of the star. Wavelength (nm)
Figure PC.34
Stellar spectra 2 51
The velocity of a star with respect to the Earth can be determined using the optical
�
Doppler Effect by comparing the absorption lines of a specific element in the star with
those from the element of Earth and measuring the change in wavelength.
A shift to longer wavelengths (a redshift) indicates a star is moving away from the
�
Earth and a shift to shorter wavelengths (a blueshift) indicates the star is moving
towards the Earth.
The elements in the star’s atmosphere can be identified by the presence of the
�
spectral signatures of the elements in the stellar absorption spectrum.
The rate of rotation of a star will cause a redshift and blueshift that will broaden the
�
absorption lines.
The density of a star can also be deduced by the broadening of spectral lines.
�
The temperature of a star can also be inferred by the ratio of atomic to ionic
�
absorption lines in the stellar spectrum.

LIGHT: WAVE MODEL
Diffraction 52
When a wave encounters a small object (of the
�
same order as the wavelength) or a small gap or
edge, the wave diffracts (spreads out) behind the
object, edge or gap. small gap large gap
The amount of diffraction, as shown in
� Figure PC.35
Figure PC.35, increases as the gap becomes
smaller with respect to the wavelength.
incident incident
Diffraction can be explained using
� wavefront wavefront
Huygen’s principle, which states that
each point on the wavefront acts as an
individual point source of secondary
wavelets (see Figure PC.36).
diffracted diffracted
wavefront wavefront
Figure PC.36
LIGHT: WAVE MODEL
Double-slit interference 53
When coherent, monochromatic light passes through two closely placed slits, the
�
diffracted light from the slits overlaps and produces an interference pattern, as shown
in Figure PC.37.
� At some places on the screen the superimposed waves from each slit will be one
half-cycle out of phase and produce a destructive interference. At other places the light
waves will be in phase and produce a constructive interference.
� The angle (q ) at which maxima will
occur is given by d sin q = ml, max
where m is the order of interference. monochromatic min
Note that sometimes sin q is coherent max screen
image
light source
replaced by the approximation: min
max
y/L = (distance from central
maxima)/(distance to the screen) double screen
Figure PC.37 slit

LIGHT: WAVE MODEL
The diffraction grating 54
A diffraction grating is a glass slide with a large number of parallel lines ruled on it to
�
make a large number of slits. (Note that slit separation d = 1/(lines per unit length).)
Maxima of interference are produced by a diffraction grating at the same angle as for
�
a double slit, d sin q = ml.
However, as shown in Figure PC.38, the interference pattern produced by a diffraction
�
grating has much sharper and much brighter maxima than the double slit pattern.
This is because multiple slits produce
� intensity
m=2
multiple minima between each pair of
maxima and because the maxima are m=1
made up of the superposition of light θ1 m=0

screen
image
from a large number of slits. laser
pointer m=1
diffraction m=2
grating
Figure PC.38

LIGHT: WAVE MODEL
Early models of light 55
By 1700 two different models of light existed: a compressional wave model proposed
�
by Huygens and a corpuscular (particle) model proposed by Newton.
Neither of the models satisfactorily explained all observed wave phenomena.
�
Light beams were observed to pass through one another without being scattered by
�
the interaction. This observation could not be explained by the particle model.
Light travelled in straight lines as rays, unlike other types of waves that tend to spread
�
out. This observation was difficult to explain using the wave model.
Double refraction (birefringence) in calcite crystals proved difficult for either model
�
to explain.
Today we know that double refraction is related to the polarisation of light, a property of
�
light that was unknown at the time of Newton and Huygens.
Newton’s particle model was favoured until the early 19th century. But when Young and
�
Fresnel showed that interference phenomena could only be explained by a wave model,
the particle model lost support from scientists.
LIGHT: WAVE MODEL
Polarisation 56
Polarised light is light that has a changing electric field in only one plane.
�
We can produce polarised light by using a plastic polarising filter (Polaroid sheet) or
�
by scattering or reflection.
Because half the electric field of an unpolarised wave would be in any two
�
perpendicular components, 50% of the incident unpolarised light intensity will pass
through a polarising filter.
The intensity of polarised light transmitted through an analyser is given by Malus’s law:
�
I = Imax cos2 q
Malus’s observations of polarisation led Young in 1820 to abandon Huygens’
�
compressional wave model of light in favour of a transverse model of light.
The transverse model was supported by Maxwell’s theoretical prediction of transverse
�
electromagnetic waves and by Hertz’s experimental confirmation of the existence of
such waves.
LIGHT: QUANTUM MODEL
Black-body radiation and quanta 57
Black-body radiation could not be explained by classical electromagnetism, which

�
predicted hot objects would radiate an infinite amount of energy at high frequencies.
However, Wien was able to show that the absolute temperature of a body was related
�
to the wavelength at which it emitted the most intense radiation, by l max = b/T.
In 1900 Max Planck succeeded in deriving the black-body radiation curves by
�
abandoning classical theory and assuming the radiation could only be emitted and
absorbed from the body in whole-number multiples of energy (quanta).
The minimum energy was related to the frequency of the radiation by E = h f, where
�
h was Planck’s constant and f was the frequency.
In 1905 Einstein extended Planck’s quantum hypothesis to light and said that light was
�
made up of energy quanta (now called photons) with energy E = h f.

LIGHT: QUANTUM MODEL
The photoelectric effect 58
If light above a specific threshold frequency ( f0 )
� is incident on a metal, electrons are
emitted from the surface with an energy that is proportional to the frequency of the
incident light.
This effect could not be explained by electromagnetic wave theory, which predicted
�
the photoelectron energy would be related to the incident light intensity and that light
of any frequency would eject electrons (provided it was intense enough).
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by
� metal 1 metal 2 metal 3
assuming that when a photon interacted with an
electron on the surface, energy would be conserved
Maximum kinetic energy

gradient = h
and the ejected electron would therefore have a
of photoelectrons
0
kinetic energy of Kmax = hf – f . (see Figure PC.39). f f f Incident light
01 02 03
frequency
He also showed the threshold frequency ( f0 )
1
�
was related to the minimum energy to eject an 2
electron (f) by hf0 = f .

Figure PC.39 3

LIGHT AND SPECIAL RELATIVITY
Postulates of special relativity 59
A frame of refence is a set of axes we use to measure the position and velocity of objects.
�
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law is obeyed.
�
Newtonian–Galilean relativity states that ‘all inertial frames of reference are
�
equivalent for all the laws of mechanics’.
Einstein based his revolutionary 1905, special theory of relativity on two postulates:
�
1 All inertial frames are equivalent.
2 The speed of light is an absolute constant.
The first postulate is an extension of Newtonian–Galilean relativity to all the laws of
�
physics.
The second postulate is a consequence of the first postulate. If all inertial frames are
�
equivalent then observers in all frames would have to measure the same speed for
light (otherwise the speed of light in the frame could be used to differentiate between
frames).
Michelson–Morley experiment 60
Light was initially thought to travel in an ‘ether’ that filled all of space and would act
�
as a rest-frame through which light and material objects travelled.
Michelson and Morley conducted an experiment in 1887 to measure the speed of the
�
‘ether’ wind past the Earth.
Their experiment, illustrated in Figure PC.40, assumed that light would travel at a
�
different speed parallel and perpendicular to the ether wind.
They expected to see the interference pattern
� mirror ether
monochromatic
change when they rotated the device through light source wind
90° but were surprised when they found no such
change.
Einstein’s postulates explain the result because,
�
50% reflecting mirror
if the speed of light is an absolute constant, it will mirror
travel at the same speed in all directions.
Figure PC.40

Relative quantities 61
Einstein showed that if his two postulates were correct then time, space and momentum
�
were not absolute quantities but would have different values when measured by observers in
different frames of reference.
Einstein used ‘thought experiments’ to examine the consequences of his postulates to show:
�
• An observer will see the time running slowly in a reference frame
t0
moving with respect to the observer. This time dilation is t = .
• An observer will see length contract in the direction  2
1 − v2 
of motion in a reference frame moving with respect to  c 
 2 
the observer. This length contraction is L = L0  1 − v 2  .
 c 
• The momentum in the moving frame of reference will be related to
m0v
the momentum in the rest frame (m0v) by pv = .
 v2 
1 − 2 
 c 
Evidence of time dilation and length contraction 62
Subatomic particles
� called muons are created by cosmic ray collisions in the Earth’s
upper atmosphere.
In the laboratory, muons are found to decay spontaneously with a half-life of 1.5 ms, but
�
because the muons created in the upper atmosphere travel at 0.98c they have lifetimes
five times longer as measured by an Earthbound observer.
In 1971 Hafele and Keating took atomic clocks aboard an airliner and flew them around
�
the world twice. When the clocks aboard the plane were compared with the Earth-bound
clocks after the journey, the difference in time confirmed the prediction of the time lag
due to special (and general) relativity.
With the development of high-speed particle accelerators, physicists have been able to
�
test time dilation by measuring the increase in the lifetimes of subatomic particles as a
function of the speed. These tests have all confirmed the predictions of special relativity.
In the 1930s Chandrasekhar applied special relativity and quantum physics to a star
�
and predicted that some giant stars would collapse at the end of their lives to become
black holes.
Understanding relative motion 63
An observer on Earth would see the
�
length of a fast-moving spaceship
contract (as shown in Figure PC.41) and
v=0 0.8 c 0.9 c 0.98 c
the spacecraft clock running slowly.
� But because all reference frames are observer
equivalent, the observer in the spacecraft
would see the Earthling’s clock running
slowly, and the Earth and space contract Figure PC.41
in the direction of the motion.
� This means that the space traveller’s map squeezes up in the direction of motion and
they reach places quicker because they have had to travel a shorter distance than their
‘Earth map’ required.
� The observer on Earth sees the spaceship clock running slowly and this is how they
explain the shorter time of travel experienced by the space traveller.

Mass–energy equivalence 64
Einstein showed that, near the speed of light, putting more energy into the object
�
begins to increase the effective mass of the object rather its velocity.
He showed that the relationship between mass and energy was E = mc 2.
�
This relationship has been verified by all measurements made to date.
�
Table PC.2 shows the percentage of mass that is converted into energy in some
�
common reactions.
Specific Percentage of mass
Fuel Uses energy (Jkg–1) converted to energy (%)
Uranium fission Power generation 8.1 × 1013 0.1
Deuterium Stars and experimental 5.8 × 1014 0.6
fusion fusion reactors
LPG (chemical Heating and transport 4.6 × 107
5 × 10–8
combustion)
Diesel (chemical Heating and electricity 4.8 × 107 5.3 × 10–8
Table PC.2 combustion) generation

THE ORIGIN OF THE ELEMENTS
The expansion of the universe 65
In 1922 Alexander Friedmann applied Einstein’s general theory of relativity to the
�
universe and showed that its equations predicted a dynamic, expanding universe rather
than a stable, steady state universe.
Einstein tried to prevent his equations from producing a dynamic solution by adding a
�
‘fudge factor’ that he called the cosmological constant.
Using the world’s biggest telescope in 1923, Hubble observed that the Andromeda
�
nebula (M21), was made up of a huge number of stars. Using the period of Cepheid
variable stars, Hubble estimated its distance away from us and concluded that M21 was
an island galaxy beyond our own. Hubble had discovered that the universe extended
beyond the Milky Way.
Hubble then measured the redshift of the light from 46 galaxies and found that
�
the further away a galaxy was, the more its light was redshifted, confirming that the
universe was expanding.
Recent studies have shown that the rate at which the universe is expanding is increasing.
�

from th e un iverse to th e atom
Hubble’s law 66
Hubble plotted the recession velocity of galaxies against distance to the galaxy
�
(see Figure PC.42).
Hubble’s law states that the recession velocity of a galaxy is proportional to its distance.
�
The gradient of the graph

�
Recession velocity (kms–1)

shown in Figure PC.42 is called 1000
Hubble’s constant (H0 ) and it is a
measure of the rate of expansion
of the universe. 500
The most recent measurements

�
of the Hubble constant put it at 0
22 kms–1 Mly–1.
0 2 4 6
Figure PC.42 Distance (× 106 ly)

The Big Bang theory: Matter from energy 67
The Big Bang theory asserts
� that time and space in our universe began from an
incredibly hot point called a singularity about 13.8 billion years ago.
� The Big Bang is an expansion of space rather than an explosion and the theory asserts
that the universe has been expanding and cooling for the past 13.8 billion years.
� In the first microsecond after the Big Bang, huge numbers of subatomic
matter–antimatter pairs (e.g. quarks, neutrinos and electrons) were produced by
photons as the universe began to expand and cool.
� For some unknown reason the radiation produced about one extra matter-particle
per billion matter–antimatter pairs. This small excess of matter accounts for all the
matter we see in the universe today.
� As the universe expanded and cooled, quarks combined to form hadrons (e.g. protons
and neutrons) and, after further cooling, some helium nuclei and a small number of
lithium nuclei were formed in a process called nuclear synthesis.
� 20 minutes after the Big Bang it was too cool for nuclear synthesis to continue and, after
250 000 years, electrons began to combine with nuclei to form atoms.
Stars: Energy from matter 68
Energy was converted to matter
� in an instant after the Big Bang in accordance with
Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship E = mc 2.
Some 300–500 million years after the Big Bang, the universe had cooled enough for
�
gravity to begin collecting matter together to form the first stars.
As the first primordial gas clouds condensed, potential energy was converted to heat
�
and, if a large-enough mass accumulated, the core temperature became high enough
for some fast-moving hydrogen nuclei to fuse together to form helium.
When hydrogen fuses to become helium, some matter is converted to energy in
�
accordance with E = mc 2.
The protostar continues to collapse and heat up until the rate of fusion in the core
�
of the star increases enough to exert an outwards radiation pressure that balances the
inwards gravitational force, and the stable star is formed.
Energy was converted to mass shortly after the Big Bang and for the past 13.6 billion
�
years stars have been converting some of this mass back to energy.
Spectra 69
The first generation of stars that formed after the Big Bang were made up of the
�
elements that were formed by nuclear synthesis after the Big Bang (about 75% H and
25% He).
Heavier elements were fused in massive stars and distributed through the cosmos
�
when these massive stars ended their lives violently in supernova explosions.
Because second generation stars form from the remains of other stars they contain a
�
range of elements in addition to hydrogen and helium.
The spectral emission of a star is broadly made up of a continuous black-body
�
spectrum characteristic of the surface temperature of the star.
In addition to the black-body spectrum, stars show some atomic emission lines from
�
atoms in the star’s atmosphere and many atomic absorption lines due to unexcited
atoms absorbing radiation as it passes though the star’s atmosphere.

Stellar spectra and classification 70
The Morgan–Kennan (MK) system, shown in Table PC.3, classifies stars into seven
�
spectral classes labelled OBAFGKM (the mnemonic to remember the order is Oh be a
fine girl/guy kiss me), where O stars are the hottest and M stars the coolest.
Spectral Temperature
class range (K) Colour Features of absorption spectra
O > 25 000 blue Ionised helium strong, multiply ionised heavy elements, hydrogen faint
B 11 000 – light Neutral helium and hydrogen moderate, singly ionised heavy elements
25 000 blue
A 7500 – 11 000 white Neutral helium very faint, hydrogen strong, singly ionised heavy elements
F 6000 – 7500 yellow- Hydrogen moderate, singly ionised heavy elements, neutral metals
white
G 5000 – 6000 yellow Hydrogen faint, singly ionised elements, neutral metals
K 3500 – 5000 orange Hydrogen faint, singly ionised elements, neutral metals strong
M < 3500 red Neutral atoms strong, molecules moderate, hydrogen very faint
Table PC.3
The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram 71
The Hertzsprung–Russell
� Temperature (K)
(HR) diagram shown in –10
25,000 10,000 6,000 3,000
Figure PC.43 is one of the
supergiants
most important diagrams –5 104
Absolute magnitude
in astrophysics because
Luminosity (Sun = 1)
it shows us that there are 0 102
different types of stars and giants
that stars evolve in different +5 main sequence 1
ways depending on their
initial mass. +10
Sun
10–2
white dwarfs
+15 10–4
O B A F G K M
Figure PC.43 Spectral class

Types of stars on the HR diagram 72
The ‘main sequence’ stars run diagonally across the diagram from the top left to the
�
lower right. They fuse hydrogen to helium in the core and vary from small, long-lived,
cool red stars to massive, short-lived blue stars.
� The most common giant stars are red giants, which have masses of
0.3 M( to 8 M( but are 10s to 100s of times larger than the Sun. All red giant stars are
in a late stage of their evolution, having fused all the hydrogen in their core to helium.
Most red giant stars fuse helium to carbon in the core.
� White dwarf stars represent the final phase in the evolution of main sequence stars,
with masses of less than 8 M(. When fusion ceases in stars of this size they ‘blow away’
their outer layers, and the core that remains collapses to form a white dwarf about the
size of the Earth.
� Supergiant stars are massive stars in the latter phase of their evolution, fusing carbon
or heavier elements in the core, while lighter elements fuse in shells around the core.

Evolution of stars 73
As shown in Figure PC.44, the life cycle
� Cloud of gas and dust
of a star is largely determined by a star’s Protostars

initial mass.
Main sequence stars
� A star stops producing nuclear energy (0.1 M < M < 200 M)
when it cannot produce the required
fusion ignition temperature. Small stars (0.1 M < M < 0.23 M) (0.23 M < M < 8 M) (8 M < M < 200 M)
can only fuse hydrogen to helium but
very large stars White dwarf Red giant Supergiant
can fuse elements up to iron. Nova Supernova

� The fusion of iron consumes rather than
releases energy, and elements heavier Planetary 1.4 M < Core < 3 M Core > 3 M
nebula
than iron are produced from the huge
amount of energy released in supernova White dwarf Neutron star Blackhole
explosions. Figure PC.44

Hydrogen fusion and stellar evolution 74
Figure PC.45 shows the evolutionary
� Type II
paths of different- mass stars on an supernova
HR diagram.
Planetary
Luminosity
� Hydrogen fusion occurs by two paths nebula
in main sequence stars. For stars with a Red
mass greater than 1.3 M(, the dominant Mai
n se
giant
que
hydrogen fusion reaction is the CNO nce
cycle. The CNO cycle uses carbon, White
dwarfs
nitrogen and oxygen nuclei to catalyse
(assist) a reaction that converts four Spectral class
protons into a helium nucleus. Figure PC.45
� The dominant hydrogen fusion pathway for smaller stars is the p–p chain, which
requires a lower ignition temperature than the CNO cycle.
� The net reaction of both reaction paths is: 41H → 4He + 2e+ + 2νe + γ + 26.72 MeV
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Early cathode ray experiments 75
In 1870 Crookes found that if a high voltage was placed across electrodes in an evacuated
�
glass tube then current continues to flow and rays emitted from the cathode make the
glass near the anode glow green.
Scientists debated for decades whether these ‘cathode rays’ were particles or some
�
form of electromagnetic waves because the evidence was inconclusive (see Table PC.4).
Evidence used to support the wave model Evidence used to support the particle model
Rays expose photographic plate, like light. Rays turn a paddle wheel and hence must have
momentum.
Rays pass through thin metal foils. Rays are deflected by magnetic fields.
Rays are not deflected by electric fields (this Rays are emitted at a right-angle to the cathode
experimental result was later shown to be incorrect). surface (rather than in all directions like a wave).
Rays travel in straight lines and cast a shadow.
Table PC.4
Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment 76
Thomson used the apparatus in Figure PC.46 to show that cathode rays consisted of
�
a stream of negative particles.
He showed that, contrary to early observations, the rays were deflected by electric fields.
�
He then passed the rays through perpendicular E and B fields. By adjusting the fields
�
until the rays passed straight through, he found the velocity of the rays (i.e. qE = qvB
or v = E/B) and showed it was much less than the speed of light.
Finally, he measured the radius of
� + coils
curvature of the rays in a magnetic B evacuated
glass tube
–
field and found the charge-to-mass
ratio of the particles (as qvB = mv 2/r,
we can write q/m = v/Br). x
y
deflection
Figure PC.46 –

Millikan’s oil drop experiment 77
–19
The charge on the electron (1.602 × 10
� C) was first accurately measured by Millikan
in a series of experiments between 1909 and 1913.
As shown in Figure PC.47, Millikan used an electric field to levitate charged oil
�
droplets.
For a stationary droplet the electric force must have been equal to the gravitational
�
force or mg = qE = qV/d and hence q = mgd/V.
Thomson had to find the mass
�
by measuring the terminal
velocity of a falling drop and the
quantum of charge by looking +
for a common factor for all the atomiser
droplet charges he measured.
telescopic
–
eyepiece x-rays
Figure PC.47
Geiger–Marsden experiment 78
Under Rutherford’s guidance, Geiger and Marsden conducted a series of experiments
�
between 1908 and 1913 to investigate the scattering of alpha particles by the atoms in a
thin sheet of gold foil (see Figure PC.48).
Because the atom at the time was thought to be a mass of uniform density that
�
contained electrons (the plum pudding model), they expected the alpha particles to be
deflected by only small angles. zinc sulphide
To their surprise Geiger and Marsden
� crystal
found most alpha particles passed straight α-emitter
through with little or no deflection, but
about 1 in 10 000 were deflected by a large θ viewing
microscope
angle, some by even more than 90°.
thin gold foil
vacuum
Figure PC.48
Rutherford’s model of the atom 79
To explain the Geiger–Marsden results, Rutherford
� orbiting
electrons
propsed a nuclear model (see Figure PC.49). He
suggested almost all the mass of the atom was positive
nucleus
concentrated in a tiny, positively charged nucleus around (not drawn
which, held by electrostatic attraction, electrons orbited. to scale)
orbits
Because most of the atom was empty space, most
�
alpha particles would pass straight through but a small Figure PC.49
number would approach the nucleus and be scattered electromagnetic
radiation
through a large angle.
Rutherford’s model was classically unstable because
�
+
an orbiting electron would radiate electromagnetic
radiation, rapidly lose kinetic energy and spiral into
the nucleus (see Figure PC.50). The model also did not
explain atomic emission and absorption spectra. electron
Figure PC.50
The discovery of the neutron by Chadwick 80
To explain why the mass number
� was about twice the atomic number, Rutherford
initially thought that nuclei must contain electrons but later suggested it might contain
much more massive neutral particles (he called neutrons).
� In 1930 Bothe and Becker reported that, when they bombarded beryllium with alpha
rays, an intense neutral radiation was produced. They thought it was gamma rays.
� In 1931 Joliot and Curie found the radiation emitted from beryllium could eject
protons from paraffin but they also thought it was energetic gamma radiation.
� In 1932 Chadwick conducted a series of experiments in which he measured the recoil
velocity of atoms such as hydrogen and nitrogen after they were bombarded with the
radiation.
� Chadwick then applied the laws of conservation of momentum and kinetic energy,
and showed the radiation was made up neutral particles with the mass of a proton
(i.e. he had discovered the neutron).

QUANTUM MECHANICAL NATURE OF THE ATOM
The spectrum of hydrogen 81
We can examine the emission spectrum of hydrogen using a high-voltage hydrogen
�
discharge tube and a spectrometer, as illustrated in Figure PC.51.
The visible spectrum of hydrogen has
�
four visible lines (wavelengths): a red line high visible
(656 nm), a blue-green line (486 nm) and voltage
prism
hydrogen
two violet lines (434 nm and 410 nm). spectrum
spectrometer
hydrogen
In 1885 Balmer wrote an empirical
� discharge tube
equation that could be used to calculate Figure PC.51
these lines: 1/l = R(1/4 – 1/n2)
where l is the wavelength, R = 1.097 × 107 m–1 is called Rydberg’s constant and n is an
integer that can take the values of n = 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.
Balmer’s equation describes a series of lines that get closer together and approach a
�
limiting wavelength of 364 nm as n → ∞.
Bohr’s model of the atom 82
In
� an attempt to overcome some of the limitations of Rutherford’s model, Bohr
proposed a new model in 1913 that was based on quantised electron orbits.
Bohr’s
� model was based on three postulates:
1 Rutherford’s atomic model is correct but electrons can only orbit in specific
(quantised) orbitals. When in one of these stationary states, the electrons do not
emit electromagnetic radiation.
2 An electron can move between orbitals by emitting or absorbing a photon of
radiation with an energy equal to the energy difference between the orbitals. That
is, D E = E f – E i = h f = h c/l , where DE is the photon energy, E i is the energy of the
electron in the initial orbital and E f is the energy of the electron in the final orbital.
3 The stationary states (orbitals) can only have an angular momentum, given by:
m v r = n h/2 p where m is the mass of the electron, v is the velocity of the electron, r is
the radius of the orbit and n is an integer called the principal quantum number

Predictions of the Bohr model 83
Bohr
� used his model to calculate (you will only be tested on the wavelength
equation): n 2h 2e 0 –11
1 the radius of the nth orbital, rn = 2
2 = n r1 , where r1 = 5.3 × 10 m.
p me
This value agreed with experimental estimates of the size of a hydrogen atom.
4 E1
2 the energy of an electron in the nth orbital, En = −e2 m 2 2 = 2.
3 the wavelength of a photon emitted or 8e 0 h n n
absorbed when an electron changed orbitals:
4
1 = R ( 1 − 1 ) , where R = −e2 m3 = 1.097 × 107 m −1 = Rydberg’s constant
λ nf ni 8e 0 h c
By setting nf to a specific number and then letting ni = nf + 1, nf + 2, nf + 3, this
equation predicts the existence of multiple spectral series, including the Balmer series.
4 the ionisation energy of hydrogen (ni = 1 and nf → ∞),
E = −e 4m = 2.184 × 10−18 J = 13.6 eV . This value agreed with the measured value.
1
8e 02h 2
Using Bohr’s model 84
Bohr’s model explains emission spectra
�
by the emission of specific energies Balmer series
(wavelengths) when electrons move (visible light) Paschen series
from high-energy to low-energy orbitals. (infrared)
Absorption spectra is produced by Lyman series Brackett series
photons of specific energy exciting an (ultrviolet) (infrared)
electron to a higher orbital. Pfund series
(infrared)
We can see how the spectral line series
� n=1
emitted by excited hydrogen atoms is n=2
produced by examining Figure PC.52. n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
Figure PC.52

Limitations of the Bohr model 85
Bohr’s model overcame the stability problem of the Rutherford model and could be
�
used to explain atomic emission and absorption spectra.
However, Bohr’s model had some major limitations, which included:
�
1 The model worked well for hydrogen but did not work for heavier atoms.
2 The model could not explain the hyperfine spectra of the hydrogen spectra
(i.e. some emission lines were split into closely spaced lines)
3 The model could not explain the variation in intensity of spectral lines.
4 The model could not explain the Zeeman effect. The Zeeman effect is the splitting of
spectral lines that occurs when the excited atoms are placed in a magnetic field.
5 There was no explanation as to why electrons could orbit only in stationary states and
why no radiation was emitted from these orbitals.
6 The model mixed quantum physics (quantised orbital energy) with classical physics
(orbiting electrons).
De Broglie’s matter waves 86
In 1924 de Broglie proposed that particles would have wave properties and an
�
associated wavelength given by l = h/mv = h/p.
De Broglie proposed that the quantisation of the stationary states corresponded to
�
standing electron waves, as shown in Figure PC.53.
Standing electron waves could exist only in
� nodes n = 4 orbital
orbitals with a circumference equal to a whole
number of electron wavelengths, 2p r = nl and,
substituting l = h/mv gives us the Bohr orbitals
mvr = nh/2p.
antinodes nucleus
Figure PC.53

The Davisson–Germer experiment 87
The wave nature of the electron was first confirmed experimentally in 1927 when
�
Davisson and Germer demonstrated interference in electrons scattered from a nickel
crystal (see Figure PC.54).
When x-rays are diffracted by the atoms in a crystal lattice they produce maxima of
�
interference at specific diffraction angles related to the crystal’s plane spacing.
They expected an even distribution of
�
a evacuated chamber b
scattered electrons but found that most
electron
Detector current
electrons were scattered at a specific angle. gun
This angle corresponded to an interference +
maximum for waves with a wavelength
equal to the electron wavelength calculated θ detector
using de Broglie’s equation (i.e. l = h/p). 20 40 60 80
nickel crystal Angle between incident
Figure PC.54 and reflected beam

Schrödinger’s wave mechanics 88
A full quantum model of the atom was independently developed in the 1920s by
�
Heisenberg and Schrödinger. The two models used different mathematical approaches
but both were eventually shown to be equivalent.
Schrödinger wrote an equation for the electron wave in terms of energy
�
(Schrödinger’s equation) and solved the equation to find the modes of the three-
dimensional electron standing waves that could exist around the nucleus.
An electron could move between modes by emitting or absorbing a photon.
�
By adding a fourth quantum number called spin and by applying the Pauli exclusion
�
principle, Schrödinger’s model overcame all the shortcomings of Bohr’s semi-quantum
model.
Because of wave-particle duality, modern quantum physics deals in probabilities
�
rather than in absolutes and this appears to be the way nature operates at the most
fundamental level.

PROPERTIES OF THE NUCLEUS
Radioactive decay 1 89
Unstable nuclei spontaneously emit particles and radiation until they become stable.
�
We call unstable nuclei radioactive and the highly energetic radiation that is emitted
�
ionising radiation.
Spontaneous decay is always accompanied by a loss of mass (Dm) because some mass
�
is converted into the energy of the emitted particle in accordance with E = Dmc 2.
A nucleus will be unstable if the proton-to-neutron ratio is not correct or if the
�
nucleus is too large (atomic number > 82).
There are three types of radioactive decay: alpha (α), beta ( β) and gamma (g ).
�
Alpha and beta decay are spontaneous transmutations that change the radioactive isotope into a
�
different element.

Alpha particles are helium nuclei. Alphas are highly ionising but not very penetrating.
�
They are stopped by a few centimetres of air.
An example of an alpha decay would be: 238 234 4
92 U → 90Th + 2 He .
� Beta particles are high-speed electrons that are less ionising than alphas but more
penetrating. They will pass through a few millimetres of aluminium. Beta decays
occurs when a neutron changes into a proton with the emission of an electron ( β) and
an antineutrino (u ).
An example of a beta decay would be 146 C → 147 N + −01 e + υ .
� Gamma ray particles are very energetic (i.e. very high-frequency) photons. Gamma
rays are poor ionisers but very penetrating. They can pass through several centimetres
of lead. Gamma rays are often emitted after an alpha or beta decay to remove excess
energy from the nucleus;
69 60
for example, 27 Co → 27 Co + 00γ .

A series of radioactive decays may occur

� 238 U
236
before the nucleus becomes stable. 234 Th Pa U
232
Figure PC.55 shows the radioactive decay
� 230 Th
228
series for uranium. Note that each diagonal Ra
Mass number (A)

226
transition represents an alpha decay and each 224
222 Rn
horizontal transition represents a beta decay. 220
218 Po
216
214 Pb Bi Po
212
210 Pb Bi Po
208
206 Pb
204
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np
Figure PC.55 Atomic number (Z)

Half-life 92
The activity of a radioactive isotope is measured by the isotope’s half-life (t1/2 ).
�
‘Half-life’ is the time it takes for half the nuclei in a radioactive sample to undergo
radioactive decay.
� A very active sample would have a short half-life, while a less active sample would
have a long half-life.
� If there was initially N0 radioisotopes, the number that would not have decayed Nt
after n half-lives is given by: Nt = N0(1/2)n
� Because the number of decays per second (DN/Dt) depends on the amount of
material, we can write DN/Dt = –l N, where l is called the decay constant of the
radioisotope.
� Solving this equation yields Nt = N0e–l t and produces a decay curve.
� This relationship can be used to show that the half-life (t1/2) and
decay constant (l) are related by: λ = l n 2
t 1/ 2
Nuclear fission 1 93
When a large nucleus fissions
� (splits) into two smaller nuclei, mass is converted into
energy in accordance with Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence equation E = mc 2.
Fission can be initiated in some large isotopes by the nucleus absorbing a neutron.
�
Fission is often accompanied by the release of neutrons, which can be used to trigger
�
further fissions in surrounding nuclei and produce a chain reaction.
Because fission is initiated (by neutron absorption) it is an example of an artificial
�
transmutation.
An example of a fission reaction would be:
�
1 235 89 144
0n + 92 U → 36 Kr + 56 Ba + 310 n + 200 MeV
Note that 99.3% of uranium is 92 U ,
� which does not undergo fission.
238
235
Only the undergoes fission and releases energy after it absorbs a neutron. Note
92 U
also that the products of fission are neutron rich and highly radioactive.

Nuclear fission 2 94
An uncontrolled fission chain reaction runs at an increasing rate. That is, each
�
fission initiates more than one more fission.
Uncontrolled fission is used in fission bombs. These operate by rapidly accumulating

�
a critical mass of fissionable material that ensures the initiation of an uncontrolled
reaction.
Controlled fission chain reactions run at a constant rate. That is, each fission
�
initiates one more fission.
Controlled fission chain reactions are used in nuclear power stations. These reactors
�
use cadmium control rods to absorb neutrons and control the rate of reaction.
Reactors also use a moderator, such as water, to slow the neutrons to increase the
probability that they will be absorbed by nuclei and initiate further fission reactions.

Nuclear stability 1 95
Nucleons are held in the nucleus by the strong nuclear force. This force acts between
�
all nucleons and is significantly stronger than the repulsive electrostatic force. The
strong force drops rapidly to zero for nucleon separations greater than 2.5 × 10–15 m.
When a stable nucleus is formed, mass is lost and energy is released. We call this
�
difference in mass the mass defect and the energy released when the nucleus is formed
is called the binding energy of the nucleus.
The binding energy is the energy required to separate the nucleus into its constituent
�
nucleons.
Mass defect = Dm = mass of nucleus – mass of nucleons
�
If the mass defect is in kilograms, the binding energy is given by BE = Dmc 2 J.

�
If the mass defect is in atomic mass units, the binding in given by BE = Dm × 931.5 MeV.
�

The binding energy per nucleon is a measure of the stability of the nucleus.
�
Figure PC.56 illustrates how the binding energy per nucleon (stability) of the
�
elements varies.
10
Binding energy/nucleon (MeV)

Figure PC.56 also
�
16O 15
31P
56Fe 75As
26 33 153Eu
shows how the fission 8 4He
08
19F 19
39K 90Zr
40 120Sn
050
063 209Bi
083
of large nuclei and 2 09 14

07 N 238U
092
12C fission
fusion of small nuclei 6 6Li
06
produce reactants with 3

fusion
a higher binding energy 4
per nucleon and hence 3H
convert mass to energy. 2 1

2
1H
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Figure PC.56 Number of nucleons (mass number)

We can understand nuclear stability by analysing the forces in the nucleus.
�
The force of gravity between nucleons is so small that it can be ignored.

�
The electrostatic repulsion between protons is large and operates over a long range.
�
The strong nuclear force of attraction between nucleons is much stronger than the
�
electrostatic repulsion but it only operates over a very short distance.
Large nuclei are unstable because the electrostatic repulsion from 82 protons becomes
�
greater than the short-range, strong nuclear force when another proton is added.
The neutron-to-proton ratio increases with atomic number because neutrons add to
�
the strong nuclear force but do not add electrostatic repulsion.
But if the ratio is too high the neutrons added are so energetic (because of the Pauli
�
exclusion principle) that the nucleus will be unstable.
Subatomic particles 98
In 1932, with the discovery of the neutron, the three basic constituents of atom had
�
been found. But in the same year a positive electron was discovered using cosmic rays.
Cosmic rays are very high-energy, charged particles that are produced in the Sun
�
and other stars that continually bombard the Earth. Before particle accelerators were
developed, cosmic rays were used to examine high-energy nuclear collisions.
In the 1930s and 1940s several new subatomic particles were discovered using
�
cosmic rays.
With the development of high-energy particle accelerators in the 1950s and 1960s,
�
over 200 new subatomic particles were created in particle collisions. These short-lived
particles were comparatively large (like neutrons and protons) and were called hadrons.
Physicists initially thought all the new particles were fundamental particles but later
�
discovered they were composed of more fundamental particles called quarks.

Fundamental forces 99
The properties of the four fundamental forces of nature are set out below in
�
Table PC.5.
Relative Quantum field Gauge bosons
Force Acts on strength theory Range
gravity objects 10 – 38 ? graviton (?) ∞
with mass
electromagnetism objects 10– 13 quantum photon ∞
with electrodynamics
charge (QED)
weak nuclear quarks and 10 – 2 electroweak W +, W – and Z 10 –16 m
leptons theory
strong nuclear between 01 quantum pions (between 3 × 10 –15 m
(colour force) quarks and chromodynamics nucleons) (between nucleons)
between (QCD) eight gluons 0.8 × 10 –15 m
nucleons (between quarks) (between quarks)
Table PC.5

Quantum field theories 100
The electromagnetic field was the first force field to be successfully quantised.
�
The new quantum field theory, developed in the late 1940s, was called quantum
electrodynamics (QED).
The field quantum of electromagnetism is called the photon, and it is the exchange
�
of virtual photons (gauge bosons) between charged particles that is responsible for the
electromagnetic force.
A similar quantum field theory was developed for the weak nuclear force in the
�
1960s, called the electroweak theory. The force in this case was produced by the
exchange of gauge bosons called W and Z particles.
The quantum theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum chromodynamics
�
(QCD). The theory involves a colour force between quarks mediated by gluons and a
residual strong force between hadrons mediated by mesons.

Elementary particles 1 101
Evidence began to mount in the 1960s that the huge variety of unstable hadrons
�
discovered, and the neutron and proton, might be composite rather than fundamental
particles.
Evidence included the following:
�
• The neutron had a ‘magnetic moment’, usually produced by a spinning charge.
• The huge variety of hadrons suggested that they were composed of more elementary
components.
• Neutrons decayed to become protons and electrons in beta decay.
• Scattering experiments showed there were three scattering centres inside protons and
neutrons.
In the mid-1960s Gell-Mann proposed that all hadrons were composed of elementary
�
particles called quarks. Later it was found that six different quarks (flavours) were
required to account for all the observed hadrons.
Each quark could have one of three different colours and they were bound strongly
�
together with a colour force mediated by gluons.
Elementary particles 2 102
The colour force increases with quark separation and separating quarks in a
�
hadron requires so much energy that it produces two hadrons. Thus individual
quarks cannot exist. Unknown elementary particle
All matter is now believed to be made up of three
�
types of elementary particles: quarks, leptons and Obeys the Pauli exclusion principle
gauge bosons. (see Table PC.6 and Figure PC.57).
No Yes
Quarks
Generation (flavour) Lepton Bosons Particle is Experiences the
1st up and electron and photon, a boson colour (strong) force
down electron neutrino W and Z,
2nd charm and muon and muon eight gluons, No Yes
strange neutrino Higgs,
3rd top and tau and tau gravit on (?) Particle is Particle is
bottom neutrino a lepton a quark
Table PC.6 Figure PC.57

The standard model of particle physics 103
There are two types of hadrons: baryons (like protons) and neutrons made up of three
�
quarks (see Figure PC.58), and mesons made up of two quarks.
The standard model of particle physics combines the three quantum force field
�
theories (QED, the electroweak theory and QCD) to describe the interactions between
elementary particles.
However, the standard model is still
�
proton neutron
incomplete because:
• it assumes neutrinos have zero mass
• it requires 19 experimentally determined u u u d
parameters
• it does not include the gravitational force,
dark matter or dark energy. d d
charge charge
2 + 2 − 1 = +1 +2 −1 − 1 = 0
Figure PC.58 3 3 3 3 3 3
Particle accelerators 104
The standard model was developed to explain the wide range of particles produced in
�
particle accelerators and the forces that act between them.
Particle accelerators have also been used to test the predictions of the standard
�
model, such as the existence of the W and Z weak-force bosons, the six types of quarks
and the Higgs boson.
A linear accelerator (LINAC),
� injected radio frequency AC
shown in Figure PC.59, consists of charged high-voltage source
many evacuated cylinders called particles
drift tubes. The length of drift tubes
increases to ensure the particle will
spend the same amount of time
in each tube so that a constant- drift tubes
frequency AC voltage can be used. Figure PC.59


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3 ON YOUR DIGITAL DEVICE. Download a FREE digital copy of these cards at

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A projectile is an object that is moving freely under the influence of gravity.

Galileo showed that projectile motion

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� vy = 0 at the top of the motion, for all projectiles.

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positive test charge placed at each point

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MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 58

Because the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field is proportional to its

Figure PC.14 shows a velocity selector that uses

to pass without being deflected the forces must be – X X X X X X X X X

charges moving at this velocity will pass through X X X X X X

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 58

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 64

Figure PC.16 electronic balance

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 65

The magnetic field is in concentric circles around

The strength of the magnetic field a distance r from

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 69

experience a force towards the weaker part of the field.

attract each other, and wires carrying current in the

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 70

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 77

Producing a current in a loop by changing the magnetic environment of the loop is

An electromotive force (emf or e) is the potential difference in volts that a source of

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 79

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 81

Figure PC.21 G Figure PC.22

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MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 84

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 86

Figure PC.24 graphite brush

MODULE 6: See Ü Excel Year 12 Physics p. 92