Optical Activity and Jones Matrices

Actively controlling polarization

Photo-elasticity
Pockels Effect
Kerr Effect

Optical activity (chirality)

Circular principal axes

Faraday effect

Jones matrices

Rotated Jones matrices

Unpolarized light, Prof. Rick Trebino

Stokes parameters, and Mueller matrices Georgia Tec!"
www.frog.gatech.edu
Photo-Elasticity: All materials have internal strain,
Strain-Induced which causes birefringence that
varies with position.
Birefringence

Tape dispenser between

crossed polarizers

Clear plastic
utensils between
crossed polarizers
Strain-Induced Birefringence in Diamond
An artificially grown diamond with nitrogen impurities between
crossed polarizers:

Birefringence is caused by strain associated with growth boundaries.

Strain-Induced Birefringence in Thin
Sections of Rock
More Photo-Elasticity
If there’s not enough strain in a medium to begin with, you can
always apply stress and add more yourself!

Squeezed
Without the
clear
pressure, the
plastic
optic doesn’t
between
affect the
parallel
polarization.
polarizers

You can use this effect to compensate the internal strain in polarizers
and to improve their performance.
The Pockels Effect
E Birefringence!
An applied electric field induces
asymmetry and hence birefringence.

Electrode (+V)
Polarizer Analyzer

Electro-optic medium Electrode (0V)

(rotated by 45º)

The Pockels effect yields a tunable wave plate that allows active
control over the polarization rotation.

Many different geometries work—even a longitudinal voltage.

The Longitudinal Pockels Effect
An applied electric field along the crystal also can induce
birefringence.
Transparent
Electro-optic medium electrode

Polarizer Analyzer

Transparent
electrode +V 0

The Pockels effect yields a tunable wave plate that allows active
control over the polarization rotation.
The Pockels Effect: Electro-Optic Constants
The relative phase shift πV 3
between the two Δϕ = where Vλ/2 ≡ λ0 /(2no r63)
polarizations: Vλ /2

Vλ/2 is called the half-wave voltage, V is the applied voltage, and

r63 is the electro-optic constant of the medium (the last element of a
6 × 3 matrix, which is the simplification of the 3 × 3 × 3 electro-optical
tensor).

Electro-optic constants Note that half-wave

(20ºC; λ = 546.1nm) voltages are high!
Material r63 (10 m/V)
-12 Vλ/2 (kV)
_______________________________________
ADP 8.5 9.2 Worse, it’s often
KDP 10.6 7.6 necessary to switch
KDA 13 6.2
KD*P 23 3.4
from 0V to Vλ/2 in
nanoseconds!
no ≈ 1.5 for all of the above crystals.
Pockels Effect Application: Q-Switching
to Yield Nanosecond Laser Pulses
Q is the Quality of a
laser cavity. It’s inversely Output pulse intensity
proportional to the loss.
Gain
Q-switching involves: saturation
Preventing a laser from 100%

Cavity Gain
Cavity Loss
lasing (by adding
massive loss) until the
flash lamp (pump) is
finished flashing, and
0%
then abruptly allowing
Time
the laser to lase.

The pulse length is limited by how fast we can switch and the
round-trip time of the laser and yields pulses 10 - 100ns long.
The Pockels-Cell Q-Switch
A Pockels cell switches the laser loss from ~100% to ~0% in a few
nanoseconds.
It does so by switching from a quarter-wave plate (QWP) to a zero-
wave plate.

Before switching After switching

0° Polarizer Mirror 0° Polarizer Mirror

Pockels cell as Pockels cell as

QWP w/ axes an isotropic
at ±45° medium

Light becomes circular after the first Light is unaffected by the

pass and then horizontal after the Pockels cell and hence is
next. It’s then rejected by the transmitted by the polarizer.
polarizer.
 The Kerr effect: the polarization rotation
Typical atom
is proportional to a dc or ac |E0|2.

(no E-field) 2
Δn = λ0 K E0 = n2 I Use n2I for a light pulse.

where: Entire molecules can also align

Δn is the induced with the field.
E-field
birefringence,
Kerr constants for some
E0 is the electric-field liquids
Excited strength (dc or ac), (20ºC; λ = 589.3nm) (10-7 cm/statvolt2)
_________________________________
atom and Benzene 0.6
Carbon disulfide 3.2
K is the Kerr
Chloroform -3.5
constant of the Water 4.7
Birefringence!
material. Nitrotoluene 123
Nitrobenzene 220

Very high irradiances from ultrashort laser pulses are required to create
quarter-wave rotations. When induced by a light wave, we refer to this
effect as the AC Kerr Effect or Optical Kerr Effect.
Optical Kerr Effect Application: The 45°-polarized
Polarization Spectroscopy Pump pulse re-
orients molecules,
inducing sample
birefringence.
Pump (45º polarization)
The sample then
Mirror acts like a wave
plate for the 0°-
90º polarizer
polarized Probe
pulse.
That is, until the
molecules re-
0° polarizer Yellow filter orient back to their
(rejects red)
(reflects red and
transmits yellow)
initial random
distribution
(through collisions,
Polarization spectroscopy allows the study of for example).
molecular motion on a microscopic scale.
Optical Activity (Chirality)
Like birefringence, optical activity rotates
polarization, but it maintains linear
polarization throughout.

The polarization This

rotation angle is rotation
proportional to the is like circular
chirality and the polarization, but
distance. much much slower—
(over many cycles vs. one)

Right-handed (“dextrorotatory”) substances rotate the polarization

clockwise. Left-handed (“levorotatory”) substances rotate it
counterclockwise.
Another system based on molecular structure uses “R” and “S,” but
R and S don’t directly indicate right- vs. left-handedness.
Right- vs. Left-Handed Molecules
Most naturally occurring molecules do not exhibit chirality.
But the mirror images of those that do have opposite handedness.

These molecules
have the same
chemical formulas
and structures but
are mirror images
of each other.
One form
(“enantiomer”)
rotates the polariza-
tion clockwise and
the other rotates it
counterclockwise.
Chirality and Life Sugar (sucrose) is
one of the most chiral
substances known.
Indeed, the key
molecules of life are
chiral.
Interestingly, almost
all are left-handed.

If you’d like to look

for signs of life on
other planets, look
Two enantiomers of a generic amino acid for chirality.

Mirror-image molecules often have very different chemical properties.

Aspartame is a sweetener more than a hundred times sweeter than
sucrose. But its mirror image tastes bitter.
The Thalidomide Disaster R H
Introduced in 1957 by a German drug
company claiming it to cure morning O C
sickness in pregnant women. It was
S N
aggressively marketed worldwide and
was one of the most financially
successful drugs in history at the time.
R and S Thalidomide
The drug contained
both R and S enantiomers. Sadly, S-thalidomide
was poison. ~20,000 children in 46 countries died
or were born with horrible birth defects due to it.

The USA avoided this tragedy because the

Frances Oldham Kelsey
(1914-2015)
FDA’s Dr. Frances Kelsey withheld its
approval, demanding further safety
studies, despite brutal pressure from the
drug’s manufacturer. She is a great hero.
Principal Axes for Optical Activity
As with birefringent media, the
Optic Axis
principal axes of an optically
active medium are the medium's
Chiral symmetry axes.
medium
In media with optical activity,
nR however, the principal axes
correspond to circular
nL polarizations.
!
k In optical activity, each principal
(now circular) polarization has a
Principal different refractive index, here:
polarizations
nR and nL.

As with birefringence, we must consider the component of light

along each principal axis independently in the medium and then
recombine them afterward.
Circular Principal Axes: Propagation
Usually, we write the E-field in terms of its x- and Rˆ = ( xˆ + iyˆ ) / 2
y-components. But we must now write E in
terms of its right and left circular components: Lˆ = ( xˆ − iyˆ ) / 2

So we’ll need to decompose linear xˆ = Rˆ + Lˆ / 2

( )
polarization into its circular components:
yˆ = ( Rˆ − Lˆ ) / 2i

At the entrance to an optically

E = E0
active medium, an x-polarized ˆR : ⎧⎨ x Note that all
beam can be written as a sum
⎩ E y = +iE0 these fields
of its right and left circular add up to x-
components (neglecting the ⎧ E x = E0 polarization.
√2 in all terms), and so must Lˆ : ⎨
have the complex amplitudes: ⎩ E y = −iE0
Math of Optical Activity
After propagating through an optically active medium of length d, right
and left circularly polarized beams have different phase delays:

⎧⎪ E x = E0 exp (ik0 nR d ) = E0 exp (iϕ R ) k-vector magnitude in

Rˆ : ⎨ vacuum
⎪⎩ E y = iE0 exp (ik0 nR d ) = iE0 exp (iϕ R )
⎧⎪ E x = E0 exp (ik0 nL d ) = E0 exp (iϕ L ) where ϕ R ≡ k0 nR d
Lˆ : ⎨ and ϕ L ≡ k0 nL d
E
⎪⎩ y = − iE0 exp ( ik n
0 L d ) = − iE0 exp ( iϕ L )
Adding up the x- and Ex = E0 ⎡⎣exp (iϕ L ) + exp (iϕ R )⎤⎦
y-field components
separately: E y = −iE0 ⎡⎣exp (iϕ L ) − exp (iϕ R )⎤⎦

yielding the Jones exp(iϕ L ) − exp (iϕ R )

vector component: E y / E x = −i
exp(iϕ L ) + exp (iϕ R )
Math of Optical Activity (continued):
Circular Principal Axes
ϕ R = ϕave − Δϕ
Letting ϕave = (ϕ L + ϕR ) / 2 and Δϕ = (ϕ L − ϕR ) / 2 :
ϕ L = ϕave + Δϕ

exp(iϕ L ) − exp(iϕ R ) ⎛ 1 ⎞ exp(iϕave ) ⎡ exp( +iΔϕ ) − exp( −iΔϕ ) ⎤

E y / Ex = −i =⎜ ⎟
exp(iϕ L ) + exp(iϕ R ) ⎝ i ⎠ exp(iϕave ) ⎢⎣ exp( +iΔϕ ) + exp( −iΔϕ ) ⎥⎦

1 sin(Δϕ )
−i = = = tan(Δϕ )
i cos(Δϕ )

where: Δϕ = k0 (nL − nR )d / 2

The polarization state simplifies to linear for all values of the relative
phase delay! m is any integer
The polarization is x when Δϕ = mπ, and it’s y when Δϕ = (m +1/2)π.
Optical-Activity Physics

Input vertical Chiral medium

polarization

Output +45º
x z linear
y Principal polarizations polarization

The two principal (circular) polarizations become more and more out
of phase as the beam propagates.
The result is linear polarization that rotates as it propagates.
Optical-activity physics: the
polarization remains linear (and rotates)
for all linear input polarization angles.
x
Output -45º
y z Chiral medium linear
polarization

Input
horizontal
polarization
Principal polarizations
Why does optical activity occur?
Imagine a perfectly helical molecule and a circularly polarized beam
incident on it with a wavelength equal to the pitch of the helix.

One circular polarization tracks the molecule perfectly.

The other doesn’t.
The Faraday Effect
A magnetic field can induce optical activity.

Magneto-optic medium

Polarizer Analyzer

Magnetic field

0 +V

The Faraday effect allows control over the polarization rotation.

The direction of rotation is the same as the direction of current
flow in the wire of the electromagnet.
Why does the Faraday effect occur?

The applied linear magnetic field induces circular electron motion.

One circular polarization

Circular sees electrons undergoing
polarization motion in sync with its
electric field, while the
other sees the opposite.

Applied So the circular

magnetic field polarizations are the
principal ones and have
0 +V
different refractive
indices.
The Faraday effect: the polarization rotation
is proportional to the Verdet constant.
where: Δϕ is the polarization rotation angle,
Δϕ = V B d B is the magnetic field strength,
d is the distance, and
V is the material Verdet constant.

Verdet constants (V ) for some substances

(arcmin/gauss/cm)
______________________________________________
Flint glass (20ºC) 0.032
Water (20ºC) 0.013
Salt (20ºC) 0.036
Quartz (20ºC) 0.017
Air (0ºC; 1atm) 6 × 10-6
CO2 (0ºC; 1atm) 9 × 10-6
(λ = 578nm)
Polarization-Independent Optical Isolator
We could use a polarizer
Lasers don’t
Input and quarter-wave plate
like light
beam Optical or a simple Faraday
reflected back
fiber rotator, but this requires
into them. Lens polarized light.

Optic
45° rotation axis
(45° This device
Optic
into
axis spatially
(into/out ! ! page)
k ∝B separates
of page)
the return
Birefringent wedge Faraday rotator Birefringent wedge (reflected)
beam
45° rotation polarizations
from the
! ! input beam.
k ∝ −B
 Faraday Rotator for Recombining
Amplified laser pulses can damage Multiple Pulses
an amplifier medium, so split the pulse
up into many weaker beams and pulses, and amplify them.
We saw that beams can be recombined, but the pulses need to be
recombined into one also. This is hard.
Fortunately, a Faraday rotator can help do this.

Delays

Faraday
rotator
Amplifier

The polarizers, wave plates, and mirrors generate the multiple pulses.
Propagating back through recombines them.
Generating Multiple Beams and Pulses
Four beams and four pulses:
Recombining Multiple Beams and Pulses
Four beams and four pulses (Faraday rotator removed to show the
beams more clearly and/or avoid counter-propagation of beams):
The Mathematics of Polarization
Define the polarization state of a field ⎡ Ex ⎤ Normalize this
as a 2D vector—Jones vector— E=⎢ ⎥ vector to unity
containing the two complex amplitudes: ⎣ Ey ⎦ magnitude.

For many purposes, we only ⎡1 ⎤ This way, only one number

care about the relative values:
E ⎢ ⎥ need be specified.
= Ey ⎢ ⎥
Ex Alas, it might be ∞.
⎢⎣ Ex ⎥⎦
Specifically:
0° linear (x) polarization: Ey /Ex = 0 In this ⎡ Ex ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
90° linear (y) polarization: Ey /Ex = ∞ case, use: ⎢E ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
45° linear polarization: Ey /Ex = 1 ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦

Ey sin(α )
Arbitrary linear polarization: = = tan(α )
Ex cos(α )
The Mathematics of Circular Remin
Circular polarization has an der!!!
imaginary Jones-vector y-component:

For the right circular polarization y-component leads the x-component by

90o. Since we are using the form (kz - wt),we will have to add - π /2 to the
phase

{ }
Ex (z,t) = Re E0 exp ⎡⎣i(kz − ω t)⎤⎦

E (z,t) = Re { E exp ⎡⎣i(kz − ω t − π / 2)⎤⎦} = Re { E exp ⎡⎣i(kz − ω t).exp(−π / 2)⎤⎦}

y 0 0

E (z,t) = Re {−i E exp ⎡⎣i(kz − ω t)⎤⎦} −iπ /2

y 0 e = cos (−π / 2) + i sin (−π / 2) = −i

⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡
⎡ E ⎤ ⎤
Right circular polarization: E ⎢ ⎥ 1
E =⎢
x ⎥
⇒ =⎢ Ey ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ E ⎥ E0 x ⎢ ⎣ −i ⎦
⎣ y ⎦
⎣ Ex ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎡ E ⎤
E ⎢ ⎥
Left circular polarization: E =⎢
x ⎥
⇒ =⎢ Ey ⎥ = ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ E ⎥ E0 x ⎢ ⎣ i ⎦
⎣ y ⎦
⎣ Ex ⎥⎦
The Mathematics of Circular
and
Elliptical Polarization
Circular polarization has an ⎡ Ex ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
imaginary Jones-vector y-component: E=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ E y ⎦ ⎣ ±i ⎦
Right circular polarization: E y / Ex = −i

Left circular polarization: E y / Ex = i

Elliptical polarization has both real and imaginary components:

E y / E x = a + ib
It’s possible to calculate the eccentricity and tilt of the ellipse.
 To model the effect of a medium on light's
polarization state, we use Jones matrices.
Since we can write polarization states as (Jones) vectors, we use
matrices, A, to transform them from the input polarization, E0, to the
output polarization, E1.
⎡ a ⎤⎡ E ⎤ ⎡ a E +a E ⎤
a12 ⎥ = ⎢ 11 0 x 12 0 y ⎥
E1 = AE0 = ⎢ 11 ⎥⎢ 0 x
⎢ a ⎥⎢ E0 y ⎥ ⎢ a E +a E ⎥
⎣ 21 a22 ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 21 0 x 22 0 y ⎦

This yields: E1x = a11E0 x + a12 E0 y

E1y = a21E0 x + a22 E0 y
⎡1 0 ⎤
For example, an x-polarizer can be written: Ax = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 ⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤⎡ E0 x ⎤ ⎡ 1.E0 x + 0.E0 y ⎤ ⎡ E ⎤
So: E1 = A x E0 = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ 0x ⎥
⎣ 0 0 ⎦⎢⎣ E0 y ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.E0 x + 0.E0 y ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
 Other Jones Matrices
⎡0 0⎤
A y-polarizer: Ay = ⎢ ⎥ 45º -45º
⎣ 0 1 ⎦

A half-wave plate: ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤

A HWP =⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 −1⎥ ⎢1⎥ = ⎢ −1⎥
⎣ 0 −1⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
A half-wave plate rotates 45º ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
polarization to -45º, and vice versa. ⎢0 −1⎥ ⎢ −1⎥ = ⎢1⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

-45º 45º

⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
A quarter-wave plate: AQWP =⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ±i ⎥ ⎢1⎥ = ⎢ ±i ⎥
⎣ 0 ± i ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
A wave plate is not a wave plate if it’s
oriented incorrectly.
0° or 90° Polarizer

Remember that a wave plate needs

±45° (or circular) input polarization. Wave plate
If it sees, say, x input polarization, w/ axes at
nothing happens. 0° or 90°

⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
⎢0 −1⎥ ⎢0⎥ = ⎢0⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
AHWP

So use Jones matrices until you’re really on top of this!!!

Rotated Jones Matrices
Okay, so E1 = A E0. What do we do when the polarizer or wave plate
responsible for A is rotated by some angle θ ?

Rotating a vector by an angle θ means E0ʹ = R (θ ) E0

multiplication by a rotation matrix: E1ʹ = R (θ ) E1

⎡cos(θ ) − sin(θ ) ⎤
where: R (θ ) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ sin(θ ) cos(θ ) ⎦

Start with E1’ , substitute for E1, and insert the identity matrix R(θ )-1 R(θ ):
−1
E1ʹ = R (θ ) E1 = R (θ ) A E0 = R (θ ) A ⎡ R (θ ) R (θ )⎤ E0
⎣ ⎦
−1 −1
= ⎡ R (θ ) A R (θ ) ⎤ ⎡⎣ R (θ ) E0 ⎤⎦ = ⎡ R (θ ) A R (θ ) ⎤ E0ʹ = Aʹ E0ʹ
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
So: −1 This is how all matrices
Aʹ = R (θ ) A R (θ ) are modified by rotation.
Jones Matrix for a Rotated Polarizer
−1
Applying this result to an x-polarizer: Aʹ = R (θ ) A R (θ )

⎡cos(θ ) − sin(θ ) ⎤ ⎡1 0⎤ ⎡ cos(θ ) sin(θ ) ⎤

A x (θ ) = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 0⎥ ⎢ − sin(θ ) cos(θ ) ⎥
⎣ sin(θ ) cos(θ ) ⎦⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦

⎡cos(θ ) − sin(θ ) ⎤ ⎡cos(θ ) sin(θ ) ⎤

A x (θ ) = ⎢ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥
⎣ sin(θ ) cos(θ ) ⎦⎣ 0 ⎦

⎡ cos2 (θ ) cos(θ )sin(θ ) ⎤

A x (θ ) = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ cos(θ )sin(θ ) sin (θ ) ⎦

o ⎡1/ 2 1/ 2⎤ ⎡1 ε ⎤ for small

A x ( 45 ) = ⎢ ⎥ A x (ε ) ≈ ⎢ ⎥ angles, ε
⎣1/ 2 1/ 2 ⎦ ⎣ε 0 ⎦
Jones Matrices for Standard Components
⎡1 0 ⎤ Quarter-wave ⎡1 0 ⎤
x-polarizer: ⎢0 0 ⎥ ⎢ 0 −i ⎥
⎣ ⎦ plate (nx < ny): ⎣ ⎦

⎡0 0 ⎤ Quarter-wave ⎡1 0 ⎤
y-polarizer: ⎢0 1 ⎥ ⎢0 i ⎥
⎣ ⎦ plate (ny < nx): ⎣ ⎦

1 ⎡1 1⎤ Right circular 1 ⎡1 −i ⎤
+45º polarizer:
2 ⎢⎣1 1⎥⎦ polarizer: 2 ⎢⎣ i 1 ⎥⎦

1 ⎡ 1 −1⎤ Left circular 1 ⎡ 1 i⎤

-45º polarizer:
2 ⎢⎣ −1 1 ⎥⎦ polarizer: 2 ⎢⎣ −i 1⎥⎦

The Jones matrix for a chiral medium is just a ⎡ cos( Δϕ ) − sin( Δϕ ) ⎤

rotation matrix by the angle: Δϕ = k0 (nL − nR )d / 2 : ⎢⎣ sin( Δϕ ) cos( Δϕ ) ⎥⎦
If there are many components, multiply
by many Jones matrices.
To model the effects of more than one component on the
polarization state, just multiply the input polarization Jones vector
by all of the Jones matrices:

E0 E1
A1 A2 A3

E1 = A3 A2 A1E0

A single Jones matrix (the

product of the individual
Remember to use the correct order! Jones matrices) can describe
the combination of several
components.
 x
Multiplying Jones Matrices
y z
Crossed polarizers: x-polarizer
E0
E1 = A y A x E0
E1
y-polarizer

⎡ 0 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 0 ⎤
Ay Ax = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ So no light leaks through.
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦ ⎣0 0 ⎦

rotated
Uncrossed polarizers x-polarizer
(slightly): E0 E1

⎡0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ε ⎤ ⎡ 0 0 ⎤ y-polarizer
A y A x (ε ) = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣ε 0 ⎦ ⎣ε 0⎦
⎡ Ex ⎤ ⎡ 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ Ex ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
A y A x (ε ) ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢E ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ So Iout ≈ ε2 Iin,x
E
⎣ y⎦ ⎣ ε 0 ⎦⎣ y⎦ ⎣ x⎦ε E
Recall that, when the phases of the x- and y-
polarizations fluctuate, the light is unpolarized.

{
Ex ( x, y, z, t ) = Re E0 x exp ⎡⎣i (kz − ω t − θ x ( x, y, t ) )⎤⎦ }
{
Ey ( x, y, z, t ) = Re E0 y exp ⎡⎣i (kz − ω t − θ y ( x, y, t ) )⎤⎦ }
where θx(x,y,t) and θy(x,y,t) are functions that vary faster in time or space
than you can measure.

The polarization state (Jones vector) will be:

⎡ 1 ⎤ In practice, the
⎢ ⎥ amplitudes may
E
⎢ 0y ⎥ vary, too.
⎢E exp i ⎡θ
⎣ x ( x , y , t ) − θ y ( x , y , t ) ⎤
⎦⎥
⎣ 0 x ⎦

Unfortunately, this is difficult to analyze using Jones matrices.

 How do you distinguish vertical
Stokes Parameters from 45º from circularly polarized
light from unpolarized light?

To treat fully, partially, or unpolarized light, define Stokes parameters.

Use four detectors, three with polarizers in front of them:

#0 detects total irradiance................................................I0

#1 detects horizontally polarized irradiance..........….....I1
#2 detects +45° polarized irradiance...............................I2
#3 detects right circularly polarized irradiance.....……..I3

The Stokes parameters:

S0 ≡ I0 S1 ≡ 2I1 – I0 S2 ≡ 2I2 – I0 S3 ≡ 2I3 – I0

2 1/2 = 1 for polarized light

Degree of polarization = ( S + S + S1
2 2
2 3 ) / S0 = 0 for unpolarized light
Stokes Vectors We can write the four
Stokes parameters in
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
vector form:
⎢1 ⎥ +45º ⎢0 ⎥
x-polarized: ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ polarized: ⎢1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ S0 ⎤
⎣0 ⎦ ⎣0 ⎦ ⎢S ⎥
S ≡ ⎢ 1⎥
⎢ S2 ⎥
⎡1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ S3 ⎦
⎢ −1⎥ ⎢0⎥
-45º
y-polarized: ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0⎥ polarized: ⎢ −1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0⎦ ⎣0⎦
⎡1 ⎤
⎢0 ⎥
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
Right Left Unpolarized: ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢0 ⎥
circularly ⎢ ⎥ circularly ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎣0 ⎦
polarized: ⎢ ⎥ polarized: ⎢ ⎥
⎣1 ⎦ ⎣ −1⎦
Mueller matrices multiply ⎡ S0 ⎤
Stokes vectors. ⎢S ⎥
S ≡ ⎢ 1⎥
⎢ S2 ⎥
And we can define matrices that multiply them, ⎢ ⎥
just as Jones matrices multiply Jones vectors.
⎣ S3 ⎦

Sin Sout
M1 M2 M3

Sout = M3 M2 M1 Sin

To model the effects of more than one medium on the polarization

state, just multiply the input polarization Stokes vector by all of the
Mueller matrices.
Mueller ⎡1
⎢
1 0 0⎤ ⎡1 0 0 0⎤
1 ⎢1 1 0 0⎥ ⎢0 1 0 0⎥
Matrices 2 ⎢0 0 0
⎥
0⎥
Quarter-wave
plate (nx < ny):
⎢
⎢0 0
⎥
0 −1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x-polarizer: ⎣0 0 0 0⎦ ⎣0 0 1 0⎦

⎡ 1 −1 0 0⎤ ⎡1 0 0 0⎤
⎢ 0⎥ ⎢0 0⎥
1 ⎢ −1 1 0 Quarter-wave 1 0
y-polarizer: ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2⎢0 0 0 0⎥ plate (ny < nx): ⎢0 0 0 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 0⎦ ⎣0 0 −1 0⎦

⎡1 0 1 0⎤ ⎡1 0 0 1⎤
⎢ 0⎥ ⎢ 0⎥
1 ⎢0 0 0 Right circular 1 ⎢0 0 0
+45º polarizer: ⎥ ⎥
2 ⎢1 0 1 0⎥ polarizer: 2 ⎢0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 0⎦ ⎣1 0 0 1⎦

⎡1 0 −1 0⎤ ⎡1 0 0 −1⎤
⎢ 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0⎥
1⎢0 0 0 Left circular 1⎢0 0
-45º polarizer: ⎥ ⎥
2 ⎢ −1 0 1 0⎥ polarizer: 2⎢0 0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 0 0⎦ ⎣ −1 0 0 1⎦