University of Gondar

College of Natural and Computational Sciences

Department of Geology

General Geology
Wuletaw Mulualem (Assistant professor of Petrology )
Wuletaw Mulualem
E-mail: (Assistant professor of Petrology )
wuletawmulualem43@gmail.com
E-mail: wuletawmulualem43@gmail.com

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 Chapter1 Introduction

• Course outline
1. Introduction to Geology
2. Materials of the earth
3. Internal and external process of the earth
4. Geological structures and maps
5. Examination and identification of minerals and
rocks

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 Chapter one , Introduction
What is Geology?
The term “Geology” comes from two Greek
words “Geo” and “logy”. Geo – means Earth
and logy – is study or reasoning. So, Geology
is “the study of the Earth”. But Geology can
not be generally defined as;
 the only science of the Earth, for the
Earth is studied by many other sciences
apart from geology,
Such as Astronomy, Meteorology,
Oceanography etc. But unlike to the other
earth sciences,
Geology studies the earth entirely.
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Generally, Geology studies the Earth:

 How it was born or originated?

How the continents, the atmosphere and the
oceans are evolved?
What it is made of or composed of?
 What are the internal and external earth
processes that gave rise to the existence of the
earth?
Where can the important natural resources
(minerals, fossil fuels, groundwater, geothermal
energy, etc) are found in the earth?
How is the earth affected by people? And how
we can help preserve it?
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The Scope of Geology
Geology is very wide, and covers the whole
spectrum of the Earth (oceans and continents)
from the surface (the crust) to the center (the
core).
It is a multi-disciplinary Science which
necessarily involves the basic Natural Science
disciplines.
However, Geology has its own basic principles
and fundamental concepts on which the Science is
based.
The Earth is studied by many sciences which are
collectively known as the “Earth Sciences” or
“Geosciences”.

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Geology vs. Earth Sciences
Geology which deals with the materials
of the earth, the processes, which formed
and have been changing it.
Astronomy which deals with cosmic
objects, i.e. objects in the Universe
beyond the Earth outer atmosphere;
Meteorology which study weather and
climatic conditions and processes of the
Earth,
Oceanography which deals with Earth‟s
oceans and seas
All the components of Earth Sciences
are in essence inter-related.
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E.g. Geology depends on Astronomy to study
the origin of the Earth and conversely
 Astronomy depends on Geology to infer
the composition and structure of the
cosmic bodies.
 Geology is also related with the natural
Science disciplines to fully express it
principles.
 Therefore, Geology as a Science cannot
stand alone but depends on many other
Sciences and at the same time Geology
enhances the achievement of other
Natural and specifically Earth Sciences !!
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 The Objectives of Geology
 To describe and interpret the surface
physical features of the Earth,
 To decipher the history of Earth‟s from the
records preserved in the rocks;
 To study the materials that constitute the
Earth and natural Earth processes
 To study and locate the natural resources
(such as oil, coal, water, economic
minerals and rocks) and use them in a
sustainable manner;

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The Branches of Geology
Geology is commonly sub-divided into different branches:
 Based on the subject matter covered and
 Based on the application.
 Based on subject matter covered, Geology can be
1. Physical Geology: deals with the materials, processes
that have given the Earth its present structure and
appearance; and
2. Historical Geology: which deals with the history of the
Earth,
 Based on its application (for practical purposes), Geology
can be:
1. Basic or pure Geology deals with the origin, processes
and the nature of the materials, which constitute it.
 Mineralogy - deals with minerals.
 Petrology - deals with rocks
 Historical Geology (Paleontology, Stratigraphy, etc) deals
with fossils and earth history. 9
 Physical Geology (Geomorphology) - deals
with earth's land forms and the processes of
their origin.
 Structural Geology and Tectonics - deals with
the structural features of the earth and the
effects of internal processes on earth‟s surfaces,
2. Applied Geology uses the principles of basic
Geology and other Sciences to extract the
natural resources of the Earth.
Some of the most common applied fields include:
 Economic Geology deals with the study of
economic minerals and rocks;
 Mining Geology deals with the techniques of
exploration and extraction of economic minerals
and rocks; 10
 Petroleum Geology studies the origin and occurrence of
petroleum and natural gas;
 Engineering Geology applies the principles of Geology to
Civil Engineering works such as dams, roads, etc;
 Hydrogeology deals with surface and ground water;
 Geochemistry applies the principles of Chemistry and
basic Geology to investigate the composition of the
Earth;
 Geophysics deals with the Earth‟s internal structure and
processes by applying the principles of physics and basic
Geology;
 Environmental Geology (Science) systematically deals
with the impact of human activity on the nature;
 Remote Sensing and GIS (Geographic Information
System) apply the principles of space and computer
science to study the earth and its resources, and to store
and manipulate geological and geographic information.
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 Origin of the Earth
 The Catastrophic theories: states that
the sun and the planets have a bi-parental
origin that is the planets was formed not at
the same time as the sun but from a
material that was torn away from the sun.
The Gradualistic theories: which
propose the formation of the planets
naturally with the sun i.e. both the sun
and the planets were formed together at the
same timer theories: states that the sun and the planets
have a bi-parental origin that is the planets was formed not at the
same time as the sun but from a material that was torn away from 12
 The Earth in Space
What is the Earth?
It is a very minute part of the solar system /the
whole universe/.
It is one of the terrestrial (inner/minor) Planet
which have very small radius but large density
(because they are made of refractory materials ) i.e.
rocks and metals.
It is a unique planet in the solar system (possibly
because of its position which is at an optimum
distance from the sun) in that it contains an
atmosphere of oxygen, nitrogen and water vapor,
and it is the only planet where liquid water and life
exists (so far known).
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You are here!

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Avery minute part of planet relative to the great
dimension of the Solar system, the Galaxy and
the Universe.
In the earlier times there were two major models
about the center of the solar system.
Geocentric Model is a model which states that the
Earth was believed to be the centre of the Solar
System.
Heliocentric Model is a model which states /it
has easily been proved/ that the sun is the
center of the Solar System (today‟s model)
The sun contains over 99.8 % of the mass of the
solar system, while the major part of the angular
momentum of the system is concentrated in the
planets i.e. the sun is almost stationery compared
to the planets.
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 Origin of the universe
Though many theories tried to explain the origining of the
Universe, the Big Bang Theory is the most popular among
the scientists in the field.

The Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang hypothesis states that roughly 12 billion
years ago, a fireball in which all matter and energy was
concentrated, exploded (big banged ) due to which matter
and energy spread outward in all directions, the material
cooled and condensed into hydrogen clouds which were
latter changed into the present day galaxies.
The evidences for the Big Bang hypothesis are:
The ever-expanding nature of the universe( as evidenced by
the Doppler Effect /Red Shift/ phenomenon).

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What is Doppler/Red shift /Effect?
Doppler/Red shift /Effect occurs when a light-
emitting object is in motion with respect to the
observer. When an object recedes from observer
the wave length increases or is “red-shifted”.
All observed galaxies have red-shifted spectra,
hence all are receding from us.
More distant galaxies appear more red-shifted
than nearer ones, consistent with the expanding
universe, According to Hubble‟s law, red shift
(recession speed) is proportional to distance.
The observable universe contains about 100
billion galaxies, including the Milky Way galaxy (a
pancake-shaped cluster of about 100 billion stars,
in which our solar system is located). 17
 Origin of the Earth
The origin of the Earth is closely linked to the origin of
the Solar System.
Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain the
origin of the Earth.
Among the Various hypotheses that have been
proposed to explain the origin of the Earth are:
A. The planetesimal theory
B. Nebular hyphosies
A. The planetesimal theory
It is the earlier hypotheses about the origin of the solar
system/Earth/.

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Example:
The Encounter Theory (by Chamberlain and
Moulton, 1904) and
The Gaseous Tidal Hypothesis (by Jeans and
Jeffrey, 1925) stated that the sun and the planets
have abi-parental origin, (which means that the
planets were formed not at the same time as the
sun but from a material that was torn away from
the sun due to a near collision with another star).
However, these theories were not popular for a
long time b/c they were not supported by the
solar system observations.

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B. Nebular hypothesis
All current work on the origin of the Earth is a refinement
of the Nebular Hypothesis(which was originally proposed by
Kant and Laplace in 1796).
It states that there existed a primordial, rotating cloud of
dust and gas whose shape and internal motions were
determined by gravitational and rotational forces (i.e.
gravitational force become the dominant up on the
rotational force) then contraction began and rotation
speeded up leading the cloud to flatten up into a disc,
matter began to drift into the center, accumulating into a
proto-sun(which becomes collapsed under its own
gravitation becoming dense and opaque as the material was
compressed). The internal temperature rose to about
1,000.000 C at which point “nuclear fusion” began.

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Then the sun began to shine with the initiation of the
thermonuclear reactions (where molecules of hydrogen are
converted into helium atoms by emanating a vast amount
of energy), the dies gradually cooled and the grains
clumped together into small chunks or planetesimals,
which finally coalesced by the action of gravity forming the
planets.

Limitation of these hypotheses:

 Not satisfy the principles of conservation of angular
momentum.
 It does not explain properly the method of coalescence of
the rings to form the globular planets.
 There is a continuous dissipation of the globular
planets.

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Elements of the Solar System
The solar System is unique among the galaxies in the
universe and is characterized by the following well-
defined features.
The sun contains over 99.8 % of the mass of the solar
system, while the major part of the angular momentum of
the system is concentrated in the planets i.e. the sun is
almost stationery compared to the planets.
The planets all revolve in the same direction around the
sun in elliptical orbits.
The planets themselves rotate about their axes in the
same direction as their direction of revolution around the
sun. (except Venus and Uranus which have retrograde
rotation).
The planetary orbits all lie in practically the same plane(
i.e. planets show a regular spacing).

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There are two major contrasted groups of planets.
A. Terrestrial Planets
B. Extraterrestrial (Jovial) Planets.

A. TERRESTRIAL PLANETS
Also called an inner/ smaller/ minor/ groups ( planets).
Includes Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
Are very small radius but large density(because they are
made of refractory materials (rocks and metals).
Are high in temperature due to their close proximity to the
sun.
They may contain a little amount of volatiles in the form of
liquid water (only in Earth) and atmospheric gases.

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 1. Mercury
It‟s surface temperature ranges from 4070 C (day) to-
1730 C (night);
It is composed of almost entirely metal and has a very
thin atmosphere of helium.
2. Venus
It is similar to Earth in many respects: such as;
• Size
• Shape
• Mass) and
• Composition(metals and rocks).
It has a very thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide with
some droplets of sulphuric acid and sulphur particles.
Its surface temperature may reach up to 4000 C.

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3. Earth
It is composed of metal core and rock layers.
It is a unique planet in the solar system because of:
 It‟s position which is at an optimum distance from the
sun.
 It contains an atmosphere of oxygen, nitrogen and
water vapor, and
 It is the only planet where liquid water and life exists
(so far known).
4. Mars
 It is similar to Earth in:
 Composition (contains metallic and rock layers)
 Its atmosphere includes clouds and fog.
 Most of its composition is carbon dioxide with small
amounts of oxygen and nitrogen.
 It also contains some amount of water vapor.
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B. EXTRATERRESTRIAL PLANETS
Also called an outer /Jovial/ large / giant/
major/ groups(planets ).
Jovial planets meaning "Jupiter-like“ planets.
Includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
These planets are not much known but
generally they are composed almost entirely of
volatiles which condense to form ices.
 They are very cold (b/c they are very far away
from the sun).
They are voluminous but are relatively lighter.
Pluto is considered by some people to be a
planet of this group, although it is not as
voluminous as the others, while others
considered it to be a satellite captured from
another system. 26
 1. JUPITER
It is the fifth planet from the Sun.
It is the largest planet within the Solar System.
It is a gas giant planet with mass one-thousandth that of
the Sun but is two and a half times the mass of all the
other planets in our Solar System combined.
It is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its
mass being helium it may also have a rocky core of heavier
elements.
It's shape is that of an oblate spheroid (Because of its
rapid rotation and possesses a slight but noticeable bulge
around the equator).
2. Saturn
It is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest
planet in the Solar System (after the Jupiter).
It has an average radius about 9 times larger than the
Earth's but only 1/8 the average density of Earth.
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It's mass is just over 95 times greater than Earth
(due to its larger volume).
The conditions produced on Saturn are extreme if
compared to Earth (due to these large masses
resulting gravitation).
The interior of Saturn is probably composed of:
A core of iron, nickel, silicon and oxygen
compounds.
A deep layer of metallic hydrogen, an intermediate
layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium and
An outer gaseous layer.

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3. Uranus
It is the seventh planet from the Sun and the
third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest
planetary mass in the Solar System.
It is similar in composition to Neptune, and both
are of different chemical composition than the
larger gas giants(Jupiter and Saturn).
It's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter and Saturn
in its primary composition of hydrogen and
helium but it contains more "ices“, ammonia,
methane and traces of hydrocarbons.
It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar
System, with a minimum temperature of 49 K
(−224 °C).
It has a complex, layered cloud structure. 29
 4. Neptune
It is the eighth and farthest planet from the Sun in the
Solar System.
It is the fourth-largest planet by diameter and the third
largest by mass.
It is 17 times the mass of Earth and is slightly more
massive than its near-twin Uranus.
Astronomers sometimes categorize Uranus and Neptune as
"ice giants”

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The Solar system, apart from the planets, is composed of
other fragmentary bodies including:
1. Asteroids
2. Meteors
3. Comets
1. Asteroids
They are the filling fragmental materials between the
gap of terrestrial and extraterrestrial planetary groups
(between Mars and Jupiter).
They have a size ranging from a fraction of a mm (dust)
to a diameter of 1050 km.
They are revolve around the sun along their own defined
orbit and These materials form a belt known as the
Asteroid Belt.
They are assumed to be either the remnants of a
disintegrated planet similar to Mars or the original
materials of an aborted planet.
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When those asteroids revolve around the sun the
gravitational filed of the inner planets especially Mars and
Earth attracts them.
They are affected by the frictional effect of the thick
atmosphere of the Earth (before they reach the surface of
the Earth) (this effect is called “shooting stars”.
The asteroids have similar nature and composition to the
inner planetary groups.

2. Meteors
The whole space in the Solar System, apart from the
larger bodies, is filled by dust particles termed as Meteors.
It is estimated that hundred thousand tons of meteors are
falling on the surface of the Earth annually.
All fragmentary bodies in the Solar System including the
meteors and asteroids are known as Meteoroids.

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3. Comets
They are giant balls of ice that are found at the outer
portion of the Solar System.
They are similar to the asteroids in their nature but are
composed of volatiles like those constituting the outer
planets.
The comets have their own defined orbit around the sun
and are observed from the Earth at regular time
intervals.
They are very devastating if they collide with the inner
planets by chance.
When they approach the sun their material is abraded
forming a tail extended on the direction towards the sun.

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DIFFERENTIATION OF THE PLANET EARTH

Early Earth was undifferentiated, homogeneous material,

extremely hot (gravitational and potential energy becomes
kinetic energy and finally thermal energy as Earth
condenses).
The Earth was later differentiated into different layers
where by the interior most part (Core) was formed as
molten iron separates and form molten silicates that sinks
to the center of the planet due to its high density and the
following three processes:
 Radioactive decay of U, Th, and 40K.
 gravitational compression of the Earth (gravitational or
potential energy is converted to heat during compaction)
 Meteorite impacts

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Age of the Earth
The age of the Earth is considered to be 4.6 to 4.5
billion years old which is equivalent to the
formation of our solar system.
The oldest terrestrial mineral dated so far are 4.4
billion years old (aircon, western Australia) and the
oldest surviving rocks on Earth are 4.0 billion
years old (Acosta gneiss, northern Canada) while
the earliest fossil evidence for life (single celled
organisms) are of -3.5 billion years old.
Structure of the Earth
The Earth is not composed of a homogeneous
mixture of material rather than the materials are
arranged in a series of concentric layers of differing
nature.
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• Earth is a differentiated planet and layered
like an onion.
• The evidence (that the earth is layered)
comes largely from the studies of the
physical properties of the planet itself,
density, the way it transmits seismic
waves, the nature of its magnetic fields and
from comparison with meteorites.
 The internal layerings of the Earth are
recognized according to:
1. Composition
• Crust
• Mantle
• Core

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Internal layering based on composition
A. Crust
• is the outermost layer extending from solid surface
down to the first major discontinuity (the Mohorovicic
discontinuity) of the lithosphere.
• makes up only 0.5% of the earth‟s total mass.
• density ranges from 2.7 gm/cm3 (continental crust) to
3.2 gm/cm3 (oceanic crust)
• made up of light weight materials (silicate rocks)
• divided into continental and oceanic crust
A1. Continental crust
• is thicker as much as 20-90 km
• An average 35km.
• composed of light weight rocks such as granite
• Highly variable composition
• Average ~ granodiorite

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• includes the oldest rocks on the crust (0.2-3.5
Ga)
• average density of 2.7 g/cm3
• commonly referred as Sialic (meaning that
contains considerable Si and Al).
• formed at convergent plate boundary.
Convergent plate boundaries

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 A2. Oceanic crust
• is thinner, about 8km to 10km thick
• is dark, dense volcanic rock (basalt)
• younger and relatively undeformed
 Relatively uniform stratigraphy
• average density is 3.2 gm/cm3
• commonly referred to Sima (meaning that
contains considerable Si and Mg).
• formed at divergent plate boundary.

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Divergent plate boundaries

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 B. Mantle
• constitute the major bulk of the Earth
making up 82% of the volume and 68% of the
mass of the Earth.
• is largely composed of Mg and iron silicates.
• extends from 50-2900 km into the inner
earth
• density ranges from 3.4 to 5.5 g/cm3
• divided into
– upper mantle: 20-400 km depth, direct
observation as mantle xenoliths in some volcanic
rocks. Olivine and pyroxene are the two most
common minerals.
– transition zone: 400-650 km depth, Mg-Fe-Ca-Al
silicates; source of most basaltic magma.
– lower mantle: 650-2900 km depth; mostly Mg-
silicates, with minor Fe, Ca and Al. Mostly a
mineral called perovskite
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Mantle
•Mantle can be subdivided into
D” layer, lower mantle, transition
zone and upper mantle, based
on seismic discontinuities

Transition zone
is source of most
basalts (at ocean
ridges)
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 C. Core
• is the central mass extending from 2900 km
up to the center, 6400km (7000 km in
diameter)
• mostly made of iron with some nickel.
• average density is 10.79 g/cm3
• constitute 16% by volume and 32.5% by mass
of the earth
2. Internal layering based on physical properties
I. Lithosphere
is the solid, strong and rigid outer part of the Earth that
contains the crust and the upper most part of the mantle.
extends 100 km from the surface.

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 II. Astheneosphere
• is major zone in the upper mantle with temperature
and pressure are just the right balance so that part of
the materials melts.
• The rocks lose much of their strength and become soft
plastic like warm tar.
• easily deformed mantle (“weak sphere”).
• is a destructive zone in the upper mantle and is as
much as 100 km thick.
• very important zone from the point of view of
earthquakes and plate movements.

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Asthenosphere

• Lithosphere rides
on asthenosphere, which
is a zone of partial melting
(or close to mp)
in the upper mantle

• Melting points below about

250km are higher than
local T, due mostly to higher P

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 III. Mesosphere
• is stronger and much rigid than the
asthenosphere because the high pressure at this
depth offsets the effect of high temperature.
• is the region b/n the asthenosphere and the core.
• marks both a change in physical property and
composition.
IV. Core
• is divided into the outer and inner core, in which
the outer core is liquid while the inner core is
solid.
• heat lose from the core and the rotation of Earth
probably causes the liquid outer core to circulate
and its circulation generates Earth's magnetic
field.
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 1. Outer core
• Core-mantle boundary (CMB) is greatest jump in Vp
(from 13.7 km/s as base of mantle to only 8 km/s in outer
core)
• CMB may be source area for mantle plumes (hot spots)
• CMB is a thermal boundary layer (heat transfer
dominantly by conduction across the boundary)
• Density increases across boundary from 5.5g/cm3 to
9.9g/cm3
• Seismic shadow zones and presence of dynamic
magnetic field imply
outer core is fluid, moving (convecting) and conducts
electricity
• 2890-5150km depth
• Density suggests Fe with up to 10% S and/or O
dissolved and about
5% Ni (by analogy to meteorites), some Si? 47
 2. Inner core
• 5150-6370 km depth
• Suspended in liquid outer core
• Solid due to lowering of melting point at high P
• Mostly Fe solid with few % Ni, S, O and some
Si?
• Temp is high (hotter than Sun surface)
• Will grow with time as Earth cools, freezing of
core releases energy that drives fluid flow in
outer core (and hence generates magnetic field)

48
49
 Data sources for Earth’s Interior
• Deepest drilling is ~12km
• Geophysics (seismology, gravity, magnetic, heat flow etc)
• Xenoliths
• Deeply-eroded continents
• Ophiolite complexes
• Meteorites
• Theoretical and laboratory models (especially
experiments on phase changes of minerals at high P and
T)

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 Data source: xenoliths
• Some volcanic rocks (effusive or explosive) in continental
areas and some ocean islands contain mantle and deep
crustal xenoliths
• Minerals present and their compositions and crystallization
textures can be studied
• Mantle xenoliths from depths up to about 300km are
common (most common are perdotite: olivine and pyroxene
rich rock)

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 Data source: Meteorites
•Meteorites: rocks from asteroid belt,
Moon and Mars

•Information on differentiation and

composition of planetary interiors
Stony chondrite Iron chondrites
•Stony chondrites=bulk Earth?
•Achondrite=mantles (from crystallization
of magma), composition similar to peridotite
(olivine-rich)
•Iron chondrites=cores

Stony Iron •Chondrites:

chondrites suffered little chemical change since
formation, contain chondrules (glass spheres)

achondrite
52
 Data source: seismology
• Seismology: dominant method of study of Earth‟s interior (particularly
 seismic reflection of crust and
seismic tomography, for 3D (lateral) imaging of deep interior
• Seismograph measures vibrations of Earth (from earthquakes,
meteorites impacts, explosions etc).
• Seismic waves are of several types (surface and interior waves) that
typically travel at 3-15 km/s
• P and S waves are most relevant here.
 they can both be reflected, refracted or stopped
• P and S wave average velocities (Vp and Vs) are dependent on
density, composition, pressure, temperature and rheological
state/viscosity
• 3-D seismic tomography recently developed (provides lateral structure
of interior)

53
 Data source: seismology cont.‟
P–waves: called primary waves
• formed by the alternate contraction and expansion of bedrock,
push and pull motion.
• are compressional waves --fastest, hence “P” for primary) (shake
ground in direction of propagation)
• called longitudinal wave
• travel faster than S-waves, reach the seismogram station first.
• travel at a speed of 5-7 km/s in the lithosphere.
• can travel through solids, liquids and gases.

54
 Data source: seismology cont.‟
S–waves: called shear waves
• is transverse, which means that particles in the waves path move
from side to side or up and down at right angles to the wave‟s
advance
• travel at 60-70% of P velocities (shake ground perpendicular to
the direction of propagation)
• advance by shearing displacements, displacements that change
shape without changing volume
• cannot travel through liquids

55
Data source: seismology cont.‟

Seismic structure of the Earth

56
 Seismic shadow zones

•P waves are refracted at the

Mantle-Outer Core interface
•S waves are stopped at
this interface
•Both create shadow zones
and S wave attenuation 57
implies a fluid outer core
 Seismic velocity “jumps” (discontinuities)
•5144km Lehman - Fe solid against FeO, FeS fluid (inner/outer core boundary)
•2885 Gutenberg - fluid FeO, FeS against (Mg, Fe) silicates, velocity decrease,
density increase (outer core-mantle boundary)
•2870 D'' - thin, mixing of mantle and core material? (D”=D double-prime)
•670 "670 km" - worldwide, no earthquakes deeper, debates over
whether a composition, phase, or viscosity change
•400 "400 km" – worldwide
•50-200 LVZ - regionally variable depth
•4-55 Moho (abbreviation of Mo-ho-RHO-vi-chik) - sharp compositional change
•? 5-30 Conrad - mafic to felsic crust, often absent

•Note that velocities increase gradually within layers (phase changes)

but jump at discontinuities, which are thought mostly to be
compositional changes.
•LVZ (“low velocity zone”) is uppermost part of asthenosphere, with
low Vp due to less viscous nature (partial melts). Plates ride on the
LVZ 58
 1.3 Composition of the Earth
A. Major elements
• are present in large quantities in the Earth's crust.
• constitute rock forming minerals
• eight elements in this group and they make up 99% of the
weight of the Earth's crust.
1. O 47% ; 2. Si 28% ; 3. Al 8% ; 4. Fe 5% ; 5. Ca 3.5% ; 6.
Na 3% ; 7. K 2.5% ; 8. Mg 2% ; 9. Others 1%
• By far the greatest percentage of the crust is made up of
silicon and oxygen.
• These two elements readily combine with each other and with
other elements to form the commonest mineral group on earth:
silicate minerals.
• Silicates make up over 98% ( by weight) of the crustal rocks
59 .
 B. Minor elements
• are much less common in the Earth's crust.
• are rare, the total amount 1% by weight of the crust.
• however this group contains elements vital for industry.
e.g. Copper (Cu) 0.007%
Uranium (U) 0.0004%
Gold (Au) 0.0000005%
C. Trace elements
• other elements that in minute amounts are referred to as
trace elements.
• measured in ppm or ppb.
• despite their low abundances trace elements provide
insight into geological processes, such as temperature
and pressure at which the minerals form. 60
 Chapter 2
Materials of Earth : crystals and minerals
• Why do we need to know about crystals, and thus
minerals?
 Because we are interested to study Geology, i.e. the
study of the Earth. The earth is composed of rocks.
Rocks are composed of minerals. Minerals are composed
of crystals.
Crystals form Minerals form Rocks

 Because we depend on them for our daily way of life.

Some examples are metals (from iron to gold) and other
nonmetallic industrial minerals that are used to
manufacture usable materials, starting from beverage
cans and cooking utensils to generators, cars, ships,
aircrafts, computers, etc.
61
• The beauty of crystals!!

Diamond Emerald Sapphire Ruby

62
Why do we need to know about crystals,
and thus minerals?
In summary, a knowledge of what crystals
are, and thus what minerals are, how they
were formed, and where they occur is basic
to an understanding of the materials we
need for our daily life and for our present
technologic culture.
In addition, the knowledge of the
chemistry, occurrence and physical
properties of crystals, i.e. minerals, is
essential to study the location, size, origin
and ore grade of economic deposits, i.e.
economic geology 63
Definition of a mineral
 A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous
solid with a definite (but not generally fixed)
chemical composition and a highly ordered
atomic arrangement, usually formed by an
inorganic process
 Naturally Occurring - Means it forms by itself
in nature. Human made minerals are referred
to as synthetic minerals
 Homogeneous - means that it is a compound
that contains the same chemical composition
throughout, and cannot by physically separated
into more than 1 chemical compound

64
 Solid – not a gas, liquid, or plasma
 Definite chemical composition – a mineral can
be expressed by a chemical formula. Let us take
quartz and olivine as an example:
Quartz has a chemical formula SiO2 and thus, it
consists of Si and O atoms in a ratio of 1:2.
Olivine is an example of a mineral without a fixed
chemical composition. Since Mg an Fe atoms have
equal size and charge, they can easily substitute
for one another in a mineral. Thus, olivine have
the chemical formula Mg2SiO4 or Fe2SiO4 or
anything in between. This is usually expressed
with a formula indicating possible substitution –
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
65
Highly ordered atomic arrangement –
means that the atoms in a mineral are
arranged in an ordered geometric pattern.
This ordered arrangement of atoms is called
a crystal structure and thus all minerals
are crystals.
Each mineral has a crystal structure that
will always be found for that mineral, i.e.
every crystal of quartz will have the same
internal arrangement of atoms.
If the crystal structure is different, we give
the mineral another name.
66
A solid compound that meets the other criteria,
but has not definite crystal structure is a said to be
amorphous
eg. Opal (SiO2.n H2O) is not a mineral,
because it is an amorphous form of silica that also
lacks a specific chemical composition, and is
considered a mineraloid
Usually formed by an inorganic process - The
traditional definition of a mineral excluded those
compounds formed by organic processes, but this
eliminates a large number of minerals that are
formed by living organisms, in particular many of
the carbonate and phosphate minerals that make
up the shells and bones of living organisms
67
Definition of a crystal
A crystal is a homogeneous solid possessing long
range, three-dimensional internal order.
It shows symmetry because of the ordered
arrangement of atoms (i.e. crystallinity).
A perfectly formed crystal also shows a
symmetrical arrangement of crystal faces since the
location of the faces is controlled by the
arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure.
A crystalline solid with well-developed faces is
euhedral, with imperfectly developed faces is
subhedral, without faces is anhedral.

68
What is the difference between minerals and
rocks?
 A rock is an aggregate of one (such as quartzite)
or more (such as granite) mineral.
Classify minerals based on various parameters
A) Based on their economic importance
1. Economic minerals: those explored for their
economic importance
2. Rock forming minerals: constituents of rocks
B) Based on their origins
1. primary minerals: directly crystallize from
cooling magma
2. Secondary minerals: formed after
sedimentation and metamorphism
69
C) Based on their importance to the naming of rocks
1.Essential minerals: their present or absent is affect
naming of the rock e.g. quartz, feldspars for granite
2.Accessory minerals (non-essential) their present or
absence don‟t affect the naming of the rocks. E.g. zircon in
granite
D) Based on chemical compositions
Native elements(metal): Native gold(Au), native copper(Cu),
native sulfur(S), native silver(Ag), graphite(C), diamond(C)
Sulfides (metal + S): Pyrite(FeS₂), galena(PbS),
sphalerite(ZnS)
Sulphates (metal + SO₄): Gypsum (CaSO₄ . 2H₂O),
anhydrite(CaSO₄), barite (BaSO₄)
Oxides (metal + O): hematite (Fe₂O₃), magnetite (Fe₃O₄),
corundum (Al₂O

70
5) Halides(metal + Cl or F halogens):
Halite (NaCl), fluorite (CaF₂)
6) Hydroxides (metal + OH): Limonite(iron
hydroxide), bauxite (aluminum hydroxide)
7) Carbonates (metal + CO₃): Calcite (CaCO₃),
dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂)
8) Phosphates (metal + PO₄): Apatite
9) Silicates (metal + Si and O) : Quartz (SiO₂),
orthoclase (KAlSi₃O₈), plagioclase (CaAl₂Si₂O₈),
Albite (NaAlSi₃O₈)

71
 Rock Forming Minerals
 Most of the minerals from which the Earth's
crust and mantle are made can be described
as rocks.
 A rock is a collection of the particular
elements that make it up.
 These elements are not found randomly mixed
up in a rock, but are distributed among an
assemblage of minerals.
 Generally the fundamental building blocks of
these rocks are the chemical elements and
chemical compounds termed as minerals.

72
 Although many thousands of minerals are
known, geologists commonly encounter only
about 30 of them.
 These are the minerals that are the building
blocks of most crustal rocks, and thus they are
called the rock forming minerals.
 The most common rock forming minerals are
Silicates. But a few non-silicate minerals such
as Carbonates, Oxides, Sulphides, and,
Sulphates are also rock forming minerals.

73
 Silicate Minerals
 The silicates are the largest, the most interesting
and the most complicated class of minerals by
far.
 Approximately 30% of all minerals are silicates
and some geologists estimate that 90% of the
Earth's crust is made up of silicates.
 Thus, the most abundant rock-forming minerals
in the crust of the earth are the silicates, which
are formed primarily of silicon and oxygen,
together with various metals.

74
All silicate minerals contain silicon and oxygen
 Differentiate magma based on it‟s chemical
composition  felsic vs. mafic
1. Mafic silicate minerals contain iron or
magnesium and are dark in color. Examples:
olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica

2. Felsic silicates don't contain magnesium or

iron, and are light in color.
Examples: feldspar, quartz, clay minerals,
muscovite mica.

75
76
77
Melt Composition + „freezing‟ T
 Liquid magma freezes into crystals  the
composition of what freezes first is governed by
the melt‟s composition
 Analogous to the composition of seawater ice 
icebergs are composed of pure water; pure water
freezes first, leaving the concentrated brine
behind
 In magmas  More silica = lower T; more Ca,
Mg=higher T
 Silica polymerization also affected by T and how
much Si there is!

78
Isolated tetrahedral structure
Cations serve as links between tetrahedra; no sharing of oxygens
e.g. olivine, and garnet, which also happen to be mafic silicates

Single chain silicates

Adjacent tetrahedra form a chain by sharing 2 of their oxygens with
neighboring tetrahedra
e.g. pyroxenes, which also happen to be mafic silicates

Double chain silicates

Two chains can link up by sharing oxygens
e.g. amphiboles, which are mafic silicates too

Sheet silicates
Sheets are formed when each tetrahedron shares 3 of its oxygens with its
neighbors
e.g. micas, biotite (mafic) and muscovite (non-mafic), and clay minerals, which
are non-mafic silicates

Framework silicates
Every oxygen in each tetrahedron is shared to form 3-D framework
e.g. feldspar, quartz, which are also non-mafic
79
Silicates are classified on the basis of Si-O polymerism
[SiO4]4- Isolated tetrahedra
Nesosilicates

Examples: olivine garnet

[Si2O7]6- Paired tetrahedra

Sorosilicates

Examples: lawsonite
n[SiO3]2- n = 3, 4, 6 Ring silicates
Cyclosilicates

Examples: benitoite BaTi[Si3O9]

axinite Ca3Al2BO3[Si4O12]OH
beryl Be3Al2[Si6O18]
80
 Chain Silicates – single and double

[SiO3]2- single chains Inosilicates [Si4O11]4- Double tetrahedra

pryoxenes pyroxenoids amphiboles

81
 Sheet Silicates – aka Phyllosilicates

[Si2O5]2- Sheets of tetrahedra Phyllosilicates

micas talc clay minerals serpentine

82
 Framework silicates – aka Tectosilicates

low-quartz

[SiO2] 3-D frameworks of tetrahedra: fully polymerized Tectosilicates

quartz feldspars feldspathoids zeolites

83
 Materials of the Earth: Rocks
Major rocks
• Three types of rocks are identified based
on their genesis
 Igneous rocks: primary rocks because they
are formed from primary minerals that
crystalline directly from cooling of magma.
Solidify from magma (molten rock).
 Sedimentary rocks: are formed from
material that are eroded from other rocks.
 Metamorphic rocks: are rocks that have
changed due to being heated and /or
compressed.
84
85
Rock cycle

86
 Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rocks are formed from melted rock that
has cooled and solidified.
 „Ignis‟ means fire in Latin word. When rocks are
buried deep within the Earth, they melt because
of the high pressure and temperature;
 the molten rock (called magma) can then flow
upward or even be erupted from a volcano onto
the Earth's surface.
 When magma cools slowly, usually at depths of
thousands of feet, crystals grow from the molten
liquid, and a coarse-grained rock forms.
 When magma cools rapidly, usually at or near
the Earth's surface, the crystals are extremely
small, and a fine-grained rock results. 87
A wide variety of rocks are formed by different
cooling rates and different chemical compositions
of the original magma.
Eg Obsidian (volcanic glass), granite, basalt, and
andesite are four of the many types of igneous
rock.
Those varieties of igneous rocks are formed
from cooling magma.

88
What Is Magma?
 Magma is a complex mixture of liquid,
solid & gas.
 It is a mass or body of molten mineral
matter capable of yielding the silicate rock
forming minerals, which is composed of
early-formed solid crystals and gases.
 Greater than 90% of the gases in magma
are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
vapor.
 Magma is called Lava when it reaches on
the earth's surface.
89
 Silicate magma is generally simple in its
chemical composition, for about 99% of
the magma material is composed of only
eight elements (expressed in terms of their
respective oxides: Si-oxide, Al-oxide, Fe-
oxide, Mg-oxide, Ca-oxide, Na-oxide and
K-oxide) that can form their own minerals.
 There are three types of magma; Mafic,
Intermediate, and Silicic.

90
Magma Solidifi Chemical Temperature Viscosit Gas
Type ed Composition y Content
Rock

Basaltic Basalt 45-55 SiO2 %, high 1000 – 1200 oC Low Low

in Fe, Mg,Ca, low
in K, Na

Andesitic Andesi 55-65 SiO2 %, 800 – 1000 oC Interme Interme

te intermediate in diate diate
Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K

Rhyolitic Rhyolit 65-75 SiO2 %, low 650 – 800 oC High High

e in Fe, Mg, Ca, high
in K, Na.

91
Crystallization Of Magma
 Crystallization is a process of change from
liquid state to solid state.
 Magma is a solution of minerals but it
doesn't crystallize in the same way as
ordinary solutions do.
 Most solutions of a given composition
crystallize in to a solid of the same
respective composition, regardless of the
conditions of crystallization.
 But magma is unique solution in this
respect, for magma of a given composition
is able to crystallize in to a number of
solid rocks having different composition.
92
 Bowen demonstrated that minerals with a
higher melting point, such as olivine,
crystallize first while minerals with a low
melting point, such as potassium feldspar and
quartz, crystallize much later.

 The order of magma crystallization (the

Bowen's reaction series) is given by two reaction
series) that are known as continuous and
discontinuous Bowen‟s reaction series.
93
 Continuous Reaction Series
 In this reaction series the early-formed minerals are
converted into new minerals by continuously changing
their composition with in the same crystalline structure.
 The plagioclase feldspars (Anorthite-Albite) are formed
by this reaction series.
 When the magma starts crystallization, the first mineral
to form (at the highest temperature) is always Ca-rich
plagioclase called Anorthite.
 As the temperature decreases there is a continuous
isomorphic substitution of Na for Ca, for the two ions
have similar ionic size, and with decreasing the amount
of Ca in the liquid, the amount of Na is proportionally
increasing.
 The last mineral to crystallize (at low temperature) is Na-
rich plagioclase called Albite.

94
95
Discontinuous Reaction Series
 In this reaction series some of the early-formed
minerals react with the melt to change to new
minerals with different compositions and
different crystal structures.
 The first mineral formed is olivine followed by
pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotite micas
 After olivine is formed the amount of Mg and Fe
in the melt decreases with proportional increase
in the other cations.
 The minerals formed are then, different not only
in crystal structure but also in chemical
composition.

96
 Magma-Differentiation And Formation Of Igneous Rocks
 The process of igneous rock formation from a single basic
magma is known as Magma Differentiation.
 Acidic rocks such as Granites and Rhyolites may also
form from an original acidic magma, which originates in
the lower crust, apart from by magma differentiation.

How Do Magmas Form?

 To know where rocks melt in the earth for example, we
have to know both the conditions under which various
rocks melt and the regions of the earth in which those
conditions are found.
 Some of the factors that affect the condition of melting or
formation of magma are; temperature, pressure, water
content.

97
1. Partial melting as the geothermal gradient
of the Earth increases with depth
2. Along divergent plate boundaries:
convection currents
3. Along convergent plate boundaries:
melting/ consumption of old subducted
crust
4. Hotspots: localized mantle plumes
• Most modern volcanoes (79 percent) are
concentrated in the “ring of fire‟‟ that
circumscribes the Pacific Ocean Basin.

98
99
 Classification Of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are classified based on: mode of
occurrence, texture, and composition
Mode of Occurrence
Igneous rocks are classified into two major categories
based on their mode of occurrence as Plutonic (Intrusive)
and Volcanic (Extrusive).
 Intrusive (plutonic) rocks are those rocks, which are
formed beneath the surface of the earth by slow cooling
of magma
 The heat of the magma is lost slowly as a result the
magma cools so slowly that there is enough time for the
formation of coarse-grained crystals and
correspondingly these rocks are coarse-grained. Some
examples of such rocks are Peridotite, Gabbro, Diorite,
and Granite.
100
 Extrusive (volcanic) rocks are those rocks,
which are formed by rapid cooling of lava on the
surface of the earth.
 The heat from the magma is lost instantly to the
cool atmosphere. Then the lava cools so
instantly that there is no enough time for the
formation of crystals of large size.
 Some examples of the volcanic igneous rocks
are; Basalt, Andesite, rhyolite, tuff, and
Obsidian (volcanic glass).
 There is also a third, but minor, group of rocks
known as the Hypabyssal rocks, which are
formed beneath, but very near to the surface of
the earth and they are usually medium grained.
Dolerite is an example of the hypabyssal igneous
rock.
101
 Important features of igneous rocks
1. Hard, massive, compact with interlocking grains
2. Absence of fossils
3. Absence of bedding planes

Texture
 The texture of igneous rocks refers to: the size of the minerals with
in the rock, the nature of the minerals (whether they are crystalline or
not), and the way in which the mineral grains are arranged
 The textures of igneous rocks are described as:
A) Phaneritic (Greek phaneros -- visible): Coarse-grained granular
rocks that are formed by slow cooling of magma beneath the surface of
the earth. The crystals are so big that the individual crystals can be
observed with the naked eye. For example, Peridotite, Gabbro, Diorite,
Granite, etc. 102
B) Aphanetic (Greek aphaneros -- not visible):
fine grained granular rocks that are formed by
rapid cooling of lava at the surface of the earth.
 The crystals are so small that cannot be seen
with the naked eye.
 Most extrusive rocks exhibit such a texture
(grain size). For example, Basalt, Andesite,
Rhyolite, etc.
C) Glassy: massive, non-granular rocks that are
formed by very rapid cooling (instant chilling) of
magma, a condition that doesn't allow the
formation of crystals.
For example, obsidian is a volcanic rock with
glassy texture.
103
D) Porphyritic: rocks that are composed of large (coarse)
crystals set in fine ground mass.
 The coarse crystals are known as the Phenocrysts and the
fine-grained as Ground Mass or Matrix.
 Such a texture results due to multi stage cooling of magma
at different physical locations.
E.Vesicular: rocks that have vesicles (small non-penetrating
cavities) on their surfaces.
 Vesicles are formed when the gases (volatiles) entrapped in
the magma (lava) escaped rapidly in the form of bubbles
when the lava rises to the surface and exposed to the
atmosphere.
 For example, vesicular basalt, scoria, pumice, etc.
F. Amygdaloidal: vesicular rocks whose vesicles are filled by
mineral precipitates (Amygdales) such as silica, calcite, etc.
For example, Amygdaloidal basalt is the common one. 104
105
Extrusive and intrusive igneous bodies

Definitions
• Volcanism: the upcoming of material from the
interior of the earth. The material can be liquid
(lava), solid (pyroclastic materials), and volatile
(gases).
• A volcano is a vent or a fissure in the earths crust
through which molten magma, hot gases and other
fluids escape to the surface of the land or to the
bottom of the sea.
106
 Volcanoes mainly occur as:
1. Sub-aerial volcanoes: along the convergent plate
margins, like around the pacific ocean (the ring of
fires), in island arcs, and in continental margin
orogenes.
2. Sub-marine volcanoes: along the divergent plate
boundaries (mid-oceanic ridge), 95% of the world
volcanoes.
3. Intra plate volcanism: either above hot spots or as rift
related volcanism.
• The chemical/mineralogical composition of the lava
(magma that erupts at the surface) determines the
eruptive style of the volcano and hence the resulting
land forms. 107
 A. Forms of extrusive igneous bodies

1) Basaltic lava flows and falls:

a) Pahoeohoe: low viscosity rope like surface
b) aa: low gas content high viscosity blocky surface
**both pahoeohoe and aa flows are usually
basaltic/mafic in composition.
c) Intermediate to felsic lava: scoria (sponge like due to
degassing), pumice (extremely vesicular)
d) Pyroclastic deposits: volcanic rock fragments that are
ejected in to the air. example tephra

108
109
Pahoeohoe: Lava flow

110
aa Lava flow

111
 Pyroclastic rocks (tephra)
• Accumulations of ejecta, solids thrown from the vent
• Pyroclastic materials are subdivided using
• their sizes into:
– greater than 64 mm: Block (solid when ejected) and Bomb
(liquid when ejected)
– 2-64 mm: Lapilli
– less than 2 mm: Ash

112
Volcano forms
1) Basic volcanoes
a) Flood basalts: continental fissure eruptions, low
viscosity magma covering large areas in the form of
sheets. e.g. the Ethiopian flood basalt

Lava flow
Ethiopian flood basalts

113
b) Shield volcanoes: very large volcanoes with very
gentle slope 6-12 degrees composed of fluid basaltic
lava e.g. Mount Ras Dashen.

114
Erta Ale Shield volcano in May 2008, Ethiopia
115
c) Composite volcanoes: also called strato volcanoes,
composed of successive layers of lava flows and
pyroclasts. Most violent type of volcano emitting
nuee ardentes and lahars (volcanic mud flows)

116
Morphology of composite volcano

117
• Volcanic crater: is a bowl shaped depression on top of a
volcano, relatively smaller in size.
• Caldera: a very large depression at the top of a volcano ,
formed by collapse of the top of a volcano in to the magma
chamber that has been partly emptied by an eruption.

Volcanic Crater lake

Volcanic Crater

118
Caldera

Complex volcano

119
Figure 4.6a. Maar, Hole-in-the-
Ground, Oregon (upper courtesy
of USGS, lower my own). b. Tuff
ring, Diamond Head, Oahu,
Hawaii (courtesy of Michael a
Garcia). c. Scoria cone, Surtsey,
Iceland, 1996 (© courtesy Bob
and Barbara Decker).

c 120
 Phreatomagmatic eruptions
• defined as juvenile forming
eruptions as a result of interaction
between water and magma.

Figure 4.14. Subaqueous

pillow basalts, Olympic
Peninsula, Washington.

Hammer for scale 121

 2. Felsic volcanoes
• Rhyolites and andesites form volcanic domes,
built of more viscose acidic lava flows, commonly
include abundant volcanic glass. Domes can form
as isolated bodies, chains of domes or as plugs.
plug/dome

122
Volcanic plug/dome

123
B. Forms of intrusive igneous bodies

Classify in terms of
I. Orientation of magma in relation to the
surrounding rocks.
Discordant/ concordant
II. Dimension: tabular and massive

124
•The most common intrusive bodies
are:
1. Sill: concordant + tabular
2. Dike: discordant + tabular
3. Lapolith: concordant + less tabular
4. Laccolith: concordant + massive
5. Stocks: discordant + massive
6. Batholith: discordant + massive

125
Sills:
• a concordant and tabular intrusive feature, mostly
10-30m thick and basaltic in composition. Sills form
harder members of strata to which they are
intruded.
• when eroded, they form escarpments or ledges in
plateau regions and encourage water falls when they
cut across river course.
Dykes:
• a discordant and tabular pluton, which is usually inclined or
vertical, formed when a magma forced its way through the
fracture of adjacent rocks.
• Usually 1-10m thick wide and composed of dolerite. Dikes may
occur singly, but mostly occur in groups as dike swarms.
e.g. the great dyke of Zimbabwe, over 500 km long and 6-8m
wide. 126
Sills
Dyke swarms

Dykes

127
Lopoliths:
• vast saucer shaped and layered intrusion of basic rocks,
typically of gabbro type composition. e.g. the Bushveld
complex, South Africa.
• Dolerite magma intruding sediments also form lopoliths.

128
 Laccoliths:
• are sills that have thickened to produce domes. The
doming arches the surrounding rocks.

Stocks
• the largest intrusive bodies of basic rocks, they are
discordant and solidified remnant of magma chamber. 129
Figure 4.26. Shapes of two concordant plutons. a. Laccolith
with flat floor and arched roof. b. Lopolith intruded into a
structural basin. The scale is not the same for these two
plutons, a lopolith is generally much larger. © John Winter
and Prentice Hall.
130
Batholiths:
• also called bosses or plutons, large discordant and massive
pluton with no defined shape but its size increases as it
extends down ward, have irregular dome-shaped roof
having a surface exposure of more than 100 sq km.
batholiths are primarily granitic in composition.

131
 Sill

Dike

132
 Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are bodies of solid material accumulated
(deposited) at or near the surface of the earth under low
temperature & pressure conditions characteristic of these
environments.

• Sedimentary rocks are the results of weathering of pre-

existing rocks or the results of in-situ chemical or biochemical
precipitates from solutions (as opposed to igneous or
metamorphic rocks).

• Sedimentary rocks are formed by a process called

Sedimentation.

• Sedimentation (i.e formation of sedimentary rocks)

involves either the transport of particles to the site of
deposition by gravity, water, air, ice or mass flows (terrigenous
sedimentary rocks) or the chemical/biochemical precipitation
of the material in place (chemical/biochemical sedimentary 133
rocks).
Parent Rocks (It could be
Igneous, Sedimentary, or
Metamorphic)

Weathering
and
Erosion

Sediments Organic Remains

Transportation
&
Deposition

Diagenesis Process
Lithification Sedimentary
Recrystallization Rocks
Precipitation
134
 Sediments are all un-cemented, particulate
materials that accumulate at the earth's surface.
 Such materials are derived from the erosion of
preexisting rocks by:
 mechanical or chemical weathering processes,
by precipitation from aqueous solution, or from
the skeletal remains of organisms.
 Weathering : The processes by which a rock is
changed to fine earth materials (sediments) by
physical disintegration or chemical
decomposition due to:
 the action of water, oxygen, changing climatic
conditions (heating and cooling), on or near the
surface of the earth is called weathering.
135
 Transportation is a process by which sediments are
carried away from one locality to another (where they are
deposited) by various transporting agents.

 The most common transporting agents are; water, wind,

glacial ice, and gravity.

 Deposition is the process by which the transported

sediments settle or rest when the agent of transportation
no longer has sufficient energy to move them any
further.

 Sedimentary Diagenesis
 The term diagenesis is used to portray all changes that result in
the conversion of loose sediment into sedimentary rock. 136
 These changes include recrystallization,
lithification and precipitation.
 Sedimentary diagenesis takes place at depths of
less than a few kilometers within the earth's
crust and occurs at temperatures of less than
200° Celsius.
 Recrystallization is the means by which a less
stable mineral species may take on the form of a
chemically identical but more stable mineral
species.
 The way by which unconsolidated particles of
sediment are transformed into sedimentary rock
are termed lithification.
 Lithification includes the two processes of
compaction and cementation.
137
 Based on their mode of formation, sedimentary rocks can
be grouped into two broad categories;
 Terrigenous (detrital/siliciclastic), and
 Chemical /biochemical.

The identification of a sedimentary rock type within each of

these three categories is based upon its mineralogical
composition and texture.

Terrigenous (clastic) rocks: are made up of particles or

clasts derived from pre-existing non-carbonate rocks
(detrital fragments), commonly silicate minerals such as
quartz, feldspars and rock fragments. Therefore, the terms
detrital sediments and siliciclastic sediments are also used
for this types of sedimentary rocks.
- Examples are conglomerates, sandstones and
mudstones/shales
138
 Chemical/Biochemical sedimentary rocks:
 originate by precipitation of minerals from water
through various chemical or biochemical
processes.
 They are distinguished from siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks by their chemistry,
mineralogy, and texture.
 Biogenic (biochemical) sedimentary rocks are those
composed of materials formed by the activity of
living organisms such as coal (compacted
undecayed plant matter) and many limestones
which are made up of the shells or other skeletal
fragments from marine organisms.
 These include carbonates (limestones, marls,
dolostones), phosphorites, organic deposits
(coals and oil shales) and cherts (siliceous)
139
140
Structures of Sedimentary Rocks
 Bedding (Stratification): Sedimentary rocks form as
layer upon layer of sediment accumulates.
 Cross-bedding: is a lamina or bed inclined obliquely to the
planes of general stratification, usually expressed by
coarse sediment such as pebbles and sands.
 Ripple Marks: are small ridges observed on the surface of
a sediment layer formed by currents of air and water or
with the back and forth movement of waves.
 Mud Cracks: are polygonal pattern of cracks formed in
fine-grained sediments as they dry, resulting from
reduction in volume due to alternating drying and
wetting conditions, after deposition.
 Graded Bedding: A sedimentary layer characterized by
distinct vertical changes in grain size from coarse grain
at the bottom to finer grains at the top or viceversa is
called graded bedding
141
Cross bedding
Mud crack
Riple mark

142
 Depositional Environments Table

 A sedimentary environment is a geographic location

characterized by a particular combinations.

 Environmental conditions include; the kind and amount

of water (ocean, lake, river, arid land), the topography
(lowland, mountain, coastal plain, shallow ocean, deep
ocean), and the biological activity.

143
 CONTINENTAL
on land (includes lakes and streams)
Common
Environment Common Sedimentary
Sedimentary Common Fossils
Name Rock Types
Structures
high energy, oxidizing
conglomerate, cross-beds,ripple
stream - channel environment with few
sandstone marks
fossils

stream - terrestrial plants and

shale mud cracks
floodplain animals
high energy, oxidizing
poorly sorted,
alluvial fan conglomerate, arkose environment with few
cross-beds
fossils
desert dune well sorted, large
sandstone terrestrial reptile traces
(aeolian) scale cross-beds
angular to rounded
grains, poorly high energy environment
glacier - till tillite
sorted, unstratified with few fossils
(massive)

ripple marks, high energy, oxidizing

sandstone,
glacier - outwash cross-beds, similar environment with few
conglomerate
to stream channel fossils
cross-beds, ripple
144
swamp coal marks, mud plant fossils
 TRANSITIONAL
where land meets ocean

Common Common
Environment
Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary Common Fossils
Name
Types Structures

marine and
terrestrial plants,
nonmarine possible cross-beds,
delta mollusk shells,
mudstone, siltstone, ripple marks
bioturbation
sandstone, coal

fine to medium-
mollusk shells,
beach sandstone grained, well-sorted,
bioturbation
cross-beds

mudstone, siltstone, fine-grained, ripple

mollusk shells,
tidal flat sandstone, possible marks, cross-beds,
bioturbation
evaporites mud cracks
145
 MARINE
in the ocean
Common Common
Environment Name Sedimentary Rock Sedimentary Common Fossils
Types Structures

fish, coral, mollusk

limestone, shale, cross-beds, ripple
shelf/platform shells, sponges,
sandstone marks
echinoderms

reef limestone massive coral

mudstone, graded beds, microscopic

slope/rise
graywacke turbidites plankton
chert, chalk,
microscopic
deep marine limestone, thin beds
plankton
mudstone

shallow restricted extreme chemical

gypsum, anhydrite, mud cracks, thin
circulation in arid environment with
halite beds, salt casts
hot climate few fossils 146
 Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphic rocks (from the Greek „meta‟ meaning
change & 'morpho' meaning form) are the 3rd major
groups of rocks.
 They result from the transformation of other rocks by
metamorphism processes that usually occur beneath
the earth's surface.
 During metamorphism rocks are subjected to sufficient
heat, pressure, and fluid activity to change their
mineral compositions, and/or texture thus forming new
rocks.
 The type of metamorphic rock formed depends on the
original composition and texture of the parent rock, the
agents of metamorphism and the amount of time the
parent rock was subjected to the effects of
metamorphism.

147
 Metamorphic rocks provide information about the
geological processes operating with in the earth and
about the way these processes have varied through time.
Controlling Factors in Metamorphism
The degree and type of metamorphism depends on the
pressure, temperature, and the chemically active fluids
Pressure is define as force/unit area
 pressures types
 confining pressure
or lithostatic pressure (Plith)
 directive or deviatoric pressure
 fluid pressure (Pfluid)
 effective pressure (Pe)
Pe = Plith – Pfluid

148
Pressure
Pressure changes a rock's texture as well as mineralogy. Solid rock is
subjected to two basic kind of pressure, also called stress:

Confining (Static) Pressure is a system or field of forces directed

perpendicular to all surfaces (in all directions) of a given solid object
with the same magnitude everywhere (like the pressure the atmosphere
exerts at the surface of the earth.)
Dynamic (Directed) Pressure:
Refers to the summation of forces acting on a surface that
may be different in direction and magnitude at different
positions on the surface. Such stress may cause a change
in volume and shape.

149
150
 Temperature
 Increasing temperature increases the mobility of ions and
neutral molecules and atoms that increase the chemical
reactivity.
 Heat can break chemical bonds and alter the existing
crystal structure.
 At new temperature, the atoms and ions recrystallize or
linking up in new arrangements to form new mineral
assemblage and texture.
 Source of Temperature for metamorphism:
- heat flowing into the base of the crust from the
mantle
- heat brought into the crust by rising magma bodies
- heat generated from radioactive decay
- the effect of rapid uplift and erosion
- heat related to burial effect and geothermal gradient
151
Metamorphic fluids (leads to chemical
changes)
 mostly are H2O and CO2 types
- include  Ascending fluids from Magma chamber
 Descending fluids of the meteoric water
 As hydrothermal solutions percolate up to the
shallower parts of the crust, they react with the rocks
they penetrate, changing their chemical and mineral
compositions and sometimes completely replacing
one mineral by another with out changing the rock's
textu
 This kind of change in rock's bulk composition by
fluid transport of chemical elements in to or out of
the rock is called Metasomatism.

152
 Types of Metamorphism
On the basis of (i) Geological setting, and (ii) agents
of metamorphism, the type of metamorphism
includes:
A) Regionalmetamorphism (over a wide area)

- Orogenic metamorphism (T, P, active fluids)

- Ocean floor metamorphism (T)
- Subduction zone metamorphism (HP/LT)
- Burial metamorphism (LT/LP)

153
B. Local metamorphism (cover local area)
- Contact or thermal metamorphism (T)
- Cataclastic or shear zone metamorphism (P)
- Hydrothermal metamorphism (active fluids)
- Impact or shock metamorphism (extreme P-T
A1:Orogenicmetamorphism
Features of orogenic metamorphism :

- Where?: Restricted to orogenic belts and extent over

distance of hundreds to thousands Kms, e.g. East-African
orogen
- The agents of metamorphism: include T, P & active
chemical solution
154
-Time duration is long (million or tens of millions years)
A2: Ocean-floor metamorphism
Features of ocean-floor metamorhism :
-where?: Restricted to transformation of the oceanic crust
at the vicinity of mid-ocean ridge
- Occur in the upper part of the oceanic crust, typically in
sheeted dykes
- The agents of metamorphism include T & sea water
percolation

A3: Subduction zone metamorphism

Features of subduction zone metamorphism :
where?: At convergence plate margins, where subduction
of cold oceanic lithosphere and overlying sediments
against an adjacent continental or oceanic plate.
The agents of metamorphism include higher pressure, low
temperature conditions 155
A4: Burial metamorphism
Features of burial metamorphism :

-Where?: in subsidence basins, where sediments and interlayered

volcanics suffered low temperature regional metamorphism
- Agent of metamorphism include low temperature-low pressure
conditions due to burial affect without any influence of orogenesis or
magmatic intrusions.
B1: Contact or thermal metamorphism
Features of Contact or thermal metamorphism :
- Where ?: At vicinity of contacts with intrusive or extrusive igneous
rock bodies
-Agent of metamorphism is the higher temperature resulted from heat
emanating from the magma, and sometimes by deformation connecting
with the emplacement of the igneous bodies.
- The zone of the contact metamorphism is known as contact aureole,
various from meter to few kms.
156
B2- Cataclastic or shear zone metamorph
Features of cataclastic or shear zone metamorphism :
- where?: Restricted to the vicinity of faults of overthrusts
in the upper crust level (brittle deformation)
-Agents of metamorphism is pressure in form of
mechanical forces.
B3- Hydrothermal metamorphism
Features of hydrothermal metamorphism :
where?: Localized at interaction of hot, largely aqueous
fluids (from igneous source) with country rocks.
 Similar to regional ocean-floor metamorphism
the aqueous hydrothermal fluids usually transported via
fractures and shear zones at some distance either near or
far from their sour

157
 Classification Of Metamorphic Rocks
 For the purpose of classification, metamorphic
rocks are commonly divided in to two groups:
those exhibiting a foliated texture and those
with a non foliated texture.
 Foliation- planar textural elements
 Lineation- linear textural elements
- Rocks without preferred orientation  massive
 Rocks subjected to heat and differential pressure
during metamorphism typically have minerals
arranged in a parallel fashion that gives them a
foliated texture.
 Foliation may be fine or coarse depending on the
size and shape of the mineral grains
158
159
Slate: is a very fine-grained metamorphic rock that
commonly exhibits slaty cleavage.
This rock is the result of low-grade regional
metamorphism of shale or volcanic ash.
The different colors of most slates are caused by
minute amounts of graphite (black), iron oxide
(red and purple), or chlorite (green).

Phyllites: are of a slightly higher grade than the

slates but are of similar character and origin.
Phyllites tend to have a more or less glassy or
lustrous sheen from crystals of mica and chlorite
that have grown a little larger than those of slates.

160
 Slate

phyllite

161
Schist: is most commonly produced by medium-
grade regional metamorphism..
Metamorphism of many rock types can yield
schists, but most schists appear to have formed
from clay-rich sedimentary rocks.

schists

162
Gneiss: is a high-grade metamorphic rock that is
streaked or has segregated bands of light and
dark minerals.
Quartz and Feldspars are the principal light-
colored minerals, while biotite and hornblende
are the typical dark colored minerals.

gneiss

163
 Non foliated Metamorphic rocks
Not all metamorphic rocks have a foliated texture.
Metamorphic rocks composed of only one mineral
that forms equidimensional crystals are generally
non-foliated.
These rocks are composed mainly of crystals that
grow in equant shapes such as cubes and sphere
rather than in platy or elongated shapes.
Non-foliated rocks include hornfels quartzite,
marble, argillite, greens tones, amphibolites and
granulite.
Hornfels: is a high-grade contact metamorphic rock
of uniform grain size that has undergone little or
no deformation. Its platy or elongate crystals are
oriented randomly, and foliated texture is absent164
Quartzite: medium to high-grade metamorphic
rocks.
Quartzites are very hard non-foliated white (when
pure), rocks derived from quartz rich sandstones.
Some Quartzites are massive unbroken by
preserved bedding or foliation.
Others contain thin bands of slate or schist relicts
of former interbedded layers of clay or shale.
Marble: is the metamorphic product of heat and
pressure acting on limestones and dolomites. They
may result from either contact or regional
metamorphism. Some white, pure marbles show
an even smooth texture of intergrown calcite
crystals of uniform size.
165
Marble

quartizites

166
Greenstone: is a metamorphosed form of mafic
volcanic rocks.
Many of these low-grade rocks form when mafic
lava and ash deposits react with percolating
seawater or other solutions.
Amphybolite: is mostly non-foliated rock made up
of amphibole and plagioclase feldspars. It is
typically the product of medium to high-grade
metamorphism of mafic volcanic rocks.

Granulite: though it has usually a granular

texture it is defined by its mineral composition,
which indicates high or very high grade.
The minerals found in granulite include quartz,
plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, garnet, and
sillimanites. 167
 amphibolite

Granulite
(Eclogite)

168
 Chapter-3
 Internal process of the Earth
 volcanism and volcano's,
 Earth quickes and Sesmic waves
 External process of the Earth
 Weathering of mineral and rocks

169
Volcanism:
Volcanism is the upcoming of materials from the interior
part of the earth.
These materials can be liquid (lava), solid (pyroclastic
materials), and volatile gases.
Volcano: is a vent or fissure in the earth's crust through
which molten magma, hot gases, and other fluids escape to
the surface of the land or to the bottom of the sea.
About 95 % of active volcanoes occur at the plate
subduction zones and at the mid-oceanic ridges. The
other 5 % occur in areas associated with lithospheric hot
spots.
These hot spots have no direct relationships with areas of
crustal creation or subduction zones

170
It is believed that hot spots are caused by plumes
of rising magma that have their origin within the
asthenosphere.
The primary factors that determine the nature of
volcanic eruptions include the magma‟s
composition, its temperature, and the amount of
dissolved gases it contains and the magma‟s
viscosity.
The more viscous a material, the greater its
resistance to flow.
Thus, the viscosity of magma, plus the quantity of
dissolved gases and the ease with which they
escape, determine the nature or style of volcanic
eruption as:
Explosive (pyroclastic materials) and Non-
Explosive (lava flows) type of eruptions.
171
Volcanoes:
 The eruptive history of each volcano is unique;
consequently, all volcanoes are somewhat
different in form and size.
 Nevertheless, Volcanologists have recognized
that volcanoes exhibiting somewhat similar
eruptive styles can be grouped.
 Based on history of eruption, volcanoes can be
grouped into three as: Active, Dormant, and
Extinct volcanoes.
 Active volcanoes are volcanoes that are active
at present moment and includes those erupted
with in a living memory.(e.g. Ert ale, Afar)

172
Dormant volcanoes are resting volcanoes erupted
with in historic time and likely to do so again in
the future.
 These types of volcanoes are mostly
characterized by geothermal activity.(eg Aluto
volcano near Langano, Zquala volcano, in
Ethiopian Rift. Etc.
 Extinct volcanoes are dead volcanoes that
already finished their activity.
 Based on the nature of the conduit, volcanoes
can be divided into two as: Fissural and Central
volcanoes.
 Fissural volcanoes are those erupted through a
very extended crack, for example along mid
oceanic ridges, and flooding vast areas. 173
Central volcanoes are erupted through a single
central opening or vent.
The central volcanoes can be further classified as
Shield, Dome, Cinder Cone, and Composite
Cone volcanoes.
 When fluid lava is extruded, the volcano takes
the shape of a broad, domed structure called a
shield volcano.
 Shield volcanoes are built primarily of fluid
basaltic lava flows and contain only a small
percentage of pyroclastics.
 In addition, shield volcanoes can be some of the
largest volcanoes on Earth, as exemplified by
the volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands. Eg.
Mount Ras Dashin in Ethiopia.
174
Dome volcanoes are built of more viscose acidic
(rhyolitic) lava flows and commonly includes
abundant volcanic glass.
 Domes can form as isolated bodies, chains of
domes, or as plugs at the top of composite
volcanoes.
 As the name suggests, Cinder Cones are built
from ejected lava fragments.
 Because loose pyroclastic material has a high
angle of repose (between 30 and 40 degrees),
cinder cones have very steep slopes.
 Cinder cones are rather small; usually less than
300 meters high, and sometimes form near or
on the flanks of larger volcanoes.
 The most common examples are scoria cones. 175
Crater is a bowl-shaped depression on top of a
volcano
But very large depression at the top of a volcano,
formed by collapse of the top of the volcano into a
magma chamber that has been partly emptied
during an eruption, it is called Caldera.

176
 Advantage and Disadvantages of Volcanism

The following are some of the advantages of

volcanism:
 Creation of new land areas: for example, Hawaii,
Iceland, etc.
 Sources for Geothermal energy
 Sources of many concentrations of economic
minerals: for example, sulphide ore mineralizations
 Sources of Earth‟s atmosphere
 An original source of water on Earth
 Important to study the internal part of the Earth:
for example, Xenoliths
 Sources of fertile soil for agriculture, etc.
177
 Some of the disadvantages are:
 Hazards and associated risks: for example, burial
by lava flows and ash, destruction by pyroclastic
flows (nuee ardentes), destruction by lahars
(volcano related debris flows), destruction by fire,
etc.
 Volcanic dust can reduce surface temperatures
by increasing Earth's albedo (reflectivity) and
causing more of the Sun's radiation to bounce
back into space and affect the photosynthesis
process.
 Pollution of the atmosphere by emitting CO2
 Major contributor to acid rain

178
 Earthquakes
 Earthquake is the vibration of Earth, produced
by the rapid release of energy.
 This energy radiates in all directions from its
source, called the focus, in the form of waves.
 The most earthquakes result from movements
along large fractures called faults.

Figure energy propagation in all directions from its source. 179

 Earthquakes are definitely a geologic hazard for those
living in earthquake prone areas, but the seismic waves
generated by earthquakes are invaluable for studying the
interior of the Earth.
 Earthquakes release energy suddenly from the Earth‟s
crust, causing seismic waves which propagate away from
the source and all around the Earth.
 The epicenter of an earthquake is the location where the
energy is re- leased.
 Earthquakes are usually caused by a rupture of a fault.
If the epi- center of an earthquake is located below the
ocean, this can also trigger tsunamis.
 If the epicenter is located on land, this can also trigger
landslides which can cause a lot of death and
destruction.

180
 Earthquakes occur along large faults.
 Tectonic forces over tens or hundreds of years
slowly deform the crustal rocks on both sides of
the fault.
 Under these conditions, the rocks are bending
and storing elastic energy much like a wooden
stick would if bent.
 Eventually, the frictional resistance holding the
rocks together is overcome.
 The vibrations we know as an earthquake occur
as the rock elastically „snaps back‟ to its original
shape.

181
 Causes of Earthquakes
 Within the Earth rocks are constantly subjected to forces
that tend to bend, twist, or fracture them.
 When rocks bend, twist or fracture they are said to
deform.
 Strain is a change in shape, size, or volume.
 The forces that cause deformation are referred to as
stresses.
 In general, rocks near the surface of the earth behave in
a brittle fashion, unless they are deformed slowly.
 Thus, when they are acted upon by differential stress,
they tend to fracture.
 Most natural earthquakes are caused by sudden slippage
along a fault. Faults occur when brittle rocks fracture
and there is displacement of one side of the fracture
relative to the other side.

182
 Earthquake Measurement scales
 Seismic waves travel through the earth as elastic
vibrations.
 A seismometer is an instrument used to record these
vibrations and the resulting graph that shows the
vibrations is called a seismogram.

183
 Earthquakes are measured either in the form of
magnitude or intensity scales.
 Magnitude is the actual amount of energy
released from an earthquake.
 It is given by a Richter scale, using the formula,
m = log (a/t) +. Where “a” is the maximum
amplitude, “t” period or distance of one
oscillation, and” ” is the attenuation factor.
 If the magnitude of an earthquake is below 3.4
it is not felt by people but animals like dogs can
feel it.
 If it is between 3.5 and 4.2 some people can feel
it, between 4.3 and 4.8 many people can feel it,
and if it is above 4.9 all people feel the
earthquake.
184
Weathering

 Weathering is the fragmentation of any mineral or rock.

 It is the process that breaks rocks down to smaller

fragments called Regoliths and alters minerals formed
at higher temperature and pressure to those stable
under conditions present near the Earth‟s surface.

Types of Weathering

There are two categories of weathering processes; Physical

Weathering- disintegration of rocks and minerals by
physical or mechanical process and

Chemical Weathering- the chemical alteration or

185
decomposition of rocks and minerals
 Physical weathering can be affected by:
1.Temperature Variation:Non-uniform heating and
cooling of rocks, which causes expansion and
contraction of the rock volume, results in Exfoliation or
peeling off on the outer surface part of the rock
2.Freezing and Thawing (Frost Wedging): is caused by
the action of water inside the fractured rocks.
3.Crystal Growth: as water percolates through fractures
and pore spaces it may contain ions that precipitate to
form crystals
4.Plant and Animal Activities: plant roots can extend
into fractures and grow, causing expansion of the
fracture.

186
 Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering is the process whereby rock
materials are decomposed by chemical alteration of
the parent material.
1.Hydrolysis: chemical reaction of minerals with
water.
2.Leaching: ions are removed by dissolution into
water.
3.Oxidation: since free oxygen (O2) is more common
near the earth‟s surface, it may react with minerals to
change the oxidation state of an ion
4.Hydration: is the addition of water or OH ion into a
mineral.
5.Dehydration: is the removal of water or OH ion
from a mineral.
6.Complete Dissolution: this is different from
leaching that the entire mineral is completely
dissolved by the water 187
 Chapter 4
Geological structures and maps

 Earth is a dynamic planet.

 Tectonic forces deform rock to produce our planet‟s

spectacular mountain belts.

 Stress is the amount of force that acts on a rock unit to

change its shape and/or its volume.

 Strain is the deformation caused by stress.

 Some of the geologic structures (strain) associated with

crustal deformation (stress) include folds, faults, joints or
fractures. 188
 Deformations
 Depending on the nature of the rocks and the rate or
frequency of the movements, there are two types of
deformations.
 These are Brittle and Ductile deformations.
 Brittle deformation is breaking of a material without
bending.
 Such type of deformation happens if the rock is rigid and
the rate of movement or the frequency of the applied
force is rapid.
 The most common geologic structures resulted from
brittle type of deformation are Faults and Joints
(fractures).
 Unlike to brittle deformation, ductile deformation is
bending without breaking.
 Such deformations are happened if the rock is soft or
ductile and if the rate of the applied force is slow. 189
The most common geologic structure, which resulted from
ductile type of deformation, is called Fold.
Folds
 Folds are wave like structures that result from
deformation of bedding, foliation, or other originally
planar surfaces in rocks.
 They occur on all scales, ranging from those visible
only under a microscope to those extending for
kilometers.
 The two sides of a fold are called Limbs.
 A line drawn along the points of maximum curvature is
termed the fold axis of the fold and the axial plane is an
imaginary surface that divides a fold as symmetrically as
possible
 Hinge line is a line along the bed where the curvature is
maximum
 Hinge line and fold axis are similar only when the axis190
of
the fold is not dipping (horizontal).
 But if the folded bed is tilted, the hinge line and the fold
axis are separated by an angle called angle of plunge.
 folds with non-horizontal hinges are called plunging
folds.

191
192
 Anticlines, Synclines, and Monoclines
 The two most common types of folds are called Anticlines
and Synclines.
 Anticlines, which are commonly formed by up folding, or
arching, of rock layers are often found in association with
troughs, or synclines.
 Anticlines are folds whose two limbs dipping in opposite
directions („Anti‟ means opposite) while ,
 Synclines are folds whose two limbs dipping towards
each other or the same point („Syn‟ means the same).
 Monoclinal folds: - are folds which have horizontal or
nearly horizontal layers forming steeper bend.

193
a Monoclinal folds

194
 Depending on the nature of the axial planethese basic
folds are described as:

 symmetrical when the limbs on either side of the axial

plane diverge at the same angle on a vertical axial plane
and,

 asymmetrical when they do not or inclined axial plane.

 Based on the nature of limbs,

 Overturned folds when the two limbs dip in the same

direction with different dip angle

 Recumbent folds when the axial plane is horizontal and

the limbs are lying parallel on their sides. 195
196
 Fractures
 Fractures are formed by brittle type of
deformations when extensional and compressional
force is applied. These can be Faults or Joints.
 Faults are fractures along which displacement has
taken place.
 Normal faults when the hanging wall block moves
down relative to the footwall block
 Reverse faults in which the hanging wall block
moves up relative to the footwall block.
 Strike-Slip Faults: these types of faults exhibit
mainly horizontal displacement parallel to the
strike of the fault surface
Joints

197
198
 Joints
 Fractures along which no appreciable displacement has
occurred are called Joints.
 A group of parallel joints is called joint set and
 a group of two or more joint sets is called joint system.
 When two joint sets intersect at 90 degrees, it is called
Conjugate joint system.
 Columnar joints form when igneous rocks cool and
develop shrinkage fractures that produce elongated,
pillar like columns.
 Most joints are the result of brittle failure when rocks in
the outermost crust are deformed.

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Different set of joints
Columnar joints

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