Crystallo. Lecteure New 2022

Crystallography
Geol 2031
Dr. Dawit Lebenie

Associate Professor
of Geology
University of Gondar, CNCS, Department of Geology

Crystallography
GEOL 2031
Gondar University
College of Natural & Computational Science
Department of Earth Sciences
Dr. Dawit Lebenie

Associate Professor of Geology
Course content
1. Introduction
• Definition of crystals & minerals
• Crystallography
• Crystallinity
• Crystallization
• Crystal Growth
2. Symmetry (without translation)

• Symmetry elements
• Symmetry operations
• Combinations of symmetry operations
Course content
3. External symmetry of crystals
• Symmetry content
• Hermann-Mauguin Symbols
(international symbols)
4. Crystal systems & crystal classes

• Triclinic system
• Monoclinic system
• Orthorhombic system
• Tetragonal system
• Hexagonal system
• Isometric system
Course content
5. Crystal morphology
• Crystal symmetry
• Crystallographic axes
• Form
• Zones
• Crystal habit
6. Measurement of crystal angles

7. Crystal projections
• Spherical projection
• Stereographic projection
Course content
8. X-Ray Crystallography
• X-Ray production
• X-Ray spectra
• X-Ray diffraction & Bragg’s Law
• X-Ray diffractometer
9. Internal Order & Symmetry

• Dimensional orders & Space groups
• Crystal structure
• Polymorphism, polytypism, pseudomorphism
• Crystal twinning
1. Introduction
• Why do we need to know about crystals, and thus minerals?
- Because we are interested to study Geology, i.e. the study of the Earth.
The earth is composed of rocks. Rocks are composed of minerals. Minerals
are composed of crystals.
Crystals form Minerals form Rocks
- Because we depend on them for our daily way of life. Some examples
are metals (from iron to gold) and other nonmetallic industrial minerals
that are used to manufacture usable materials, starting from beverage
cans and cooking utensils to generators, cars, ships, aircrafts, computers,
etc.
1. Introduction
• The beauty of crystals!!
Diamond Emerald Sapphire Ruby

1. Introduction
• Why do we need to know about crystals, and thus minerals?
- In summary, a knowledge of what crystals are, and thus what minerals

are, how they were formed, and where they occur is basic to an
understanding of the materials we need for our daily life and for our
present technologic culture.
- In addition, the knowledge of the chemistry, occurrence and physical

properties of crystals, i.e. minerals, is essential to study the location,
size, origin and ore grade of economic deposits, i.e. economic geology.
1. Introduction
Definition of a mineral
• A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite

(but not generally fixed) chemical composition and a highly ordered
atomic arrangement. It can be formed by organic or inorganic
processes.
- Naturally occurring – it forms by itself in nature. Human made

mineral are referred to as synthetic minerals.
- Homogeneous – a compound that contains the same chemical

composition throughout, and can not be physically separated into
more than one chemical compound.
- Solid – not a gas, liquid, or plasma.

1. Introduction
- Definite chemical composition – a mineral can be expressed by a
chemical formula. Let us take quartz and olivine as an example:
- Quartz has a chemical formula SiO2 and thus, it consists of Si and O

atoms in a ratio of 1:2.
- Olivine is an example of a mineral without a fixed chemical

composition. Since Mg an Fe atoms have equal size and charge, they can
easily substitute for one another in a mineral. Thus, olivine have the
chemical formula Mg2SiO4 or Fe2SiO4 or anything in between. This is
usually expressed with a formula indicating possible substitution –
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4.
Review: Q & A

• What is a Mineral?
• A mineral is:
• a naturally occurring homogeneous solid

• has a definite (but not generally fixed) chemical composition
• a highly ordered atomic arrangement
•
*****
it can be formed by organic or inorganic processes.
• What are the two important differences between a crystalline solid

and an amorphous solid ?
• a naturally occurring homogeneous solid

• has a definite (but not generally fixed) chemical composition
1. Introduction
- Highly ordered atomic arrangement – means that the atoms in a mineral
are arranged in an ordered geometric pattern. This ordered arrangement
of atoms is called a crystal structure. Each mineral has a crystal structure
that will always be found for that mineral, i.e. every crystal of quartz will
have the same internal arrangement of atoms. If the crystal structure is
different, we give the mineral another name.
e.g.
amorphous crystalline
1. Introduction
- A solid compound that meets the other criteria, but without a definite
crystal structure is said to be amorphous (designated as a mineraloid).
They are usually formed under conditions of low temperature and low
pressure and commonly originate during weathering processes. Their
structure has short-range order but lacks long-range order, i.e. their
coordination does not repeat its pattern over more than few angstrom
units.
- Obsidian (Volcanic glass ), Limonite (a hydrous iron silicate),

Allophane (a hydrous aluminium silicate) are some examples,
which are not classified as minerals because they lack an
ordered atomic arrangement.
1. Introduction
- By observing the highly ordered internal arrangement of atoms in a
quartz crystal, Nicolaus Steno discovered in 1969 that crystals of the
same mineral look similar.
Steno’s law of constancy of interfacial angles states that the angles
between corresponding crystal faces of the same mineral are constant,
regardless of their differences in origin, size and habit. This is true even
if the crystals are distorted as illustrated by the cross-section of three
quartz crystals below.
1. Introduction
- Formed by organic or inorganic processes - they can form by precipitation
from inorganic solution (e.g. rock salt – halite - NaCl), or organically
produced by living organisms (e.g. mollusk shells – calcite – CaCO3 or
human bone – apatite - Ca5(PO4) 3(OH).
Definition of a crystal
- A crystal is a homogeneous solid possessing long range, three-
dimensional internal order. It shows symmetry because of the ordered
arrangement of atoms (i.e. crystallinity).
- A perfectly formed crystal also shows a symmetrical arrangement of crystal

faces since the location of the faces is controlled by the arrangement of
atoms in a crystal structure. A crystalline solid with well-developed faces is
euhedral, with imperfectly developed faces is subhedral, without faces is
anhedral.
1. Introduction
- If the crystallinity (i.e. the ordered arrangement of atoms in a crystal
structure) can be determined with the aid of a microscope, the crystal
aggregates are said to be microcrystalline. If the crystallinity can only be
determined using x-ray diffraction techniques, they are referred to as
cryptocrystalline.
- Crystallography is the study of crystalline solids and the principles that

govern their growth, external shape and internal structure. The subject
that relates the external form or morphology of crystals is known as
morphological crystallography.
- Crystallization: the process of formation of crystals from solutions, melts,
and vapors. It is the process of bringing the disordered or randomly
distributed atoms to an ordered arrangement by changing the
temperature, pressure and concentration.
1. Introduction
Examples of Crystallization:
- A salt solution contains dissolved Na+ and Cl- ions. Heating the solution,
i.e. increasing the temperature, leads to evaporation of water leaving the
NaCl crystals to precipitate.
- Crystals can also form by lowering the temperature, for example the
formation of ice crystals from a cooling water. Lowering the pressure of a
saturated solution will also lead to supersaturation and crystals will form.
- Therefore, crystals may form from a solution by:

- by increasing the temperature (evaporation of a solvent )
- by decreasing the temperature
- by decreasing the pressure
- by increasing the concentration (supersaturation)
1. Introduction
- Crystal Growth: the process by which the chemical building blocks
(atoms, ions, or ionic clusters) are incorporated into a well ordered
pattern. The first stage in the formation of a crystal is that of nucleation
(formation of a nucleus or a seed).
- A nucleus is the initial regular structural pattern of a crystalline

solid that forms from a solution. It must grow rapidly to reduce its
surface energy (the ratio of surface area to volume) and thus its
solubility. Otherwise, it will go back into solution.
- High surface area with respect to volume implies that there are
many atoms on the surface of the crystal with unsatisfied chemical
bonding. Such a crystal is more soluble, i.e. has higher solubility.
2. Symmetry
- Symmetry: A crystal shows symmetry because of the ordered internal
arrangement of atoms, i.e. the atoms are arranged in a symmetrical
fashion on a three dimensional network referred to as a lattice.
- A perfectly formed crystal also shows a symmetrical arrangement of
crystal faces since the location of the faces is controlled by the
arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure. Crystal faces are smooth
planar boundaries that make up the surface of the crystal.
e.g.
2. Symmetry
- How to visualize symmetry: The geometrical locus that aids in the
visualization of symmetry is known as symmetry element. Rotation axes,
mirror planes and center of symmetry are examples of symmetry
elements.
- Symmetry operations: an operation that can be performed physically or

imaginatively that results in no change in the appearance of a crystal. The
act of rotation about an axis, the act of reflection about a mirror and the
act of inversion about a central point are collectively referred to as
symmetry operations.
- Symmetry is internal, but it is reflected in the external form of crystals,

and thus we concentrate on external symmetry, because that is what we
observe.
2. Symmetry
- Types of symmetry operations: There are three types of symmetry
operations:
- Rotation
- Reflection
- Inversion
e.g.
2.1. Rotational Symmetry
- Rotational symmetry: If a crystal is rotated about an imaginary axis (an
axis of rotation) at an angle α (an angle of rotation) and repeats itself
once or several times during a complete rotation (360°), then it is said to
have a rotational symmetry. Since the original image and those generated
by rotation are identical, they are said to congruent.
- Only five types of rotational symmetry are possible in internally ordered
crystals. These are:
1-fold rotational symmetry (α = 360°)
2-fold rotational symmetry (α = 360°/180°= 2)
3-fold rotational symmetry (α = 360°/120° = 3)
 Infinite number of rotational symmetry is not possible in internally ordered crystals.

- 1-fold rotation axis (A1): a crystal that needs a full 360° rotation to repeat
itself or to restore its original appearance. The point where the 1-fold
rotation axis intersects the crystal is represented by a filled circle
( ).
Rotate Rotate
360° 360°
e.g.
1 1 1
1
- 2-fold rotation axis (A2): a crystal appears identical after a 180° rotation,
i.e. twice in a 360° rotation (α = 360°/180°= 2). The point where the 2-
fold rotation axis intersects the crystal is represented by a filled oval
shape ( ).
Rotate Rotate
e.g. 180° 180°
2 2 2
Other examples
- 3-fold rotation axis (A3): a crystal that appears identical after a 120°
rotation, i.e. three times in a 360° rotation (α = 360°/120°= 3). The point
where the 3-fold rotation axis intersects the crystal is represented by a
filled triangle ( ).
Rotate Rotate Rotate

120° 120° 120°
e.g. 3 3 3 3
i.e. four times in a 360° rotation (α = 360°/90°= 4). The point where the 4-
fold rotation axis intersects the crystal is represented by a filled square (
).
e.g.
Rotate Rotate Rotate Rotate
90° 90° 90° 90°
4 4 4 4 4
that is six times in a 360° rotation (α = 360°/60°= 6). The point where the
6-fold rotation axis intersects the crystal is represented by a filled
hexagon ( ).
Rotate Rotate Rotate Rotate Rotate Rotate
e.g. 60° 60° 60° 60° 60° 60°
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
- These symbols are standard symbols and will be used for axes of
rotational symmetry throughout the lectures and in your text.
1 2 3 4 6
A1 A2 A3 A4 A6
- Infinite number of rotational symmetry is not possible in internally ordered
crystals. Although objects themselves may appear to have a 5-fold, 7-fold, 8
fold or higher-fold rotation axis these are not possible in crystals. Why is that
not possible ???
infinite-fold 8-fold 5-fold

e.g.
- The reason is that the external shape of a crystal is controlled by the

internally ordered geometric arrangement of atoms, which will not allow any
empty space between them. If we try to combine infinite-fold, 5-fold or 8-
fold apparent symmetry, they can not be combined in such a way that they
completely fill the space between them.
2.2. Mirror Symmetry
- A mirror symmetry operation is an imaginary operation that can
be performed to reproduce an object. In this operation, imagine
you cut the object in half, then place a mirror next to one of the
halves of the object along the cut. If the reflection in the mirror
reproduces the other half of the object, then the object is said to
have mirror symmetry.
- Since the reflected image has the opposite handedness of the

original, they are referred to as enantiomorphic pair.
- The plane of the mirror is an element of symmetry referred to as a

mirror plane, and is symbolized with the letter m.
e.g. Equidimensional triangle has 3 mirror planes = 3m
m m m
m m m
e.g. A rectangle has 2 mirror planes = 2m
m m
m
e.g. A square has 4 mirror planes = 4m
m m m
m m m
m m m m
e.g. A hexagon 6 mirror planes = 6m

m m
m
m m
m
m m m
- Not that a rectangle does not have mirror symmetry along the diagonal
lines. If we cut the rectangle along a diagonal with a mirror, such as that
labeled “M”, the reflected upper half is a mirror image but not
symmetric with the lower diagram. Since this does not reproduce the
original rectangle, the line “M” does not represent a mirror plane.
not mirror image

mirror image
e.g. but not
M mirror symmetry
2.3. Center of Symmetry
- Inversion is another symmetry operation that produces an inverted object
through an inversion center. In this operation, lines are drawn from all points on
the object through a point in the center of the object, called a symmetry center
(symbolized with the letter “i”). Each lines have lengths that are equidistant
from the original points. When the ends of the lines are connected, the original
object is reproduced or 'recreated', i.e. inverted from its original appearance.
e.g.
e.g. i
- In the diagram shown here, only a few such lines are drawn for the small
triangular face.
2.3. Center of Symmetry
- An example of an inverted object through an inversion center. The right
side shows the object without the imaginary lines that reproduced the
object.
-1
1
e.g.
i ii

2.4. Combinations of symmetry operations
- In addition to the symmetrical order generated by the three symmetry

operations, i.e. rotation, reflection and inversion, crystals may possess a
combination of two kinds of symmetry elements that will operate on
each other to produce other symmetry elements, referred to as
combinations of symmetry operations.
- In combinations of symmetry operations, symmetry axes must be put in

symmetrically consistent ways, such that an infinite set of axes is not
generated. Furthermore, all symmetry operators must intersect at a
single point.
2.4. Combinations of symmetry operations
- There are three kinds of combinations of symmetry operations:
1. combinations of rotation with inversion (rotoinversion)

2. combinations of rotation axes
3. combinations of rotation axes with a mirror
- In crystals, symmetry elements may be present in several different

combinations. There are 32 possible combinations of symmetry elements
that define the 32 crystal classes. Every crystal must belong to one of
these 32 crystal classes.
2.4.1. Rotoinversion
- Rotoinversion operation is the symmetrical order generated by
combining the five rotation axes (i.e. 1-fold, 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold and 6-
fold rotation axes) with inversion. Crystals that have rotoinversion
symmetry have an element of symmetry called rotoinversion axis. There
are five types of rotoinversion axes:
- 1-fold rotoinversion: a crystal is rotated a full 360° about an axis to

repeat itself and then inverted through a center. Such an axis is called 1-
fold rotoinversion axis and has a symbol 1 (read: bar 1). This
combination will produce the same result as if an object has only a center
of symmetry. Therefore, a 1- fold rotoinversion operation is also referred
to as a center of symmetry. 
- An example of a 1-fold rotoinversion axis, which is also referred to as a
center of symmetry.
-1
1
i
ii
1


- Note that crystals that have a center of symmetry will exhibit the
property that if you place it on a table there will be a face on the top of
the crystal that will be parallel to the surface of the table and identical to
the face resting on the table.
- 2-fold rotoinversion: involves first rotating the object by 1800 then
inverting it through an inversion center. This operation is equivalent to
having a mirror plane perpendicular to the 2-fold rotoinversion axis. A 2-
fold rotoinversion axis is symbolized as a 2 with a bar over the top ( 2 ),
and would be pronounced as “bar 2”. But, since this is the equivalent of a
mirror plane “m”, the bar 2 is rarely used.

e.g.
- 3-fold rotoinversion: involves rotating the object by 1200 (360/3 = 120),
and inverting through a center. A 3-fold rotoinversion axis is denoted as
3 (pronounced “bar 3”).
- A cube is a good example of an object that possesses 3-fold rotoinversion
axis. Note that there are actually four 3-fold rotoinversion axes in a cube,
one running through each of the corners of the cube. If one holds one of
the 3axes vertical, then note that there are 3 faces on top, and 3 identical
faces upside down on the bottom that are offset from the top faces by
1200.
e.g.
- 4-fold rotoinversion: involves rotation of the object by 900 then
inverting through a center. A 4-fold rotoinversion axis is symbolized
as 4 (pronounced “bar 4”). Note that an object possessing a 4-
fold rotoinversion axis will have two faces on top and two identical
faces upside down on the bottom, if the 4-bar axis is held in the
vertical position.
e.g.
- 6-fold rotoinversion: involves rotating the object by 600 and
inverting through a center. A 6-fold rotoinversion axis is symbolized
as 6 (pronounced “bar 6”). Note that this operation is identical to
having the combination of a 3-fold rotation axis perpendicular to a
mirror plane.
e.g.
Rotation & Rotoinversion: a review
- Operation of rotational symmetry: standard graphic illustration of
rotation axes and symbols in an equatorial plane.
• Operation of rotoinversion symmetry: standard graphic illustration of
1-fold rotoinversion axis using the globe and projection on an
equatorial plane.
• Operation of rotoinversion symmetry: standard graphic illustration of
a 2-fold rotoinversion axis using the globe and projection on
an equatorial plane.
• Operation of rotoinversion symmetry: standard graphic illustration of 3-
fold rotoinversion axis using the globe and projection on an equatorial
plane.
plane.
plane.
2.4.2. Combinations of Rotations
- Combinations of Rotations: involve generating regular three-
dimensional patterns by combining the various axes of rotation. As
indicated above, symmetry axes must be put in symmetrically
consistent ways.
- In this example, we combine a 2-fold and 4-fold rotation axes. Note that
this crystal has rectangular-shaped sides with a square-shaped top and
bottom. The square-shaped top indicates that there must be a 4-fold
rotation axis perpendicular to the square shaped face.
e.g.
2.4.2. Combinations of Rotations
- Also note that the rectangular shaped faces on the sides of the crystal
must have two 2-fold rotation axes that intersects them. Note that the
two 2-fold axes run through the crystal faces and are perpendicular to
the faces. The square-shaped top of the crystal also suggests that there
must be two 2-fold axes that cuts diagonally through the crystal.
- Thus, this crystal has the following symmetry elements - 1A4, 4A2
2.4.3. Combinations of Rotation Axes and Mirrors
- Furthermore, the square-shaped top and the rectangular-shaped sides of the

crystal suggest that there are 5 planes of symmetry as shown in the diagrams
here. Note also that there is a center of symmetry “i”
- Thus, the symmetry content of this crystal is as follows:

1A4, 4A2 ,, 5m and i
3. External Symmetry of Crystals
- We have said that a crystal shows symmetry because of the ordered internal
arrangement of atoms, i.e. the atoms are arranged in a symmetrical fashion on
a three dimensional network referred to as a lattice. In other words, a lattice is
a periodic array of points (i.e. motifs) in space. This symmetry is internal !!
- A perfectly formed crystal also shows a symmetrical arrangement of crystal

faces because the location of the faces is controlled by the internal
arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure. This symmetrical arrangement of
crystal faces is known as external symmetry.
- There are 32 possible combinations of symmetry elements that define the 32

crystal classes. These are often also referred to as the 32 point groups. Every
crystal must belong to one of these 32 crystal classes.
- Each of these 32 crystal classes or point groups is uniquely defined by its

Hermann-Mauguin notation (also referred to as international symbols).
- How to derive the Hermann-Mauguin symbols that are used to

describe the crystal classes from their symmetry content?
- Let us start with a simple crystal, i.e. the rectangular block shown
here.
3A2, 3m, and i.
- The symmetry content of this crystal will be ........

- The rules for deriving the Hermann-Mauguin symbol are as follows:

1. Write a number representing each of the unique rotation axes present.
A unique rotation axis is one that exists by itself and is not produced by
another symmetry operation. In this case, all three 2-fold axes are
unique, because each is perpendicular to a different shaped face, so we
write a A2 for each 2-fold axis.
2 2 2
2. Next we write an "m" for each unique mirror plane. Again, a

unique mirror plane is one that is not produced by any other
symmetry operation. In this example, we can tell that each mirror is
unique because each one cuts a different looking face. So, we write:
2m 2m 2m
3. If any of the axes are perpendicular to a mirror plane we put a

slash ( / ) between the symbol for the axis and the symbol for the
mirror plane. In this case, each of the 2-fold axes are perpendicular
to mirror planes, so our symbol becomes:
2/m 2/m 2/m

Rhombic-dipyramidal class.
• Our second example involves the block shown here to the right. This
model has one 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes. So we write: 2 for the 2-
fold axis.
- Each of the mirror planes is unique because each one cuts a different
looking face. So, we write 2 "m"s, one for each mirror plane: Note that the
2-fold axis is not perpendicular
Why?to a mirror plane, so we need no slashes.
2 m m or (mm2)
Rhombic-pyramidal class.
• The third example is shown here to the right. It contains:
1A4, 4A2 ,, 5m and i
- Which is unique and not unique? unique not unique
1A4 , 2A2, 3m 2A2, 2m
Do we need no slashes? yes
4 2 2
4m2m2m
4/m2/m2/m
Ditetragonal-dipyramidal class.
• Our last example is the most complex one. It contains:
3A4, 6A2 ,, 4Ā3, 9m and i
- Do we need no slashes? yes
Ā3 A4 Ā3
A2
A2 m
m Ā3 4 3 2
m
Ā3 A2
m
4 m3 2 m
m
m m
m
m
m A4
A2 4/m 3 2/m
A4
A2 Hexoctahedral crystal class
A2
• This is the final result
4 3 2
4 m3 2 m
4/m 3 2/m
Hexoctahedral crystal class
• Standard graphic representations or symbols for symmetry elements.
Symmetry Standard Graphical

Symmetry element
element symbols symbols
1-fold rotation axis A1 or A1 1 or 1 or

or rotoinversion axis
2-fold A2 or A2 2 or 2 or
mirror m m none
Review: Q & A
• Standard graphic representations or symbols for symmetry elements.
Exercise
• Identify the symmetry content and derive the Hermann-Mauguin
notation for the two crystal models.
Top square Top hexagon
A4 A6
m m
m
m
m
m
m
m
1A6, 6A2 ,, 7m
m
A2
m
m
and i
m
A2 A2 6/m 2/m 2/m
A2 A2
1A4, 4A2 ,, 5m and i

4/m 2/m 2/m Note that in both models, the sides are rectangles!!
4. Crystal Classes & Crystal Systems
• The 32 crystal classes (or point groups) represent the 32 possible
combinations of symmetry operations. Each crystal class will have crystal
faces that uniquely define the symmetry of the class. These faces, or
groups of faces are called crystal forms.
The 32 crystal classes are divided into 6 crystal systems
Crystal System Crystal Class Symmetry Name of Class
1 none Pedial
Triclinic
1 i Pinacoidal
2 1A2 Sphenoidal
Monoclinic m ( =2 ) 1m Domatic
2/m i, 1A2, 1m Prismatic
222 3A2 Rhombic-disphenoidal
Orthorhombic mm2 (2mm) 1A2, 2m Rhombic-pyramidal
2/m2/m2/m i, 3A2, 3m Rhombic-dipyramidal

4 1A4 Tetragonal- Pyramidal
4 1A4 Tetragonal-disphenoidal
4/m i, 1A4, 1m Tetragonal-dipyramidal
Tetragonal 422 1A4, 4A2 Tetragonal-trapezohedral
4mm 1A4, 4m Ditetragonal-pyramidal
42m 1A4, 2A2, 2m Tetragonal-scalenohedral
4/m2/m2/m i, 1A4, 4A2, 5m Ditetragonal-dipyramidal

3 1A3 Trigonal-dipyramidal
3 1A3 Rhombohedral
32 1A3, 3A2 Trigonal-trapezohedral
3m 1A3, 3m Ditrigonal-pyramidal
32/m 1A3, 3A2, 3m Hexagonal-scalenohedral
6 1A6 Hexagonal-pyramidal
Hexagonal 1A6
6 Trigonal-dipyramidal
6/m i, 1A6, 1m Hexagonal-dipyramidal
622 1A6, 6A2 Hexagonal-trapezohedral
6mm 1A6, 6m Dihexagonal-pyramidal
6m2 1A6, 3A2, 3m Ditrigonal-dipyramidal
6/m2/m2/m i, 1A6, 6A2, 7m Dihexagonal-dipyramidal

23 3A2, 4A3 Tetaroidal
2/m3 3A2, 3m, 4A3 Diploidal
Isometric 432 3A4, 4A3, 6A2 Gyroidal
43m 3A4, 4A3, 6m Hextetrahedral
4/m32/m 3A4, 4A3, 6A2, 9m Hexoctahedral
1. Triclinic System
• The Triclinic System is characterized by only 1-fold rotation axis or 1-

fold rotoinversion axis. It contains two crystal classes: Pedial and
Pinacoidal.
• Pedial Class: since it has only 1-fold rotation axis, this class is said to
have no symmetry, so all crystal faces are unique and are not related to
each other by symmetry. Such faces are called pedions (also called
monohedron). Only a few rare minerals are in this class.
A1
• Pinacoidal Class: has only a center of symmetry (i), and pairs of faces
are related to each other through the center. Such faces are called
pinacoids (also called parallelohedron). Among the common minerals
with pinacoidal crystals are: microcline (K-feldspar), plagioclase, and
wollastonite.
2. Monoclinic System
• Monoclinic System is characterized by having only a single mirror plane

or a single 2-fold axis. It contains three crystal classes: Sphenoidal,
Domatic and Prismatic.
• Sphenoidal Class: has a single 2-fold rotation axis (2). Faces related by
a 2-fold axis are called sphenoids. Only rare minerals belong to this class.
• Domatic Class: has a single mirror plane (m = 2). Faces related by a

mirror plane are called domes. Only 2 rare minerals crystallize in this
class. These are clinohedrite and hilgardite.
• Prismatic Class: has a single 2-fold axis perpendicular to a single mirror

plane (2/m). It has both pinacoid faces and prism faces. The most common
minerals that occur in the prismatic class are the micas (biotite and
muscovite), azurite, chlorite, clinopyroxenes, epidote, gypsum, malachite,
kaolinite, orthoclase, and talc.
3. Orthorhombic System
• Orthorhombic System: is characterized by having only 3 two fold axes
or a 2-fold axis and 2 mirror planes. Rhombic–disphenoidal, Rhombic-
pyramidal , Rhombic-dipyramidal.
• Rhombic-disphenoidal Class: this class has 3 2-fold axes and no

mirror planes. The 2-fold axes are all perpendicular to each other (222).
The disphenoid faces that define this group consist of 2 faces on top of the
crystal and 2 faces on the bottom of the crystal that are offset from each
other by 90o. Epsomite is the most common rare mineral of this class.
• Rhombic-pyramidal Class: this class has 2 perpendicular mirror planes
and a single 2-fold rotation axis. Because it has no center of symmetry,
the faces on the top of the crystal do not occur on the bottom. A pyramid,
is a set of 3 or more identical faces that intersect at a point. In the case of
the rhombic pyramid, these would be 4 identical faces, labeled p, in the
diagram
• Hemimorphite is the most
common mineral with this
symmetry.
• Rhombic-dipyramidal Class: this class has 3 perpendicular 2-fold axes
that are perpendicular to 3 mirror planes. The dipyramid faces consist of
4 identical faces on top and 4 identical faces on the bottom that are
related to each other by reflection across the horizontal mirror plane or by
rotation about the horizontal 2-fold axes.
The most common minerals
in this class are:
- andalusite - cordierite
- anthophyllite - olivine
- aragonite - sillimanite
- sulfur - stibnite
- barite - topaz
4. Tetragonal System
Tetragonal System: is characterized by a single 4-fold or 4-fold
rotoinversion axis. It contains seven classes: Tetragonal-pyramidal, Tetragonal-
dipyramidal, Tetragonal-disphenoidal, Tetragonal-scalenohedral, Tetragonal-
trapezohedral, Ditetragonal-pyramidal and Ditetragonal-dipyramidal.
• Tetragonal-pyramidal Class: this class has a single 4-fold axis (4) and
no mirror planes, there are no pyramid faces on the bottom of the crystal.
Wulfinite is the only mineral known to crystallize in this class.
• Tetragonal-disphenoidal Class: with only a single 4-fold rotoinversion

axis, the disphenoid faces consist of two identical faces on top, and two
identical faces on the bottom, offset by 90o. Note that there are no mirror
planes in this class. Only one rare mineral is known to form crystals of this
class.
• Tetragonal-dipyramidal Class: this class has a single 4-fold axis

perpendicular to a mirror plane (4/m). This results in 4 pyramid faces on
top that are reflected across the mirror plane to form 4 identical faces on
the bottom of the crystal. Scheelite and scapolite are the only common
minerals in this class.
• Tetragonal-trapezohedral Class: this class has a single 4-fold axis

perpendicular to 4 2-fold axes (422). There are no mirror planes. Only
one rare mineral belongs to this class.
• Ditetragonal pyramidal Class: this class has a single 4-fold axis and 4
mirror planes (4mm). The mirror planes are not shown in the diagram, but
would cut through the edges and center of the faces shown. Note that the
ditetragonal pyramid is a set of 8 faces that form a pyramid on the top of
the crystal. Only one rare mineral forms in the crystal class.
• Ditetragonal-scalenohedral Class: this class has a 4-fold rotoinversion

axis that is perpendicular to 2 2-fold rotation axes. The 2 mirror planes are
parallel to the and are at 45o to the 2-fold axes. Chalcopyrite and stannite
are the only common minerals with crystals in this class.
• Ditetragonal-dipyramidal Class: this class has a single 4-fold axis that
is perpendicular to 4 2-fold axes (4/m2/m2/m). All of the 2-fold axes are
perpendicular to mirror planes. Another mirror plane is perpendicular to
the 4-fold axis. The mirror planes are not shown in the diagram, but would
cut through all of the vertical edges and through the center of the pyramid
faces. The fifth mirror plane is the horizontal plane. Note the ditetragonal-
dipyramid consists of the 8 pyramid faces on the top and the 8 pyramid
faces on the bottom.
• Common minerals are
- anatase,
- cassiterite,
- apophyllite,
- zircon, and
- vesuvianite
Review: Q & A
• What is a crystal class (or a point group)?

• A class is a definite crystal form (i.e. groups of faces) that can be
identified by its unique symmetry content as expressed by its
Hermann-Mauguin Notation.
• How is the name of a crystal class derived?
• The name is derived from the general form of the crystal. For example,
a crystal with pedion faces is given a name - Pedial Class, a crystal with
pinacoid faces is the Pinacoidal Class, …
• How many crystal classes or point groups do exist? 32
• What do the 32 crystal classes or point groups represent?
• The 32 crystal classes (or point groups): represent the 32 possible
combinations of symmetry operations. Each crystal class will have crystal
faces that uniquely define the symmetry of the class. These faces, or groups
of faces are called crystal forms.
Review: Q & A
• In how many groups are the 32 crystal classes classified and how are
they called?
• 6 groups; they are called the 6 crystal systems.

• What are the names of the 6 crystal systems?
• Triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, hexagonal and

isometric systems.
• What is the basis for classifying the 32 crystal classes into 6 crystal
systems?
• They are classified on the basis of their lattice symmetry, i.e.

according to the common symmetry characteristics. This means, the
pedial class and the pinacoidal class are grouped to the triclinic
system because both of them have a triclinic lattice.
5. Crystal Morphology
• What is a crystal morphology?

• A crystal morphology is the external form of crystals that is defined by
the size, shape and angular relationships of crystal faces.
• As crystals are formed by the 3D repetition of a unit of structure or (a
unit cell or a nucleus), the shape of crystal faces depend on the shape
of the unit cell.
- For example, a repetition in 3D of a cubic unit cell may produce
different shapes, such as a perfect cube, a distorted cube,
octahedron and dodecahedron.
• The steps in the faces are too small (on the angstrom level) and are
invisible to the eye. Thus the faces appear as a smooth, plane
5. Crystal Morphology
• In this chapter, we will study:
1. Crystal Symmetry (translational symmetry)

2. Crystallographic Axes
3. Crystal Forms
4. Zones
Crystal Symmetry (translational symmetry)
• We have 5. Crystal
studied habit free symmetry of crystals, i.e. rotation,
translation
reflection, inversion and rotoinversion.
• The arrangement of atoms in crystals is called a lattice. There are two types
of crystal lattice: a plane lattice and a space lattice.
• A plane lattice: is consists of an orderly array of points in a 2-dimensional

plane.
• A space lattice: consists of an orderly array of points in a 3-dimensional
space.
5.1. Crystal Symmetry (translational symmetry)
• Crystals, of course, are made up of 3-dimensional arrays of atoms. For

now, however, we will continue to look a plane lattices because
everything that applies to plane lattice also applies to space lattices.
• In a plane lattice, the array is defined by the spacing between points and
the directions (or angles) between the points. Thus, the array can be
reproduced by specifying the distance and angle to move from point
to point. This is referred to as translational symmetry.
e.g. If
e.g. thewearray
changeis reproduced
the direction by and
moving
the
to the the
angle, rightsymmetry
a distance willa also
and change.
moving
down a distance
The angle between b. The
the angle between
two directions
the two directions
of translation in thisofcase
translation
is ≠ 90°.in this
case is 90°.
• There are four important Principles about crystal lattices that are
noteworthy for our study of crystal morphology:
1. Bravais Law: Crystal faces develop along planes defined by the points in
the lattice. In other words, all crystal faces must intersect atoms or
molecules that make up the points. A face is more commonly developed
in a crystal if it intersects a larger number of lattice points.
• For example, in this plane lattice,

faces will be more common if they
develop along the lattice planes
labeled 1 and 2, and less and less
common if they develop along
planes labeled 3, 4, and 5.
1. The angle between crystal faces is controlled by the spacing between

lattice points. The angles between faces are measured as the angle between
the normals (lines perpendicular) to the faces. Changing the lattice spacing
changes the angular relationship.
• For example, the angle θ

between the face that runs
diagonally across the lattice and
the horizontal face will depend on
the spacing between the lattice
points
• The lattice shown here has the same
horizontal spacing between lattice
points, but a smaller vertical spacing.
Note that the angle φ become
smaller than in the previous example.
3. Since all crystals of the same substance will have the same spacing
between lattice points (i.e. the same crystal structure), the angles between
corresponding faces of the same mineral will be the same. This is known as
the Law of constancy of interfacial angles, as discussed previously.
4. The symmetry of the lattice will determine the angular relationships

between crystal faces. Thus, in where the lengths of the edges or symmetry
related faces are not equal, the symmetry can still be determined by the
angles between the faces.
• perfect crystal with symmetrically • imperfect or distorted crystal faces,

related faces. but the angle between faces is equal.
5.2. Crystallographic Axes
• In order to know which faces on different crystals are the corresponding
faces, we need some kind of standard coordinate system onto which we can
orient the crystals and thus be able to refer to different directions and
different planes within the crystals. Such a coordinate system is based on the
concept of the crystallographic axes.
• Crystallographic Axes: are imaginary lines that we can draw within the
lattice to define a coordinate system within the crystal. For 3-dimensional
space lattices we need 3 or 4 crystallographic axes that define directions
within the crystal lattices.
• They are generally taken parallel to the intersection edges of the major
crystal faces, i.e. they coincide with symmetry axes or normals to symmetry
planes.
• Depending on the symmetry of the lattice, the directions may or may not be
perpendicular to one another, and the divisions along the coordinate axes
may or may not be equal along the axes.
• Crystallographic Axes: are conventional designations with some rules.
Rule 1. All crystal classes, except the hexagonal system, are referred to 3
crystallographic axes. The hexagonal system has 4 axes.
Rule 2. The ends of each axis are designated as plus or minus; the front end
of a, the right hand end of b and the upper end of c are positive.
The opposite ends are negative.
Rule 3. The angles between the positive ends of the axes are designated by
the Greek letters as α, β and γ. The α angle is enclosed between b
and c; the β angle between a and c; and the γ angle between a and
b.
Rule 4. Each crystal system has different conventions that define the
orientation of the axes, and the relative lengths of the axes.
+c
1. Triclinic System: has three -b
unequal axes, all intersecting at -a
β α
oblique angles
a ≠ b ≠ c ɣ
+a
+b
α ≠ β ≠ ɣ
-c
+c
-a
2. Monoclinic System: β
-b +b
a ≠ b ≠ c
α = ɣ = 90° ; β > 90°
+a
+c
+c
3. Orthorhombic System: +a
a ≠ b ≠ c -b +b
α = β = ɣ = 90°
-a
+c
+c
- a1
4. Tetragonal System:
+ a2
- a2
a = b ≠ c; a = a1 & b = a2
α = β = ɣ = 90° + a1
-c
+c
+ a3 - a1
5. Hexagonal System: + a3 - a1
a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c - a2 + a2
- a2 + a2 120°
α = β = 90° ; ɣ = 120°
+a1 - a3 +a1 - a3
-c
+ a3
- a1
6. Isometric System: - a2 + a2
a1 = a2 = a3
α = β = ɣ = 90° + a1
- a3
Unit Cells
• The Unit Cell: is the basic building blocks of the crystal, and the entire
crystal is made up of repeatedly translated unit cells. The "axial lengths"
and the “angles between the axes” are defined on the basis of the unit
cell.
• Defining a unit cell: in defining a unit cell for a crystal the choice is
somewhat arbitrary, but the best choice is one where:
1. The edges of the unit cell should
coincide with the symmetry of the
lattice.
2. The edges of the unit cell should
be related by the symmetry of the
lattice.
3. The smallest possible cell that
contains all elements should be
chosen. • d is the best choice !!
Exercise: Unit Cell
• Defining a unit cell: in defining a unit cell for a crystal the choice is
somewhat arbitrary, but the best choice is one where:
1. The edges of the unit
cell should coincide with
the symmetry of the
lattice. b
a
2. The edges of the unit d d
cell should be related by
the symmetry of the d d
lattice. e ec e e e
d
3. The smallest possible
cell that contains all e e e e e
elements should be
chosen. • d & e are the possible choices, but e is the
best choice !!
Review: Q & A
Unit Cells
• Once we have chosen Why?? • then we can oriente it

a unit cell for the crystal on the crystallographic axes
Why??
• This will allow us to • to define the "axial lengths" and

define directions within the “angles between the axes”
the crystal Why??
Why??
• because many properties of • These properties are called

crystals depend on direction vectorial properties.
 We'll discuss these in a later lecture !!

Review: Q & A
Unit Cells
• Another important point is that the relative lengths of the
crystallographic axes, or unit cell edges, can be determined from
measurements of the angles between crystal faces. Therefore, "axial
lengths" and the “angles between the axes”; and also “the shape” of the
unit cell are interdependent.
• Two important points to remember are:
1. The lengths of the
crystallographic axes
• the dimensions of the unit
are controlled by cell upon which the crystal is
based.
2. The angles between the

crystallographic axes are • the shape of the unit cell
upon which the crystal is
controlled by
based.
 Now, let’s consider measurements of axial lengths, and develop a
system to define directions and label crystal faces !!
Review: Q & A
• We noted that the relative lengths of the crystallographic axes
control the angular relationships between crystal faces. This is true
because crystal faces can only develop along lattice points.
• The relative lengths of the crystallographic axes are called axial

ratios.
• They are normally taken as relative to the length of the “b axis”.
Thus, an axial ratio is defined as:
where a, b and c are the

Axial ratio = a/b : b/b : c/b actual lengths of the three
crystallographic axis,
 Now, let’s define the axial ratio for each crystal system !!
Review: Q & A
 Now, let’s define the axial ratio for each crystal system !!
For Triclinic, Monoclinic, and Orthorhombic crystals,
the lengths of the Axial ratio = a/b : b/b : c/b

three axes are different
= a/b : 1 : c/b
a ≠ b ≠ c
usually shortened as: a : 1 : c
For Tetragonal crystals,
the lengths of the Axial ratio = b/b : b/b : c/b

a and b are equal
= 1 : 1 : c/b
a = b ≠ c
usually shortened as: 1:c
Review: Q & A
For Hexagonal crystals,
the lengths of the Axial ratio = a1 /b : a2 /b : a3 /b : c/b

three axes are different
= 1 :1 : 1 : c/b
a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c
usually shortened as: 1 : c
For Isometric crystals,
the lengths of the Axial ratio = a1 /b : a2 /b : a3 /b

three axes are equal
= 1:1:1
a1 = a2 = a3
usually shortened as: 1
 Now, let’s see some examples of how to calculate the axial ratios!!
Review: Q & A
• The absolute value of the crystallographic axes and the size of the
unit cell can be determined using x-rays.
For example, the mineral quartz is hexagonal, with the following
unit cell dimensions as determined by x-ray crystallography:
a1 = a2 = a3 = 4.913 Å ; c = 5.405 Å
where Å stands for Angstrom = 10-10 meter
Axial ratio = a1 /b : a2 /b : a3 /b : c/b

= 4.913 / 4.913 : 4.913 / 4.913 : 4.913 / 4.913 : 5.405/ 4.913
= 1 : 1 : 1 : 1.1001 usually shortened as: 1 : 1.1001
this means simply:
the c-axis is 1.001 times longer than the a-axes.
Review: Q & A
• Exercise:
For Orthorhombic Sulfur (a≠b≠c), the unit cell dimensions as measured by
x-rays are: a = 10 Å b = 12 Å c = 24 Å Determine the axial ratio.
Axialratio
Axial ratio == aa/b
/b :: bb/b
/b :: c/b
c/b
= 10 / 12 : 12 / 12 : 24 / 12
= 5/6 : 1 : 2
this means simply:
the a-axis is 0.833 times shorter and the c-axis 2
times longer than the b-axes.
 In a later lecture we will see how we can determine axial ratios from the
angular relationships between faces. First, however we must determine
how we can name, or index faces of crystals and define directions within
5.2. Crystallographic Axes – Face Intercepts
• Face Intercepts (also known as Weiss Perameters): are used to
define the position of crystal faces by indicating their intercepts on
crystallographic axes. This means, describing a crystal face by
determining whether it is parallel to one or more axes or it intersects
one or more axes. If it intersects, then we must determine the relative
distance the face intersects the different axes.
• This is important because crystal faces usually develop along lattice
planes (planes with high density of lattice points).
• For non-hexagonal crystals, there are three possible cases.
1. A crystal face intersects only one of the crystallographic axis.

e.g. The top crystal face shown here intersects the c axis but does not
intersect the a or b axes. If we assume that the face intercepts the c axis at
a distance of 1 unit length, then the intercepts, sometimes called Weiss
Parameters, are:
∞a, ∞b, 1c
2. A crystal face intersects two of

the crystallographic axes.
e.g. The darker crystal face shown
here intersects the a and b axes,
but not the c axis,
the parameters for this face are:
1a, 1b, ∞c
2. A crystal face intersects all the

three crystallographic axes.
e.g. The darker crystal face shown
here intersects all three axes,
at 1 unit length,
the parameters for this face are:
1a, 1b, 1c
5.2. Face Intercepts – Defining a unit face
• Two very important points about intercepts of faces:
1. The intercepts or parameters are relative values, and do not indicate
any actual cutting lengths.
2. Since they are relative, a face can be moved parallel to itself without
changing its relative intercepts or parameters.
• Because one does usually not know the dimensions of the unit cell, it
is difficult to know what number to give the intercept of a face, unless
one face is chosen arbitrarily to have intercepts of 1.
• Thus, their is a convention to assign the largest face that intersects all
3 crystallographic axes the parameters - 1a, 1b, 1c. This face is called
the unit face.
• Define a unit face and give it 1... that means 1a, 1b, 1c....then
determine the face intercepts of the other faces relative to the unit
face !!
• Let’s see examples !
• For example, in the orthorhombic crystal shown here, the large dark
shaded face is the largest face that intersects all 3 crystallographic
axes. It is the unit face, and is therefore assigned the parameters 1a,
1b, 1c.
+c
1c
1b
1a
• For example, in the orthorhombic crystal shown here, the large dark
shaded face is the largest face that intersects all 3 crystallographic
axes. It is the unit face, and is therefore assigned the parameters 1a,
1b, 1c. +c
1c
⅔c
1a 1b 2b
2a
• The intercepts of the smaller face can

be determined. These are 2a, 2b, 2/3c.
Divide by factor 2, resulting in
1a,1b,1/3c. Then the Miller index is
Exercise: Determine the intercepts of the smaller faces marked red ??
These are 2a, 2b, 2/3c. Divide by factor 2, resulting in 1a,1b,1/3c.

+c
1c
d 1a,1b,1/3c
⅔c
e f
n
h g
1a 1b 2b
z
2a
y x
k i
Face
Faceh
gfei kd 2a,
1a,
1a,
2a,2b,
1b,
1b,
-1b,
-2b,-2/3c.
1c.
-1c.
-2/3c.
2/3c.
1c.
-1c.
Divide
Divideby byfactor
factor22 1a,
1a,-1b,1/3c.
1a,-1b,-1/3c.
1b, -1/3c.
5.2. Crystallographic Axes – Miller Indices
• By specifying the intercepts or parameters of a crystal face, we now
have a way to uniquely identify each face of a crystal. But, the notation is
cumbersome, so crystallographers have developed another way of
identifying or indexing faces.
• The other universally employed conventional notation is called the
Miller Index.
• Miller Indeces of a face consist of a series of whole numbers that

have been derived from the intercepts by their inversions, and, if
necessary, the subsequent clearing of fractions. Thus, the Miller Index
for a crystal face is found by
1. determining the parameters
2. inverting the parameters, and
3. clearing the fractions.
• The Miller Index for a crystal face is found by:
1. determining the parameters
2. inverting the parameters, and
3. clearing the fractions.
For example, if the face has the parameters 1 a, 1 b, ∞ c

- inverting the parameters would be 1/1, 1/1, 1/ ∞
- this would become 1, 1, 0
• The Miller Index is written inside parentheses with no commas -
(110)
• Let's look at the crystal shown here.
• The face [labeled (111)] that cuts all three axes at 1 unit length has the
parameters 1a, 1b, 1c
Inverting these, results in 1/1, 1/1, 1/1
to give the Miller Index (111)
• The face that cuts the positive a axis,

has the parameters 1 a, ∞ b, ∞ c
Inverting these becomes 1/1, 1/∞, 1/∞
• The face on the back of the crystal that

cuts the negative a axis has
the parameters -1a, ∞ b, ∞ c.
So its Miller Index is (111)
• Let's look at the crystal shown here.
• The face labeled (111) that cuts all three axes at 1 unit length has the
parameters 1a, 1b, 1c
Inverting these, results in 1/1, 1/1, 1/1
• The face that cuts the positive a axis, has

the parameters 1 a, ∞ b, ∞ c
Inverting these becomes 1/1, 1/∞, 1/∞
to give the Miller Index (100).
• The face on the back of the crystal that

cuts the negative a axis has
the parameters -1a, ∞ b, ∞ c.
So its Miller Index is (111).
• To refer to a general face that intersects all three crystallographic axes
where the parameters are not known, we use the notation (hkl).
• For example, for a face that intersects

the b and c axes with general or unknown
intercepts, the notation would be (0kl)
• for a face intersecting the a and c axis,

but
parallel to b the notation would be (h0l)
• a face intersecting the a and b axes,
but parallel to c, the notation is (hk0)
• This Miller Index notation applies very well to crystals in the Triclinic,
Monoclinic, Orthorhombic, Tetragonal, and Isometric systems, but
requires some modification to be applied to the Hexagonal crystal
system.
5.2. Crystallographic Axes – Miller Bravais Indices
• Since the hexagonal system has three "a" axes perpendicular to the "c"
axis, both the parameters of a face and the Miller Index notation must be
modified.
• The modified parameters and Miller Indices

must reflect the presence of an additional
axis.
• This modified notation is referred to as
Miller-Bravais Indices
with the general notation (hkil)

• To see how this works, let's look at the dark shaded face in the
hexagonal crystal shown here.
• This face intersects the positive a1 axis

at 1 unit length, the negative a3 axis
at 1 unit length, and does not intersect
the a2 or c axes.
• This face thus has the parameters:

1 a1, ∞a2, -1 a3, ∞ c
• Inverting and clearing fractions will give
the Miller-Bravais Indix
(1010)
• Exercise: Determine the Miller Bravais indices for the other seven
faces in the hexagonal crystal shown here.
• The other faces thus have the parameters:

1a1, -1a2, ∞ a3, ∞ c (1100)
∞a1, 1a2, -1a3, ∞ c (0110)
-1a1, 1a2, ∞a3, ∞ c (1100)
∞a1, -1a2, 1a3, ∞ c (0110)

-1a1, ∞a2, 1a3, ∞ c (1010)
∞a1, ∞a2, ∞a3, 1c (0001)

∞a1, ∞a2, ∞a3, -1c (0001)
• Exercise: Determine the Miller Bravais indices for the face that cuts
all three axes shown here.
• The face cuts the –a3 axis at

half unit length
- thus have the parameters:
1a1, 1a2, -1/2 a3, ∞ c (1120)
• An important rule to remember in applying

this notation in the hexagonal system,
is that whatever indices are determined
for h, k, and i
h+k+i=0
5.3. Crystal Forms
• A crystal form: is a set of crystal faces that are related to each other by
symmetry.
• To designate a crystal form, we use the Miller Index, or Miller-Bravais
Index notation and enclosing the indices in curly braces, i.e.
{hkl} or {hkil} - Such notation is called a form symbol.
e.g. This orthorhombic crystal has two forms.

 The form {111} consists of 8 symmetrically
related trapezoidal faces:
 The form {113} also consists of 8 triangular

faces that are symmetrically related :
5.3.1. Crystal Forms – General and Special Forms
• A crystal form: refers to a face or set of faces that have the same
arrangement of atoms. Thus, the number of faces in a form depends on
the symmetry of the crystal.
• Each crystal class has one general form, with the form symbol {hkl},
which contains faces that intersect all crystallographic axes at different
lengths. All other forms that may be present are called special forms.
 In the monoclinic, triclinic, and the general form is because

orthorhombic crystal systems: the form {111} a≠b≠c
 In the tetragonal , isometric, the general form must intersect the

and hexagonal crystal systems: equal length axes at different
a1 = a2 ≠ c ; a1 = a2 = a3 ; multiples of the unit length.
a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c
5.3.1. Crystal Forms – General and Special Forms
• Each crystal class has one general form, with the form symbol {hkl},
which contains faces that intersect all crystallographic axes at different
lengths. All other forms that may be present are called special forms.
 In the monoclinic, triclinic, and the general form is because

orthorhombic crystal systems: the form {111} a≠b≠c
 In the tetragonal the general form is because

crystal system: the form {121} a1 = a2 ≠ c
 In the isometric the general form is because

crystal system: the form {123} a1 = a2 = a3
 In the hexagonal the general form is because

crystal system: the form {1231} a1 = a2 = a3 ≠ c
5.3.2. Crystal Forms – Open and Closed Forms
• A closed form: is a set of crystal faces that completely enclose space.

Thus, in crystal classes that contain closed forms, a crystal can be made
up of a single form.
• An open form: is one or more crystal faces that do not completely
enclose space. Thus, in crystal classes that contain open forms, a crystal
can only be made up of more than one single form.
e.g. This orthorhombic crystal has two forms.
These are {111} and {113}. Both of the are
closed forms, because both forms can
completely enclose space. Thus, a single form is
enough to make the crystal.
 The hexagonal crystal has form {1230} has 6
faces that do not enclose space completely . A
single form is not enough to make the crystal.
Thus, we need another form !! e.g. a pinacoid
• We have said that a crystal form is a set of faces that depends on the
symmetry of the crystal. You know that there are 32 combinations of
symmetry.
• There are 48 possible forms that can be developed as the result of the
32 combinations of symmetry. The first 18 forms are open forms, while
the other 30 forms are closed forms. We here discuss some, but not all
of these forms.
A1
 Pedions
• A pedion is a 1-faced open form. Pedions are
the only forms that occur in the Pedial class (1),
means it has only 1-fold axis. Since a pedion is
not related to any other face by symmetry, each
form symbol refers to a single face.
For example, the form {100} refers only to itself,
and not related with the face {100}.
 Pinacoids
• A Pinacoid is a 2-faced open form made up of two parallel faces.
- In the crystal shown here with the form {111} is a pinacoid .
and consists of two faces, (111) and (111).
- The form {100} is also a pinacoid consisting of
the two faces (100) and (100).
- Similarly, the form {010} is a pinacoid consisting
of the two faces (010) and (010), and the form
{001} consists of the faces (001) and (001).
Exercise: Try to identify the other two forms
 In this case, note that at least three of the above
and theirtoface
forms are necessary !!
completely enclose space.
 All forms in the Pinacoid class are pinacoids, but

pinacoids may occur in other crystal classes as well.
 Domes
• Domes are 2-faced open forms where the 2 faces are related to one
another by a mirror plane. In the crystal model shown here, the dark
shaded faces belong to a dome. The vertical faces along the side of the
model are pinacoids (2 parallel faces). The faces on the front and back of
the model are not related to each other by symmetry, and are thus two
different pedions.
-.
 Sphenoids
• Sphenoids are 2- faced open forms where the faces are related to each
other by a 2-fold rotation axis and are not parallel to each other. The
dark shaded triangular faces on the model shown here are sphenoids.
Pairs of similar vertical faces that cut the edges are also pinacoids. The
top and bottom faces, however, are two different pedions.
 Prisms
• A prism is an open form consisting of three or more parallel
faces. Depending on symmetry, several different kinds of prisms are
possible.
• Trigonal prism: is a 3-faced open form

with all faces parallel to a 3 -fold
rotation axis.
• Ditrigonal prism: is a 6-faced open

form with all 6 faces parallel to a 3-fold
rotation axis. Note that the cross section
of this form (shown to the right of the
drawing) is not a hexagon, i.e. it does
not have 6-fold rotational symmetry.
 Prisms
possible.
• Rhombic prism: is a 4-faced open form

with all faces parallel to a line that is
not a symmetry element. In the
drawing to the right, the 4 shaded faces
belong to a rhombic prism. The other
faces in this model are pinacoids (the
faces on the sides belong to a side
pinacoid, and the faces on the top and
bottom belong to a top/bottom
pinacoid)
 Prisms
possible.
• Tetragonal prism: is a 4-faced open form

with all faces parallel to a 4-fold rotation
axis. The 4 side faces in this model make
up the tetragonal prism. The top and
bottom faces make up the a form called
the top/bottom pinacoid.
• Ditetragonal prism: is a 8-faced open

form with all faces parallel to a 4-fold
rotation axis. In the drawing, the 8 vertical
faces make up the ditetragonal prism.
 Prisms
possible.
• Hexagonal prism: is a 6-faced open form
with all faces parallel to a 6-fold rotation
axis. The 6 vertical faces in the drawing
make up the hexagonal prism. Again the
faces on top and bottom are the
top/bottom pinacoid form.
• Dihexagonal prism: is a 12-faced open

form with all faces parallel to a 6-fold
rotation axis. The dihexagonal prism is the
result of mirror planes parallel to the 6-
fold rotation axis.
 Pyramids
• A pyramid is a 3, 4, 6, 8 or 12 faced open form where all faces in the
form meet at a point, or could meet at a point if extended.
• Trigonal pyramid: is a 3-faced open form

where all faces are related by a 3-fold
rotation axis.
• Ditrigonal pyramid: is a 6-faced open
form where all faces are related by a 3-
fold rotation axis.
• Rhombic pyramid: is a 4-faced open form
where the faces are related by mirror
planes. The faces labeled "p" are the four
faces of the rhombic pyramid. If extend,
these 4 faces would meet at a point.
 Dipyramids
• A dipyramid is a closed forms consisting of 6, 8, 12, 16, or 24 faces.
Dipyramids are pyramids that are reflected across a mirror plane. As
such, they occur in crystal classes that have a mirror plane perpendicular
to a rotation axis.
• Trigonal dipyramid: is a 6-faced closed
form with faces related by a 3-fold axis
with a perpendicular mirror plane. In this
drawing, all six faces belong to the
trigonal-dipyramid.
• Ditrigonal dipyramid: is a 12-faced closed

form with faces related by a 3-fold axis
with a perpendicular mirror plane.
 Dipyramids
• A dipyramid is a closed forms consisting of 6, 8, 12, 16, or 24 faces.
Dipyramids are pyramids that are reflected across a mirror plane. As
such, they occur in crystal classes that have a mirror plane perpendicular
to a rotation axis.
• Rhombic dipyramid: is a 8-faced form
with faces related by a combinations of 2-
fold axes and mirror planes. This figure
shows 2 forms or rhombic
dipyramids. These are {111} and {113}.
• Tetragonal dipyramid: is a 8-faced form

with faces related by a 4-fold axis with a
perpendicular mirror plane. Also shown is
the 4-faced tetragonal prism, and the 2-
faced top/bottom pinacoid.
 Trapezohedrons
A Trapezohedron is a closed form consisting of 6, 8, or 12-faced forms
with 3, 4, or 6 upper faces offset from 3, 4, or 6 lower faces. It results from
3-, 4-, or 6-fold axes combined with a perpendicular 2-fold axis.
• An example of a tetragonal trapezohedron is
shown in the drawing to the right.
Scalenohedrons
• A Scalenohedron is a closed form

consisting of 6, 8, or 12-faced forms with
4, or 6 upper faces offset from 4, or 6
lower faces. It results from 3-, 4-, or 6-
fold rotoinversion axes combined with a
perpendicular 2-fold axis. Each of the
faces is a scalene triangle.
 Rhombohedrons
• A rhombohedron is a 6-faced closed

form consisting of 3 faces on top are
offset by 3 identical upside down faces on
the bottom, as a result of a 3-fold
rotoinversion axis.
 Disphenoids
• A disphenoid is a 4-faced closed form

consisting of 2 faces on top are offset by 2
identical upside down faces on the
bottom, as a result of a 3 perpendicular 2-
fold axis. They are only present in the
orthorhombic system.
5.3. Crystal Forms
A Zone: is defined as a group of crystal faces that intersect in parallel

edges. Since the edges will all be parallel to a line, we can define that the
direction of the line using a notation similar to Miller Indices. This notation
is called the zone symbol. The zone symbol looks like a Miller Index, but is
enclosed in square brackets, i.e. [uvw].

 For a group of faces in the same zone, we can determine the zone
symbol for all non-hexagonal minerals by choosing 2 non-parallel faces
(hkl) and (pqr).
 To do so, we follow three simple steps:
1 - Write the Miller Index for each face twice, one face directly beneath
the other, as shown here.
2 - Discarded the first and last numbers in each line.
3 - Then we apply the following formula to determine the indices
in the zone symbol: u = k*r - l*q, v = l*p - h*r, and w = h*q - k*p
5.4. Zones and Zone Symbols
 Example: Follow the three simple steps

to determine the zone symbol
for the faces (110) and (010):
1 - Write the Miller Index for each face twice
one face directly beneath the other.
2 - Discarded the first and last numbers
in each line.
3 - Then we apply the following formula to
determine the indices in the zone symbol: (110) and (010)
u = k*r - l*q, v = l*p - h*r, and w = h*q - k*p
1 1 0 1 1 0
1*0 - 0*1 , 0*0
0*0- -1*0
1*0, ,1*1
1*1- 1*0
- 1*0
Zone symbol = [001] 0 1 0 0 1 0
Exercise: Do the same for faces (100) and (001).
5.5. Crystal Habits
 Crystal Habit: is the term used to describe the

general shape of a crystal. Cubic
 In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces
that develop on a crystal depend on the space Tabular
available for the crystals to grow and the
environment of growth.
Fibrous
 If crystals grow into one another in a
restricted environment, it is possible that no
well-formed crystal faces may or may not be Prismatic
developed. However, the symmetry can be
determined from the angular relationships of
the crystallographic axes. Bladed
 Some common crystal habits are shown here
as follows.
Dendritic

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Crystallography

Dr. Dawit Lebenie

University of Gondar, CNCS, Department of Geology

Dr. Dawit Lebenie

2. Symmetry (without translation)

4. Crystal systems & crystal classes

6. Measurement of crystal angles

9. Internal Order & Symmetry

Crystals form Minerals form Rocks

Diamond Emerald Sapphire Ruby

- In summary, a knowledge of what crystals are, and thus what minerals

- In addition, the knowledge of the chemistry, occurrence and physical

• A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite

- Naturally occurring – it forms by itself in nature. Human made

- Homogeneous – a compound that contains the same chemical

- Solid – not a gas, liquid, or plasma.

- Quartz has a chemical formula SiO2 and thus, it consists of Si and O

- Olivine is an example of a mineral without a fixed chemical

• a naturally occurring homogeneous solid

• What are the two important differences between a crystalline solid

• a naturally occurring homogeneous solid

- Obsidian (Volcanic glass ), Limonite (a hydrous iron silicate),

- A perfectly formed crystal also shows a symmetrical arrangement of crystal

- Crystallography is the study of crystalline solids and the principles that

- Therefore, crystals may form from a solution by:

- A nucleus is the initial regular structural pattern of a crystalline

- Symmetry operations: an operation that can be performed physically or

- Symmetry is internal, but it is reflected in the external form of crystals,

 Infinite number of rotational symmetry is not possible in internally ordered crystals.

Rotate Rotate Rotate

infinite-fold 8-fold 5-fold

- The reason is that the external shape of a crystal is controlled by the

- Since the reflected image has the opposite handedness of the

- The plane of the mirror is an element of symmetry referred to as a

e.g. A rectangle has 2 mirror planes = 2m

e.g. A hexagon 6 mirror planes = 6m

not mirror image

- In addition to the symmetrical order generated by the three symmetry

- In combinations of symmetry operations, symmetry axes must be put in

- There are three kinds of combinations of symmetry operations:

1. combinations of rotation with inversion (rotoinversion)

- In crystals, symmetry elements may be present in several different

- 1-fold rotoinversion: a crystal is rotated a full 360° about an axis to

- Furthermore, the square-shaped top and the rectangular-shaped sides of the

- Thus, the symmetry content of this crystal is as follows:

- A perfectly formed crystal also shows a symmetrical arrangement of crystal

- There are 32 possible combinations of symmetry elements that define the 32

- Each of these 32 crystal classes or point groups is uniquely defined by its

- How to derive the Hermann-Mauguin symbols that are used to

3A2, 3m, and i.

- The symmetry content of this crystal will be ........

- The rules for deriving the Hermann-Mauguin symbol are as follows:

2. Next we write an "m" for each unique mirror plane. Again, a

3. If any of the axes are perpendicular to a mirror plane we put a

2/m 2/m 2/m

Symmetry Standard Graphical

1-fold rotation axis A1 or A1 1 or 1 or

1A4, 4A2 ,, 5m and i

Crystal System Crystal Class Symmetry Name of Class

Crystal System Crystal Class Symmetry Name of Class

Crystal System Crystal Class Symmetry Name of Class

• The Triclinic System is characterized by only 1-fold rotation axis or 1-

• Monoclinic System is characterized by having only a single mirror plane