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    Chapter 5 Handout

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    of 22
    Textile Fiber and Sabric Production CAREER FOCUS luction require a techni textiles and/or en- tates are located in the Southeast, Other opportunities exist in New re technical career opportunities in engineering, and man- Careers in textile prodi ical education in gineering. Since most mills in the United SI this is the area where most jobs are found. York City and the Los Angeles aren. There ai research and development, styling, plant technology, agement. fl CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. List the sources of fibers; 2. Explain the processes involved in the pro 3. Describe the roles of mills and converters. duction of fibers and fabrics; The Rew Me! pterials of Tashi" rm referring to any material that can method. Occasionally, the term tex- the whole apparel industry: the ‘se from raw materials to the es the production and mar- entiles is a broad tet be made into fabric by any tile industry is used to cover production ‘and marketing of textile merchandis product in the retail store. - recisely, the textile industry encompass: : d mar- etingof fers a «nd fabrics, including trimmings and findings This pro Ketitg Mand marketing chain incudes the following steps: ber profucion yarn production, fabric production a nih ng. Defined in this way, the textile industry represents the first level of es s ae pute Textile production will be discussed in this chapter, followed by text keting in Chapter 6 and trimmings in Chapter 7. m FIBERS Botore the textile industry can supely fabrics to apparel manufacturers, itmust frst develop and produce both natural and i manmade fibers. either natural or manufactured, that form the y can be spun into yarn and ‘and knitting. Fiber ster, of crimp are d fabrics made Fibers are hair-like materials, basic element of fabrics and other textiles. Th then made into fabric by various methods, such as weaving characteristics such as fineness, moisture regain, elasticity, lo: inherent and, therefore, affect the properties of the yarns an from them. ‘Total world fiber production is continually growing, Production is now 41.2 with 22 billion in 1970 (only one-half billion kilograms per year as compared of worldwide fiber production is for apparel). "The vast differences between the natural and manmade fiber industries have resulted in markedly different operational and organizational forms, even though the final goal of both groups is the same: to produce fibers that fill consumer needs. NATURAL FIBER PRODUCTION Used for thousands of years, natural fibers are derived from either animals or plants. Natural Fiber Producers The natural fiber industry is dependent on animals and living ph lants. Thus, the production of natural fibers depends on climate and geography, and, in most countries, the majority of crops are produced by thousands of small farmn- 7 ee thousands of years, farmers around the world have worked indepen- ne ly to raise and harvest crops or to raise and shear animals to obtain fibers. hey sell their fibers at local markets or auctions to wholesalers, who, in turn. sel ae fibers at ee a or directly to textile mills. : : most widely used natural fibers for apparel are animal, such l as wool or silk, and vegetable, such as cotton and flax. Others include ramie, jute, Sisal Tele Fi 2a Fabric Prodactinn hemp, and even corn, There is ate new textures, such as linen with oat Blending natural fibers to cre- or cashmere. “NH cotton, cotton with Wool, or silk with linen = 115 Cotton Cotton has lo a 41% of world thereat world’s, Major textile fiber. It comprises about lion metric tons) annuall = OF approximately 19 billion kilograms gtows best in tropical ee a this amount fluctuates? A vegetable country is China, follow, a tropical climates. The leading cotton-growing Pakistan also produce latge by the United States. Uzbekistan, India, and South make up whar ‘tge cotton crops. In the United States, 17 states in the through P what is known as the Cotton Belt, stretching from the Southeast igh the Mississippi Delta to Arizona and California. The cotton plant has blossoms that wither and fall off, leaving green pods called boils. Inside each boll, moist fibers push out from newly formed seeds. ‘The boll ripens and splits apart, causing the fluffy cotton fibers to burst forth. __ There are many steps in manufacturing cotton yarn based on the produc- tion system used and the quali ty of the yarn desired. Basically, the cotton is Picked and ginned, an operation that separates the fiber from the seed. Then the fibers are cleaned and, afterwards, straightened by the carding process. Cotton fiber may be processed on a combing machine that removes ston fibers, resulting in a smooth, uniform yarn. The quality of cotton oe ae length, strength, fineness, maturity, and color. The combination of these tors determines the overall quality, price, and end use of the cotton. ne Cotton is washable and durable, holding up well after many laun: ees Wrinkle-resistant finishes have recently been created that make cotton cal i it ivi 1S. easier. Cotton absorbs dyestuffs easily to produce a wide range of vivid color It also absorbs moisture, which makes it feel (or mil- fiber, it 1 cool against the skin in ee mid weather. For this reason, cotton has traditionally been ee ie ae Yet cotton is very versatile and can be made in both light weights for i a and heavier weights for winter. Cotton fabrics range from the light anc A ; Cotton harvesting. (Courtesy of the Cotton Council) 116 The Rew Materials af Fashion ’ savy and thick (corduroy, flannel, and che. ‘such as voile and batiste) to the he. é s cd sturdy (denim) rifle) to the strong an Flax Flax is made from the fibrous material in the stem of the flax plant. Flax is harvested by pulling up the plants to preserve the full length of the fibers. Extracting the fibers from the flax plant isa lengthy and complex process. Flax seeds and adhesive substances that bind the fibers together must be removed by a process called retting. Then, in the scutching process, the fibers are sepa- rated from the outer bark and the woody inner core of the stem. Further pro- cessing can include hacking or combing and drawing the flax into a continuous into yam to make the fabric called ribbon of parallel fibers ready for spinning linen. Linen is the oldest known textile, dating back as far as the Stone Age. At one time, linen was used extensively for bedding; this explains why we still call sheets, towels, and tablecloths collectively “linens.” Flax was an important crop in the United States until the invention of the cotton gin in 1792 made cotton cheaper to produce. Today, flax makes up only 2 percent of world fiber production or approx- ually. Eighty percent of the world’ flax is imately 600 million kilograms ann grown in Russia; France is the largest producer of flax in the Western world. France and Belgium have the reputation for growing the best quality. Because the United States no longer grows flax, there have been no quotas on its im- portation. However, farmers are again growing some flax in Maine. ‘The cool, crisp qualities of nen make it especially suited for summer cloth- ing. Renewed interest in texture and natural fibers has repopularized linen and linen blends as well as linen look-alikes in the form of rayon and other fiber blends. The scutching process to separate flax fibers from the bark and stem. (Courtesy of the International Linen Promotion Commission) Textile Fiber and Fabric Production Rannic Ramie is a f ' formerly rare fibe its impottation into the Unita se isimpo that is now being used for apparel because westic commercial growers, States is not restric stricted, because there are no ee to Sot seme ofa ene a to flax, it comes from eal eevee -like shrub. Ramie best i - Philippines, and is imported primarily from iia China and the Ramie is ev en The fibers dye ee than flax and has a smooth, lustrous appearance: other fibers. Then , t are brittle and more difficult to spin and weave than fore, it is most often combined with cotton to soften it. Wool Wool fiber i ih te @ natural and renewable ec om he ee of animals fnthe sheaine'p p. The fleece is removed by the use of shears or clippers bie seis moos Shearing takes place rious times throughout the year, de- pending on fiber-length requirements. s though wool is commonly understood to ¢ fiber from the fleece of sheep, some other animal fibers are also classified as woo! spe- cialty fibers. They include angora, camel's hair, cashmere, mohair, llama, alpaca, and vi- cuna. With fashion’s focus on texture, spe- cialty fibers have renewed popularity. ‘Wool fiber has an unusual ability to ab- sorb and evaporate up to 30% of its weight in moisture. The crimp structure of wool fibers allows it to return to its natural posi- tion after stretching, which gives it resiliency. ‘When woven or knitted, the crimp structure creates air pockets, which give it insulating properties. Resiliency also makes wool fab- eeepesistant to wrinkling, and the softness of wool makes it comfortable to wear. Because Of its thermal properties, woo! has tradition: ally been used for fall and winter suits and coats. However, new developments in mi- Grofibers, as well as lightweight woven and knitted fabrics, make wool a fiber that can be worn in spring and summer. Wool fibersalso absorb dye easily, allowing bright and clear colors to be produced. sw wool is scoured to clean the wool, then carded to separate and lay the fibers parallel, and combed to separate short fibers fom Jong ones. The long fibers are spun into smooth, compact worsted yams ‘used for fabrics such as gabardine or crepe; short fibers make up the soft, dense woolen yarns used in textured tweeds and flannel “australia is by far the world’s largest wool producer followed by New Zealand and then by China, Although more than 1,392,044 tons of clean wool are processed each year, this represents only 3 percent of world textile fiber production.? The supply of woo! changes yearly; sometimes there is a stock- pile and other times a shortage Shearing a sheep to obtain wool fib Winthrop) ’ yer. (Courtesy of Jui 7 ith lis a the Raw Materials of Fusion 7 i yment form as op- silk is the only natural fiber that comes In Cone Be ae op: ad to short staple lengths. Silk is the protein 1 pai heat = io make its cocoon. A silkworm uses the any = a SOE Mohs ing its transformation from caterpillar to moth. te eed et 606 to 2000 meters of continuous fiber, making si ee fiber. Nevertheless, it ta kes over 500 silkworm cocoons a a Silk harvesters unwind the filament from the so eal pe silk fiber is steeped and boiled in soap baths to a ED ices oe The time and labor needed to cultivate silk make it he SE nee fo pensive fiber. World production of silk fiber is a en Pp haat lion kilograms annually. Asia produces nearly all oft e ule ee fiber. Asia has decreased exports of raw silk and incest PO aes ports of finished silk fabrics. The most famous quality sil he pare am Come, Italy, and Lyons, France, but the Koreans have learned thei iques. it i inated silk comes from the domes- There are four kinds of silk fibers. Cultivated sil ee their fineness indi ticated silkworm. The filaments are almost even in cated by a unit called denier (the weight in grams of 9000 aa ora Cultivated silk is used for the finest silk fabrics, such as crepes, 5, satins. Wild or tussah silk comes from the wild silkworm. Less secure environ- mental conditions cause the filaments to be coarser and more uneven. Therefore, fabric made from wild silk is not as smooth as that made from do- mesticated silk. Douppioni silk is the result of the filament sticking together at intervals while wrapped as a cocoon, causing slubs (lumps) and uneven yarn used to make shantung fabric. Schappe and bourette (waste) silk are composed of short fibers from damaged cocoons that are not strong or long enough to be used on their own. Yarn spun from waste silk also has irregular slubs from the joinings and is used in rough-textured silks. Silk has always been used for the finest garments. The silk fiber is trian- gular and reflects light, giving sik its unique luster. Because it takes dyes with exceptional depth and clarity and has a luxurious feel, it adds elegance to any garment. Silk also has insulation properties, making the wearer feel cool in summer and warm in winter. Silk drapes exceptionally well, is very strong yet lightweight, and is comfortable as well as beautiful. PLA The newest fiber development is called PLA (poly-lacticacid), acom-based polymer created by Cargill Dow Polymers. It is a cross between a natural and a manmade fiber. Although a polymer, it is made from the natural source of corn. It is biodegradable like other natural fibers but with the performance of synthetics. PLA is still in the developmental stage; a few mills are experi- menting with it alone and in blends with cotton or polyester. This is another example of exciting textile products created by new technology. @ MANMADE FIBERS The phenomenal growth of the textile fiber industry was made possible by the development of manmade fibers. Chemists began to experiment with synthetic fibers as early as 1850. In 1884, a Frenchman named Hilaire de Chardonnet patented a fabric he called “artificial silk,” which is known today as rayon (or viscose in Europe). He dis- Textile Fiber and Fabric Production =H 119 in the United State: i s in 1911 ical fbe : ron faa 4 ea Not until 1939 was the first completely chem- iginally, the term i fibers. In the World oe Was used to denote all chemically produced non-cellulosic fibers. A tru ', however, the term synthetic covers only the coal whereas viscose and fe synthetic is made from the carbon atom of oil or and acetate are regenerated cellulose. The textile indus- try refers to all chemi tured fibers, 'emically produced fibers together as manmade or manufac- Manmade Siber Producers Li i : Fabrik) Durer companies, such as BASF Baie Ain nd Soda The Sber dive eens pioneered the development of manmade fibers. Sr bat Bk Of these companies do extensive research and development mills, ers, and fabrics; they work closely with their customers, the textile and provide technical services to manufacturers and retailers. Strong competitive pressures from imports forced the US. textile indus- try to reorganize, consolidate, and focus on those things that they do best. This specialization has led to international mergers and acquisitions. For e- ample, Lensing of Austria bought the rayon division of BASF and is now the workd’s largest rayon producer. DuPont bought Zeneca’s nylon facilities and, in turn, Zeneca purchased DuPont's acrylic division. In contrast with natural fibers, manmade fibers are produced by a few chemical companies whose huge facilities enable them to take full advantage of mass production. These plants are tocated in areas where the combined cost of raw materials, labor, energy, and transportation is the lowest. possible. Mansnade fiber production depends mainly on the supply of petroleum prod- ucts; therefore, it is subject to shortages and ever-increasing prices. ‘In 1960, manmade fiber production was only 22 percent of world fiber production as compared with more than 50 percent today (about one-third Prthis amount is used for apparel). The growth rate of manmade fibers is the result of many factors: fiber research and development by chemical compa- hnies, new technical developments in making new varieties of fibers, the scarcity and expense of some natural fibers, increased high-tech production, and increased demand. ‘China leads the world in manmade fiber production. China's production, combined with that of Taiwan, Japan, and Korea makes Asia by far the largest producer, followed by the United States and then the European Union (pri- marily Germany and Italy) and Russia.* ‘Of utmost importance is the use of manmade fibers in blends, either with each other or with natural fibers. Blends capitalize on the best qualities of each fiber. For example, spandex is often blended with a variety of fibers to add stretch. Polyester can be blended with cotton to give it easy-care prop- erties, Continual experimenting with fiber combinations makes exciting new fabrics. Regenerated Cellulose Fibers Derived chiefly from the pulp of wood, cellulosic fibers create a hand (the feel, body, and fall of a fabric) similar to natural fibers, as compared with. chemical synthetic fibers. Cellulosic fibers include rayon, acetate, and triacetate. a The Ruw Materials of Fashion 120 Rayon ( Viscose) The fitst manmade fiber to be developed, rayon is composed of regener- ated cellulose derived from wood pulp, cotton linters, or other vegetable mat- ter. The cellulose is dissolved intoa viscose solution and spun into fiber. Rayon has become very popular because it is @ soft, lustrous, versatile fiber that can be treated and finished to produce a wide range of characteristics. Soaring wood prices and the expense required to clean up the environment have made rayon very expensive to produce. The caustic materials needed for rayon’s wet-spinning process cause pollution. The rayon fiber industry has had to incur heavy costs to conform to more stringent environmental standards. Lyocell Lyocell is the generic designation for a new type of solvent-spun cel- lulosic fiber produced by Tencel, Inc, a division of Acordis Fibers and Lenzing of Austria. Lyocell is almost twice as strong as rayon, both wet and dry, isa good biending partner with many other fibers, and takes color well. Tencel A100 has been developed for use in knits. Like rayon, Lyocell is produced from wood pulp. However, Tyocell is ‘manufactured using a solvent spinning technique in which the dissolving agent is recycled, thus reducing waste that is harmful to the environment. Acetate and Triacetate Cellulose acetate fiber was first produced commercially in 1921 and advertised as a synthetic silk. Acetate (diacetate) and triacetate. have been adopted as alternatives to rayon although they are not quite as strong. Triacetate can be heat-set to give it easy-care properties, but it requires such strong solvents that it is no longer produced in the United States. Diacetate can be dissolved in solvents that are easier to handle and, there- fore, it is more widely produced. ‘Acetate has a soft, silk-like hand, excellent drape qualities, and takes dye well. Acetate can be used alone or in combination with other man- made or natural fibers. It is used primarily in women’s dressy apparel, bridal wear, and linings. eS Synthetic Fibers Made from chemical derivatives of petroleum, coal, and natural gas, synthetic fibers also sometimes referred to as non-cellulsic fibers) used in apparel include nylon, polyestet, acrylic, spandex, and. polypropylene. Synthetic fibers particularly mirofibers, have risen n popularity withthe demand for lightweight, high-tech fabrics. Nylon One of the strongest and most durable manmade fibers, nylon is made of a long-chain synthetic polymer. Nylon filaments usually have an even, silky hand but can also be textured to be soft and supple. Nylon is not only strong but also flexible, washable, and colorfast. In apparel it New uses for nylon include has been traditionally used in hosiery, lingerie, bathing suits, and active sportswear. However, the Italian designer Miuccia Prada has made ny- this quilted suit from Prada. (Courtesy of Prada, Italy) lon fabric fashionable for all apparel. a 9 oer a Teslle Fiber ang Fabric Production 2 1 of long-ch; ir : ‘ ‘ain thet ber in the fore i the worlg cre” Polyester is high Het, tpl, first fibers to be d oped ant and easy to care for. It was one of th in man aoe ries ‘with permanent-press features Toy ser Dene Press blend fabr Pah including textured knits and eee lended with natural fee tiTi"es, suing, and slepmear Ie ce, opment of microfbers rt oe Casy-care properties to them. The devel- le polyester even more adaptable and popular, Acrylic position and, ee another long-chain synthetic polymer, Because of the com- : to-weight rai Te of the fiber, fabrics made of acrylic have a high bulk- : resilient End is Provides warmth in fabrics that are lightweight, soft, and and fake i of acrylics include knitwear, fleece activewear, suits, coats, i Spandex A long-chain synthetic polymer comprised of : segmented polyurethane, spandex can stretch 300 to 400 percent without breaking and retum to its : original length. Its elastic properties are unequaled by any other fiber, and it does not deteriorate as tubber does. Because of its tremendous stretch, spandex is generally added to other fibers, such as cotton, nylon, rayon, or wool, in small quantities of 2 to 20 percent, to create stretch fabrics. This stretch characteristic makes it an excellent fiber for use in swimwear, hosiery, and active sportswear. Because of its comfort and fit properties, spandex is now widely used in many fabrics. It is used in stretch-wovens as well as knits and has even been used in stretch-satin for evening wear! Polypropylene An olefin fiber made from polymers, polypropy- lene is very strong and resilient. It provides greater coverage per pound than any other fiber, yet it is so light that it actually floats. Although the major uses of polypropylene are in industrial and carpet i applications, its good insulative properties make it~ Modern man-made fibers, such as nylon, spandex, useful in some high-tech activewear where mois- and polypropylene, help keep skiwear flexible, ture transport is important. warm, and dry. (Courtesy of Fila, Inc) Generic and Brand Identification When a completely new fiber is developed, the US. Federal Trade Commission assigns it a generic name, such as “polyester.” Many companies produce polyester but they each call it by a different name in order to promote a Tee Rant Ha aierialy uf Fastin . ly. A brand name of trademark (identifiable symbol) ig ‘e aie cana the manufacturer. For example, Lycra is Dupont's ars N for spandex and Dacron is its brand name for polyester. The Tele Phen Products Identification Act requires that oe pila listing the generic names of the fibers used and the percentage of each. : It is possible to work within the basic generic par of an exist- ing generic fiber and modify it, both chemically and pl ysically, to change the f the fiber to create variants. Varianls are specialty fibers for spe- ti a se erpiations. Some variants are intended to imitate natural fibers. Some are blended with natural fibers to add easy-care properties to them. Others ineered to add stretch, moisture wicking, or other comfort properties. Exch fer producer creates its own variants and gives ao a brand name. Thermax, for example, is DuPont's brand name for its insulating hollow-core polyester, whereas Coolmaxis its moisture-wicking | polyester. Thereare ‘many variants of other manmade fibers. Each producer gives them its own names. Manmade fiber Production In very simple terms, all manmade fibe , 4 lution of cellulose (purified wood pulp) or from chemical raw material. Originally, the chemical substances exist as solids and, therefore, must be first converted into a liquid state. The raw materials are converted into flakes, chips, crumbs, or pellets, which are then dissolved in a solvent, melted with heat, or chemically converted into a syrupy liquid and pumped through the tiny holes of a spinneret to form continuous filaments. The process: ‘of extrusion and hard- ening is talled spinning, not to be confused with the textile yam operation of the same name. Unlike natural fibers, the manmade fibers can be extruded in various cross- sections (solid or hollow, for example) and thicknesses, called denier. These long fibers can be left as continuous filaments or cut into staple (hort, uni- form lengths) to be blended with other fibers. Manmade fibers were first created to imitate the texture of natural fibers, duplicating their crimp, length, and thickness. Since then, scientists have learned how to vary the shape, composition, and size of fibers toachieve pleas- ing esthetic effects and higher levels of performance. 5 are extruded from a viscous s0- One of the most successful manmade fiber developments is that of mi- crofibers, which contain individual filaments that are less than one denier thick, twice as fine as silk. Used primarily in polyester, this hnaury fibers giving poly- ester a renaissance. It can be used alone or combined with silk, worsted wool, or other fibers. W@ TEXTILE YARN AND FABRIC PRODUCERS Textile mills use fibers to produce yarns and fabrics. Converters may also finish fabrics. Both textile mills and converters are the suppliers to the apparel tds, There are about 4000 apparel-related textile plants (yam, fabric, and fin- ishing) dispersed throughout the United States and approximately 554,000 people are employed in domestic textile production’ The industry originally located in the southeast to be close to the source of cotton and to take ad- Teste Flber stad Fabvie Pest clica vantage of less expensive |, count for more than he abot. The Carolina i i alf iS and G i textile mills now ext ee beads employment fet edna City is the nation’s fashion capital se fate In aditon, because New wrk as well as sales Tepresentatives al] rate oo ira oe ela country (see Chapter 6). Textile Mills Mills * yarns; i Producers of yams and fabrics. Some mills produce onl yarns; others knit and weave faby F P ly yarns. Certain mills prodi fabric from their own yarns or from purchased “gray”) goods, which Pro an unfinished fabrics called greige (pronounced duce both e are sol ld to Converters to be finished, or they may pro- Breige goods and finished fabrics, Small mills usually specialize in one type of fabric, such as velveteen or corduroy. Large companies create separate divisions to do th ‘ uray. T-arge compat divisi '0 do the same thing, grouping similar fabrics under one vision. The various stages in textile production may or may not be handled by firms under common ownership. Firms have tended to grow either forward or backward into the production or marketing chain to form large vertical mills, which perform all Processes, from “top to bottom” (fiber to fabric). However, these operations are separated in specialized facilities. Milliken and Burlington are examples of vertical mills. Mills have had increased capital expenditutes to purchase the latest tech- nology to offset the low labor cost advantage of imports. Because of the huge investment needed for machinery and technology and the expense of chang- ing it, the large mills tend to serve the mass market with volume fabrics. In domestic mills, most processes are computerized: the spinning and texturing, of fibers and yarns; high-speed weaving and knitting; and automated mater- ial handling, dyeing, and finishing. The size of most U.S. mills is suited to high -volume production but in recent years, as a result of competition from imports, they have begun to accommodate small runs and more design changes. Also, due to NAFTA, many U.S. mills are building factories in Mexico or forming partnerships with Mexican companies. Textile companies are investing heavily in new technology. They believe that technological advances will guide the future of fabric development in the twenty-first century. This is particularly true with the popularity of lightweight, performance fabrics, those that are easy to care for and move with the body. Converters Converters do only the finishing stages of production. They can be a di- vision of a vertically integrated textile company or independent, such as Abraham, Brittany, Channel, Charter, and Pressman-Gutman. There are fewer and fewer independent converters today because the industry has tried to cut costs by becoming vertical or forming alliances between levels of the industry. Therefore, most large textile mills now do their own converting. Converters source (find the best quality goods at the best price) greige goods from worldwide mills. The few independent, domestic converters that remain in business are sourcing most of their fabrics offshore, from Korea, China, Taiwan, or Mexico. They usually contract out all printing, dyeing, and finish- ing processes to specialized factories rather than owning production facilities. This gives them the flexibility to change methods or products to keep up with changing fashion. The vertical mills are now trying to fill this role. . iS 3 The Raw Maierials of Fast font m YARN PRODUCTION Once a fiber is produced, yam production is the ent step increating a fabric. i -making technique that can best Textile manufacturers choose a yarn-m adie the texture or hand desired. Yarn can be made ame as rug yarn or finer than sewing thread. Finished yam is then sold to fabric producers to be used for weaving and knitting. Filament Yarn Processing A filament isa continuous strand of fiber. Single monofilament, cet te the fiber producer, may be used as a yam and knitted or woven into ie ric. Multiflaments may also be brought together, with nee a twist, to cre- zate yarn. Filament yarns are smoother, have more sheen, and are more uni- form than spun yarns. a ; Silk foment is twisted in a specialized silk spinning process. It is then ready for weaving or knitting. : Cae filament, on the other hand, is generally textured to provide bulk, loft, or elasticity. Texturing is a process used on filament yam to change the shape or characteristics into some form of crimp, loop, curl, or coil. oe characteristics are given to the fibers to make them suitable for specific en uses. After texturing, manmade filament yam is ready for dyeing and weaving or knitting. Spinning Staple Fibers Spun yarns can be made from natural fibers and manmade fibers that have been cut into staple (short lengths that emulate raw natural fiber). Natural fibers, such as cotton, flax, and wool, must go through a long and expensive series of processes to become yarn. Each fiber has its own spe- cial spinning system: the linen system, the cotton system, the woolen system, or the worsted system. To explain the systems in a very simple way, there are first several processes to clean, refine, parallel, and blend the raw fibers. Next, the fibers are drawn out into a fine strand and twisted to keep them together. This process gives them strength to withstand the spinning process. : Manmade fibers are cut into staple and spun on the same conventional spinning system used for cotton or on a new high-speed system to make ‘yarn. The resulting yams have characteristics similar to those of ‘spun natural fiber. Both natural fibers and manmade fibers are blended to give yam consistency as not all the fibers have the same quality. Natural and manmade fibers may also be blended together. In fact, most manmade fibers that are cut into sta~ ple are used to mix with natural fibers. Wf FABRIC PRODUCTION After spinning, the yarns are ready for weaving or knitting. Fabric is material or cloth made from natural or manmade yams by any of the following methods: weaving, knitting, bonding, crocheting, felting, knot- ting, or laminating, Most apparel fabrics are woven or knitted. Fashion pref- erence for one or the other is usually cyclical. | | ofthe Woolmark Company) Weaving cloth on an automatic loom. (Courtesy Weaving Woven fabrics are made by interlacing warp yarn and filling yam (called weft in England and in handweaving) at right angles Weaving begins with a warping during which yarns are wound onto a beam. The beams process called 4000 to 12,000 yarn-ends onto a are combined via a “slashing” process to put loom beam. thod of weaving, filling (weft) yarn In the conventional met on a bobbin. Originally, the shut- the loom by a shuttle carrying yarn wound tle was fed by hand. Modern technology has developed faster methods of weaving such as the rapier loom that carries the filling yarns through the warp on steel bands. Faster speeds are obtained on air-jet and water-jet looms, which use a blast of air or water to propel the filling yarn across the warp. These looms operate at four to seven times the speed of shuttle looms and produce seven to eight times the amount of fabric at wider widths. However, loom speed and weave complexity are inversely related. The more elaborate the pat- tern, the slower the loom speed must be. The warp yarns separate alternately (call yarns to interlace with them as they pass throug! beating the last row of yarns into the cloth. s are fed into led shedding) to allow the filling h the warp. The next step is Kinds of Weaves There are three basic weaves: plain, twill, and satin. Plain weave is the simplest, most common weave. The warp and filing yarns alternately pass over and under each other, creating both horizontal and Vertical surface interest. Fabrics woven by this method include a wide range of weights from broadcloth to duck. Teste Fiber and Fabric Production 1235 420 The kaw Maier rials of gashion 7 is ssing the WatP yarn over 8 number of fills se weave iS bee by passi a pattern is repeated row after si but ae a i ins on the next warp yam creating a diagonal ca ot Ne : eided strength and diagonal surface interest. weave Mee I fabric. : Cel the mos i mn crossing Over the most possi- is acl by one WatP Y2 r s Ne a Gi vice versa), ating, floats o” the face eT of a a ae rae the fabric luster and sl othne’ But eae 7 into the fabric only at compal vel eT 5 have the same durability ag the other Weave? Pattern Created by Weaving sist zs : ‘ r inthe i d by using yams of different 0 lors N ml inter Dot, to create plaids, nh stripes. ese yarn-dye Pm can prints ease the patterns appear on both aa of He fabric. Woven pal may also be produced Py versing the direction of the weave In certain are fi in alternate rowS, 25 in herringbones- Many variations of the three basic weaves are used to create unu! designs or patterns in fabrics, which are called ‘weaves. yam feeding 27 speed of the loom. and tapestry, ma) controls every yarn tem. The Jacquar' Knitting or a combinat of loops dra cloth. The am¢ pends on the and the type of Various types ©! way’ from very 4f1 Satin Weave knitting machi chine can knit 1m! Weave construction. plex patter 4 set-up and, therefore, Sl is, such as brocat Fancy woven pattern: fed on a Jacquard (jah y be creat Joom. The pattern is progr individually, d loom is the therefore more expensive Knitted fabrics are ma tion of yarns wn through another series ©! ount of stretcl fiber and yarn const knit, and the presence f stitches in c of knitting produce a wi bulky to fine-gauge. ns require more complicate Jow down the de, damask, -kard’) mmed ona computet, which creating the desired ‘most flexible, but is and slowet. .de from one continuous yarn formed into successive rows f loops to make fh in the final product de- ruction, the density of spandex yams. combination with se' ide variety of knit fabrics Designs can be trans- Which operates electronic ferred to a computer taper ines automatically. A modem knitting ma~ illion loops pet minute. i | | 4 Tete fiber atd abc Polat 497 Gauge or cut refers to th : oe > @ Number of need} . ine; a 10-cut OF need bin the kniti stitches per inch 7 aching has 10 needles per eh Ho in the kiting ma Bae finished fabric may have mor ore cnt et num i of needles per inch! ly have more or less stitches than the -cut machine with five A knits. However, the result nasi the most common inch or as many z pai knit fabric can have as few trees ny fed into the machine. fie ioe depending on the amount and size of ae ate. A fine jersey ath fear Needles, the finer and closer the knit loops and-sew jerseys and double kat ee ee creer, ice lou ts are made on 18- to 24-cut machines. and warp knitting are the two basic methods of iating tabi Weft Knitting is linet oe Pd horizontally across the width of the fabric, the process ee ng. Veft knits can be made on either flatbed or circular ma- all eh cular knits may be either single or double knit. In single knits, be Eni ae in a given course, or row, are made with a single yarn. In dou- ts, the stitches in a given row may be made by interlocking two differ- ent yam feeds. Weft knits are made in a wide variety of single and double knits and generally have more stretch than warp knits. Jersey Jersey is the basic construction of all weft knits. The front and the back of the fabric are different in appearance. The rows of stitches running vertically (parallel with the edges, like warp) are called wales and the rows of stitches running across the fabric are called courses. Jersey is the most common construction used in fine-gauge fabrics and stretches equally in length and width. Popular uses include pantyhose, un- derwear, and full-fashioned sweaters (see Chapter 10 for sweater and knitwear production). There are many variations on the jersey construction that are made by differing needle arrangements. Circular (left foreground) and flat (right background) knitting machines. (Courtesy of the Woolmark Company) 128 The Rawr Materials of Fashion 3 Purl knit is actually the reverse side of jersey and used Primary sweater knits. ' i Rib knit fabrics have a distinctive lengthwise rib on both sides of the fabric for added stretch in the width. A combination of jersey and pur} stitches, it is most often used in sweaters, socks, knit accessories, or trims, such as neckbands or cuffs. ae i ike j ides of the fabric. The stitches i Interlock knit looks like jersey on both si f : alternate a half movement up or down to create a zigzag horizontally across the fabric. _ - im Knit and welt uses the front and back beds of the knitting machine to create a welt. oe i @ Float jacquard knits have a pattern on the face side. ums not being used de the pattem float on the back until they are needed again. : & Full jacquard knits also have a pattern on the face side but there is cake apie pattern on the back instead of floats. This requires the use of both the front and back knitting beds and makesa double fabric, which is heavier. : Novelties, including, tuck stitches, miss stitches, and pointeles, can be created with other needle arrangements. Warp Knitting In warp knitting, multiple yarns are used, and the loops run vertically and zigzag across each other to form the fabric. Each stitch in a row is made by a different yarn that is fed from a sheet of yarns wound ona beam. Patterns and inlays can be introduced by various needle arrangements. The Missonis in Italy are famous for their beautiful warp knits. Warp knits include tricot and raschel. Tricot knit fabrics are usually made with fine-denier filament yarns. They are soft, drape well, and are somewhat elastic. Popular uses include women's lingerie and uniforms for nurses. . Raschel is the most complex warp-knit structure, capable of making lacy open stitches. Yarns may be heavily twisted filament yarns orspun yams. Uses of this knit include thermal underwear, swimwear, shapewear, knitted lace, and crochet. . .-- Nonworen Fabrics Nonwoven (or engineered) fabrics are made by bonding or interlocking fibers, filaments, or yarns into a web or sheet by mechanical (pressure, needle punch, or needle-tufting), chemical, thermal (heat), hydro, er solvent means. Examples of such fabrics include nonwoven interfacings and nonwoven felt. Nonwoven fabric production usually indudes four stages: (1) fiber prepara~ tion, (2) web formation, (3) web bonding, and (4) post-treatment. Nonwoven fabrics constitute one of the fastest growing segments of the textile industry. Production Centers China produces the most woven woolen apparel fabrics followed by Italy. Hong Kong produces the most woolen knitwear, followed by Thailand, China, or Italy (varies from year to year.’ Better cottons come from Italy and Switzerland. The United States produces more denim than any other country. 130 The Rae Materials of Fashion ; . @ Cross dyei ‘dyeing—This ie i expens 5 type of piece dycing achi ir less affnicd ithe Lae The cloth mst be i | fiber ie ! in color effects none ays 0 that the cross dyeing can achieve vail © Garment dyei lyeing—Greige goods are preshrunk i Fee whole garments are dyed after they ee ensures quick deli Sues ca fies delivery of needed colors as well as tops Computer i ic oo as have been enlisted to help regulate dye mixing so that colors If apparel manufacturers want a fabric in a color that is not regular P rly avail- os their order must meet a minimum yardage requirement. Son jd fabrics require the largest orders and longest lead-times. __ Although domestic fabric producers are trying t0 be more flexible about minimums, mass production requires keeping machines and employees busy. Large domestic mills are most suited to servicing a large manufacturer, such as Levi Strauss or the Gap. Smaller manufacturers are ‘often forced to seek fab- rics outside the United States where minimums are Jower. @ PRINTING Printing is used to apply desin or techniques: wet printing and dry printing. t printing andy IO ———— ‘pattem to fabrics. There are ‘two basic printing Wet Printing In both engraved-roller printing and screen printing, dyestuffs are applied wet for optimum color penetration. In pigment printing, another method cof wet printing, the pigment is attached to the fabric surface with a resin. Other wet prints use dyestuffs that have a chemical affinity to the cloth fiber in. With wet printing, it is possible to achieve a and do not require resin. drapable hand. Engraved-roller Printing a separate roller engraving is rolled onto the fabric as it pas In this technique, used for each color in the pattern. The design is ses through the printing machine. Screen Printing Flat-bed screen print tions of the design to be printe ing uses a screen spread over a frame. The por- dare made of porous nylon fabric that allows the color to pass through the screen. The areas that are not to be printed are covered or coated. Color is poured into the frame shell andis forced through the nylon by means of a squeegee worked back and forth. Flat-bed screen printing is versatile but expensive, The most expensive sik scarves require as many as 50 silk screens with separate colors to be printed in perfect registration. Rotary screen printing is a mechanized version of flat-bed screen print ing. In this method, the roller itself is porous in the areas to be printed. Dye is forced into the roller cylinder and through its porous screen as it rolls over ‘enti Fiber and Fabric Produciva . ever, the largest cotton fabric producer is China, followed by Eastern inen fabrics are produced in and then India and the United States. Linen Northern Ireland, France, China, and Poland. Italy produces the but only one-third of the total world silk fabrics. The other ing Chinese silk. duction of fabrics from manmade fibers because so many are blends, and most industry and trade associations calcu- intries. The three major global centers of late production only in their own cout manmade and blend fabrics are Asia, Europe, and the United States. Howe Europe, Italy, Belgium, most printed silks, two-thirds are produced in Korea us! It is ditficult to calculate the pro @ DYEING Dyeing can be done at any stage of fiber, yarn, or fabric production. Some of the most important methods of dyeing are the following: aeP oe cee producer or solution dyeing process, used for eaiation by fibers, adds the pigment or color when the fibers are still in as ion before the filaments are formed. tock dyeing—Thi 2 : Seer This method is used to dye loose fibers before yarn @ Yarn dyeing—Thi Papen ee is the quality method used to dye certain woven ETA ear be stripes, plaids, and checks. It is done after the yarn is : ae sie fore weaving or knitting. It is most often used in shirts. ealled pees Piece of fabric after weaving or knting method of dyeing solid Pi least expensive and most widely used Piece dyeing cloth. (Courtesy of the Weolntark Company) pre cloth, This method is my ch factor than flat. finuous, leaving no breaks bet 5 a pe bed screen Printing and is con. Dry Printing Heat-J; Tansfer or Paper Printing In this Process, 5 Totary, Screens or ro}p papet can be kept for Use at a the fitst print dyestuffs onto Paper. The Gi : & woe Process helps Keep converters’ fab. tic Inventories Jean Inasmuch as eige it fs nai stockpiling Breige goods are Printed against orders and © print on fabric, the Paper and fabric are Put through hot rollers the dyestuffs sublimate into a gas, which Moves from the paper base onto the fab- tic. The advantages of this Method are that it Sives a clean, fine line on knits with NO mistakes or wa ” and paper is a smaller investment than the elabo- lulpment needed for is. However, this method can cause of the face, with little Penetration, creating Potential grin-through (fab- tic showing through) probler ms, '¢ demand for prints deeper-penetrati dry Printing wider acceptance. There is Telatively little waste water or few harm- ful discharges with this method, Digital Printing eee ging Used Widely in offices and graphic arts, digital ae = a ne om Process for the textile industry. A design ona CAD on aes directly onto cloth, thus eliminating the need to prep: Flat-bed screen printing, (Courtesy ofthe Woolntark Company) al feXtile Fibey nd Fabriy Pris 132 fhe Reo Alaterials of Fashiow possible to engineer a print. design according to the shape of garment piecas, Digital printing is a flexible process that provi _ spperalaty fo ick ~ demand changes. i changes in color or design 2 . : nese fied for creating samples, short run production, = custom. ization. @ FINISHING Finishes can radically alter fiber and fabric characteristics. pester, or hand. ed to enhance Finishing is the term used to encompass all the processes used to ¢ a fabric (usually after dyeing or printing). Finishes can be accomplished by chemical or physical change: Physical Means of finishing Calendering—A mechanical process of passing fabric between heavy rollers. By using different combinations of heat, pressure, and rollers, it is possible to produce a wide assortment of effects, such as glaze, watermark, or moiré. Calendering is usually done on synthetics, because itis not permanent on fabrics made of natural fibers. Heat setting—This is a final finish created by heating thermoplastic manmade fabrics (usually polyester) to just below their melting point. | This treatment stabilizes the fabric so that there will be no further change ; inits size or shape and, therefore, improves the fabrics resilience. Napping—Fabric surfaces are raised and plucked with needles on otating drums to create a woolly or flannel surface. Shearing—Fabrics are usually sheared to give the surface a uniform pile or to take off fuzz. Sanding (or sueding)—The process of mechanically rubbing the fabric with rollers coated with fine-grt sandpaper to create a soft surface, ; Shrink control—The preshrinking of cotton cloth so that it will not shrink during laundering. also known as Sanforizing or compacting, : Chemical Means of. Finishing Caustic reduction—A process usually done on polyester to give ita silk- like feel. The surface of the fibers is eaten away in a caustic bath, which reduces the weight of the fabric. Decatizing—The stabilizing of wool fabrics with the use of heat and moisture. Durable press—The application of certain resins to cotton or cellulosic fabrics so that they require little or no ironing (also called permanent press, although it is rarely permanent), Mercerizing—The treatment of cotton with a cold, strongly caustic chemical solution to achieve a lustrous silk-like finish. Water repellency—Yarns or fabrics treated with chemicals and then woven to create cloth that permits air and vapor to pass through the fabric while keeping rain and snow out. Restle Fiber ang Fabric Production Other finishes can mak 5 : : € Fabrics f a mifew Tesistant, bacteria resistant « eae uy 10 7 in ‘ormation on Barment finishin oo a cea complet, fabrics are measured on the weight of t a plece, may have 40 to i piece, to aie ten Goods (heavier knits and fae cu naeing facturers to fill ie to handle). Multiple pieces = stip apie Smaller quantities, in fe on ee hu oe r

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