Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904

DOI 10.1007/s12665-015-4341-7

THEMATIC ISSUE

The role of surface and subsurface integration in the development

of a high-pressure and low-production gas field
Yang Liu1 • Jiexun Li2 • Zhihua Wang1,2 • Shanzhe Wang1 • Yingchun Dong2

Received: 13 November 2014 / Accepted: 22 March 2015 / Published online: 3 April 2015
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract Against a background of gradual changes in the be necessary to design a simplified production process for
global energy consumption structure, clean natural gas still multi-well gathering and single-well rotation. Meanwhile,
plays an indispensable role in satisfying energy needs. the role of surface and subsurface integration would be
Xushen gas field in Songliao Basin has held the balance in better played by improving the key production units such
gas-producing areas in China since its exploitation in 2004, as wellbore throttling, gathering pipe heat tracing, corro-
especially by ‘‘using a gas to supply oil output’’ strategy in sion inhibitor injection and gas purification disposal. This
Daqing oilfield. However, the difficulties and beneficial study will contribute to obtaining the maximum benefits in
results of development in the field are challenged by the green gas field development.
very cold climate, poor reservoir property and high
amounts of CO2 in natural gas. An investigation of the Keywords Clean energy  Natural gas  Production
heat-tracing measures for preventing the formation of process  Operation parameter  Hydrate prevention 
natural gas hydrates and selection of stainless steel pipes Xushen gas field
and a high-pressure equipment to restrain CO2 corrosion in
Xushen gas field operation was carried out recently. In this List of symbols
paper, the hydraulic and thermal characteristics of gas A Flow area (m2)
gathering pipelines is studied, including a discussion on the c Specific heat (J kg-1 °C-1)
effect of high pressure and low production on the formation D External diameter of gas gathering pipeline (m)
of natural gas hydrates during transportation and the de- F Friction impulse (kg m s-1)
termination of technical limits for inhibiting the formation g Gravity constant (m s-2)
of hydrates under different conditions. Subsequently, the Hl Liquid holdup (%)
gas production process, including purification and de- K Heat transfer coefficient (W m-2 °C-1)
foaming parameters in a high-pressure and low-production L Length of gas gathering pipeline (m)
field, is optimized. The results indicate that the surface Dm_ Mass flow (kg s-1)
engineering construction would take up more than 30 % of P Pressure (Pa)
the total investment in gas field development, especially in q Calorific value of gas (kJ Nm-3)
high-pressure and low-production areas, and that it would R Gas constant (8314 kJ kmol-1 K-1)
Swc Water saturation (%)
T Temperature (K)
& Zhihua Wang q Density (kg m-3)
zhihua_wang@126.com t Velocity (m/s)
1 u Void fraction (%)
Key Laboratory of Enhanced Oil and Gas Recovery Under
Ministry of Education, Northeast Petroleum University, g Efficiency (%)
Daqing 163318, Heilongjiang, People’s Republic of China k Heat transfer coefficient (W m-1 °C-1)
2
Daqing Oilfield Company Limited, d Wall thickness of the pipeline (m)
Daqing 163002, Heilongjiang, People’s Republic of China RF Resistance coefficient (–)

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5892
Subscript
l Liquid phase
g Gas phase
Introduction
In recent years, the global energy sector has undergone
significant changes, including the global financial crisis
that was accompanied by high price volatility for hydro-
carbons, international hydrocarbons trade redrawn by new
exploratory development technologies, and a noticeable
slowdown in requirement and increasing competition from
the traditional energy markets (Bildirici and Bakirtas 2014;
Bloch et al. 2012; Shahbas and Lean 2012).
According to a detailed analysis and forecasts of the
development trend in the global energy sector, the world’s
consumption of primary energy will increase by only 40 %
(approximately 1.1 % annually) from 2010 to 2040, which
is threefold lower than the average annual gross domestic
product (GDP) growth and significantly slower than the
energy consumption growth observed over the past
30 years (Behmiri and Pires Manso 2013; Mitrova 2014;
Zheng and Luo 2013). Undoubtedly, hydrocarbons will
remain the basis of the world’s energy over this period. At
the same time, the structure of the world’s energy con-
sumption will become more diversified and balanced. As is
known, in the next 30 years, the share of fossil fuels will
gradually level off, oil consumption will drop to 27 % and
coal to 25 %, while gas consumption will increase to 25 %,
and the percentage of fossil fuels will be approached by
that of other non-fossil sources (Makarov et al. 2013;
Payne 2011). In terms of sustainable energy, natural gas
has advantages in combustion efficiency and low CO2
emissions. Its lower emission impact, price advantages and
alternative ways of production have made natural gas be-
come an important source of clean energy, and it will be
the most popular type of fuel in decades to come in (Pao
and Tsai 2011; Gurgul and Lach 2011). Against this
background, efficient exploration and development of
condensate gas and other unconventional gas are urgent
and promising. Also, the future development of natural gas
will inevitably have impact on other fossil fuel industries.
However, the development of natural gas will encounter
challenges of technical bottlenecks and beneficial results
similar to the development of oil, especially in areas with
very cold climate and poor reservoir properties. These
challenges can be addressed by preventing the formation of
hydrates, restraining the CO2 corrosion and optimizing the
production process and operation parameters.
Previous studies showed that environmental hazards
caused by oil and gas reservoirs’ exploitation activities are
one of the most serious problems worldwide (Jia et al.
123
Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904
2014). Bagheri et al. (2014) investigated the origin of brine
in Kangan gas field. The saline produced water in the gas
field is a counterproductive issue, and it causes corrosion in
the pipelines and wellhead facilities. They came to the
conclusion that understanding the causes of salinity of the
aquifer water has important implications for overcoming
this problem and for long-term reservoir management.
In this paper, specific treatment measures for preventing
the formation of natural gas hydrates and restraining CO2
corrosion of Xushen gas field in Daqing (China) are pre-
sented. Subsequently, the hydraulic and thermal charac-
teristics of gas gathering pipelines were studied, including
a discussion on the formation of natural gas hydrates dur-
ing transportation and gathering of technical limits to in-
hibit the formation of gas hydrates under different
conditions. Furthermore, the gas production process, the
purification and the defoaming parameters in high-pressure
and low-production field were optimized. This is sig-
nificant for taking advantage of the role of surface and
subsurface integration, and will contribute to realizing the
efficient development of clean energy.
Development background of Xushen gas field
The Xushen gas field, located in the north of Songliao
Basin, has been a giant potential source of gas for China
from the 1990s onwards (Xu et al. 2011). It was developed
and went into production in 2004. It is an example of a
typical dry gas field with low sulfur and high pressure. This
gas field is located in a cold region, in which the annual
minimum temperature is -36 °C, and the depth of frozen
ground can reach 2 m. The shut-in pressure for most gas
wells ranges from 2900 to 4350 psi, downhole flowing
pressure is about 2900 psi and the operation pressure of the
gathering pipeline after throttling ranges from 725 to
1015 psi. The sulfur content of the gas produced is lower
than 10 mg L-1. However, some blocks have a high content
of CO2, sometimes higher than 20 %, with a partial pressure
of about 145 psi, as described in the previous study by De
Lucia et al. (2012), which causes serious corrosion to the
equipment. In addition, several gas wells may attain high
water production rates up to 30 m3 d-1. With the con-
tinuous exploitation of the gas field, a gradual decline in gas
production rates has been registered due to poor reservoir
properties (Dai et al. 2014). This kind of reservoir has an
average porosity of 7.65 % and a mean permeability of
0.15 9 10-3 lm2, and the lithological character of its ma-
trix is compact and going against fluids driving. The natural
low-production capacity wells are about 80 % of the total,
and fracturing technology is necessary for achieving com-
mercial levels (Yang et al. 2008). Currently, the gas pro-
duction of this field is approaching 15 9 108 m3 a-1. The
Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904 5893

development practice of this field indicates that the in- phase and the gas phase, kg m s-1; tg is the velocity of the
vestment in surface engineering is about 35.8 % of the total, gas phase, m s-1; tl is the velocity of the liquid phase,
and the sum invested in the surface gas production system, m s-1; Hl is the liquid holdup, %; hg is the elevation head
surface gas gathering pipeline and station is about 80 % of of the gas phase (m); hl is the elevation head of the liquid
the total surface engineering budget (Xu et al. 2008). It is phase (m); z is the elevation head of the flow area, m; u is
therefore necessary to put surface and subsurface integra- the void fraction, %; A is the flow area (m2); Al is the liquid
tion into practice to reduce and control the investment costs, phase in the flow area (m2); Ag is the gas phase in the flow
as this is also beneficial for realizing the efficient devel- area (m2); D is the external diameter of the gas gathering
opment of high-pressure and low-production gas fields. pipeline (m); K is the heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 °C);
T is the temperature, K; T0 is the environmental tem-
perature, K; g is the gravity constant, m s-2.
Hydraulic and thermal characteristic models
Thermodynamic model
Hydraulic model
During the process of natural gas transportation, each node
When calculating the average velocity corresponding to varied with the relevant physical parameters such as flow
each cross-sectional area, it was assumed that the gas rate, temperature, pressure, component of gas and liquid.
gathering pipeline is isothermal transportation and that the Therefore, establishment of phase equilibrium and state
gas and liquid phases are in thermodynamic equilibrium equations, and the determination of the physical parameters
(Beggs 1973; Martinez 1997). The influence of time on are significant for the thermodynamic property analyses of
other parameters is neglected during the calculation pro- the gas gathering system. The widely used SHBWR
cess. Thus, the gas phase continuity equation: equation, which is the foundation of the gas–liquid equi-
dqg dtg du librium model, was proposed by Starling and Han (1972).
Atg u þ Aqg u þ Aqg tg ¼ Dm_ gl ð1Þ At present, it is one of the most widely used models for
dx dx dx
thermal analysis of the gas gathering pipeline.
The liquid phase continuity equation:
SHBWR is normalized as:
dql dtl dHl  
Atl Hl þ Aql Hl þ Aql tl ¼ Dm_ lg ð2Þ C0 D0 E0
dx dx dx P ¼ qRT þ B0 RT  A0  2 þ 3  4 q2
T T T
   
The momentum equation: d 3 d 6 cq3 ð1 þ cq2 Þ expðcq2 Þ
þ bRT  a  q þa aþ q þ
T T T2
dP dtg dtl
A þ qg tg uA þ q l tl H l A ð5Þ
dx dx dx ð3Þ XX 1 1  
¼ Fgw  Flw  ðqg u þ ql Hl ÞgA sin h A0 ¼ Xi Xj A20i A20j 1  kij ð6Þ
X
The mixture energy conservation equation: B0 ¼ Xi B0i ð7Þ
dhg dhl dtg dtl XX 1  3
qg tg uA þ ql tl Hl A þ qg t2g uA þ ql t2l Hl A 1

dx dx dx dx C0 ¼ 2
Xi Xj C0i 2
C0j 1  kij ð8Þ
dz XX  4
¼ ðqg gtg uA þ ql gtl Hl AÞ  KpDðT  T0 Þ D0 ¼
1 1
Xi Xj D0i D0j 1  kij
2 2
ð9Þ
dx!
t2g  t2l XX 1 1  5
 Dm_ gl hg  hl þ ð4Þ E0 ¼ 2
Xi Xj E0i 2
E0j 1  kij ð10Þ
2
hX 1 i3
where, in the formula, P is the pressure of the flow area, Pa; a¼ xi a3i ð11Þ
Dm_ gl is the mass flow of the liquid phase transit into the gas hX 1
i3
phase, kg s-1; Dm_ lg is the mass flow of the gas phase transit b¼ xi b3i ð12Þ
into the liquid phase, kg s-1; qg is the density of the gas hX i3
1
phase, kg m-3; ql is the density of the liquid phase, kg m-3; C¼ xi c3i ð13Þ
Fgw is the friction impulse between the gas phase and the hX i3
1
pipe wall, kg m s-1; Flw is the friction impulse between the d¼ xi di3 ð14Þ
liquid phase and the pipe wall, kg m s-1; Fgi is the friction
hX i3
impulse between the gas phase and the liquid phase, 1
a¼ xi a3i ð15Þ
kg m s-1; Fli is the friction impulse between the liquid

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5894 Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904

hX 1
i2
c¼ xi c3i ð16Þ Table 1 Composition of natural gas
Composition Mole fraction (%)
where P is the system pressure, Pa; q is the density
(k mol m-3); T is the temperature, K; R is the gas constant, CH4 92.33
8314 kJ (k mol K)-1; xi represents the mole fraction of i C2H6 2.41
component (in the mixture of gas or liquid phases); Kij is C3H8 0.39
the transfer coefficient between i and j, Kij ¼ Kji ; A0 , B0 , C4H10 0.18
C0 , D0 , E0 , a, b, c, d, a, c are the mixture state equation C5H12 0.03
coefficients, whose values are determined by Starling’s iC6H14 0.02
normal paraffin correlations. CO2 2.91
Based on the above methods, temperature drop along the N2 1.73
gas gathering pipeline can be determined. This can reveal
the universal pattern that temperature decreases with the
increase in the gas transportation rate. When the gas Taking one gas well in Xushen gas field as an example,
transportation rate and distance remain unchanged, the final the gas production rate of this well is 50,000 m3 d-1 and
temperatures are increased with an increase in the wellhead the water production rate is 10 m3 d-1. The composition of
temperature. By keeping the wellhead temperature and natural gas is summarized in Table 1. The overall length of
distance unchanged, the final temperature will be increased the surface gas gathering pipeline is 1289 m, the tem-
with the increasing gas transportation rate. perature of wellhead is 24 °C, the transportation pressure is
870 psi, the buried depth of pipeline is 2 m and the
thickness of silicate insulating layer is 40 mm. So the
The formation and inhibition of gas hydrates formation limits relationship between the temperature and
pressure of gas hydrates in this gas gathering pipeline can
The gas hydrates are considered as undesirable solids be established.
when they form in gas transportation and processing By combining the hydraulic and thermal analyses of this
equipment. They can cause detrimental obstacles to the pipeline, the formation temperature and location of gas
flow of gas and serious damage to instruments because of hydrates can be predicted. As shown in Fig. 1, the hy-
high-pressure pipeline explosions (Ghavipour et al. 2013; draulic and thermal characteristics’ curve intersects with
Li et al. 2013). In these cases, hydrate formation can be the curve for the relationship between pressure and tem-
prevented by dehydrating the water, maintaining tem- perature, which reveals that the formation temperature
perature and pressure outside the hydrate formation re- limit of the gas hydrates under this condition is 19.1 °C.
gion and injecting thermodynamic inhibitors or low- Furthermore, according to the thermal characteristic, the
dosage hydrate inhibitors. location of gas hydrate formation can be found about
819 m away from the wellhead. In other words, the re-
The formation limits of gas hydrates maining 470 m is the key area of gas hydrate inhibition in
this pipeline.
The importance of accurate hydrate formation prediction is
evidenced by its wide applications, such as the determi-
nation of the limits for natural gas expansion during
throttling in valves, chokes and restrictions, the amount of 1000
inhibitor to be injected. Temperature and pressure are the formation limits of gas
key parameters which determine the formation of gas hy- 800 hydrates 19.1 ,
drates. The free water model, which is based on phase 853.7psi
Pressure(psi)

hydraulic and thermal

equilibrium, contains the following phases: the water-rich 600 characteristics
phase of mixed hydrates, which forms in the pipeline, the
400
gas and water-rich phase, the hydrocarbon–water-rich
phase, and gas phase with hydrocarbon–water-rich phase 200
(Nguyen et al. 2008). Therefore, it is possible to use
PIPESYS (multiphase flow pipeline simulation software) 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
with a free water model for predicting the gas hydrate
Temperature( )
formation limits for the gas gathering pipeline under dif-
ferent conditions. Fig. 1 Determination of gas hydrate formation limits

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Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904
Comparison and selection of the methods
for hydrates inhibition
The electrical heat-tracing technology and hot-water-trac-
ing technology are both feasible for inhibiting hydrate
formation as indicated above, but it is necessary to have a
further comparison and selection for saving the operating
costs and investment.
Investment
Electrical heat tracing provide stable electric heating to the
gas gathering pipeline with the aid of a surface power
supply and distribution system (Brazil et al. 2013; Liu et al.
2000). Thus:
It ¼ L  /  Ue þ Ps þ El þ Ec ð17Þ
where It is the total investment ($); L is the total length of
gas gathering pipeline (m); / is the correction coefficient
for the electrical heat-tracing band; Ue is the price of the
electrical heat-tracing band ($ m-1); Ps is the cost of the
power supply ($); El is the labor cost ($); Ec is the cost of
the installation and trial run ($).
In contrast, the hot-water-tracing technology provides
heating by laying parallel pipelines, and the water in the
pipeline is circulation heating (Liu et al. 2012).
It ¼ L  w  Up þ Vg þ El þ Ec ð18Þ
where It is the total investment ($); L is the total length of
gas gathering pipeline (m); w is the correction coefficient
for the circulation heating pipeline; Up is the price of
heating the pipeline ($ m-1); Vg is the price of the valves
and accessories ($); El is the labor cost ($); and Ec is the
cost of installation and trial run ($).
Operating costs
Except for daily maintenance, electric energy consumption
accounts for most of the operating costs in the electrical
heat-tracing technology (Thomas and Baen 2000; Huang
et al. 2012). So the calculation model is established.
pDLðt  t0 ÞkTxe Mg cg ðt  tc ÞTxe
Pc ¼ þ þ L  /  xr1
gd g
ð19Þ
Table 2 Comparison of investment and operation costs of gas hydrates inhibiting technologies
Inhibiting technologies Investment ($)
Materials Installation Labor
Electrical heat tracing 3799.5 1864.7 481.5
Hot-water tracing 2230.5 2221.9 222.7
5895
where Pc is the total operating cost ($); T is the heat-
tracing cycle (h); D is the external diameter of the gas
gathering pipeline (m); L is the total length of the gas
gathering pipeline (m); / is the correction coefficient for
the electrical heat-tracing band; k is the heat transfer co-
efficient of the gas gathering pipeline, W (m °C)-1; d is the
wall thickness of the gas gathering pipeline (m); xe is the
electrovalence, $ (kw h)-1; Mg is the mass flow rate of
the gas gathering pipeline, kg h-1; cg is the specific heat of
the gas, J (kg °C)-1; g is the efficiency of electrical heat
tracing (%); xr1 is the maintenance cost per unit length
($ m-1); t is the operating temperature (°C); tc is the cri-
tical temperature for hydrate formation (°C); t0 is the soil
temperature of the buried pipeline (°C).
Except for the daily maintenance costs, heat consump-
tion accounts for most of the operating costs in the hot-
water-tracing technology (Liu et al. 2013; Cheng et al.
2013). So the following calculation model established by
heat transfer is used:
Mg cg dðtw2  tc Þ þ kpDLðt  t0 Þ
Pc ¼ ½xg cg Tðtw2  tw1 Þ
cw dqgðtw2  tÞ
þ 3600  xw Tqg þ L  w  xr2 ð20Þ
where Pc is the total operating cost ($); T is the heat-
tracing cycle (h); D is the external diameter of the gas
gathering pipeline (m); L is the total length of the gas
gathering pipeline (m); w is the correction coefficient for
the circulation heating pipeline; k is heat transfer coeffi-
cient of the gas gathering pipeline, W (m °C)-1; d is wall
thickness of the gas gathering pipeline (m); q is the
calorific value of gas (kJ Nm-3); xg is the price of gas, $/
Nm3; Mg is the mass flow rate of the gas gathering pipeline,
kg/h; cg is the specific heat of the gas, J (kg °C)-1; cw is
the specific heat of the water, J (kg °C)-1; g is the effi-
ciency of gas (%); xw is the price of tracing hot water, $/
kg; xr2 is the maintenance cost per unit length, $/m; t is the
operating temperature (°C); tc is the critical temperature of
hydrate formation (°C); t0 is the soil temperature of the
buried pipeline (°C); tw1 is the temperature of the tracing
water before heating (°C); and tw2 is the temperature of the
tracing water after heating (°C).
Table 2 compares the investment and operation costs for
the two gas hydrates inhibiting technologies, i.e., electrical
heat tracing and hot-water tracing in terms of materials,
Operation cost ($/a)
Total Energy consumption Maintenance Total
6145.7 6627.7 198.9 6826.6
4675.1 55,956.3 652.0 56,608.3
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5896
installation, labor, energy consumption and maintenance
under the same pipeline conditions as mentioned above.
The heat-tracing cycle was calculated as 200 days per year.
This reveals that the electrical heat-tracing technology
needs high investment, 1.3 times higher than the hot-water-
tracing technology, but its operation cost is lower, about
1/8 of the latter. The need for extra time which is equal to
the costs saved over the investment period can be defined
as an additional investment return period (Munoz et al.
2009; Beal et al. 2012; Zambujal-Oliveira 2013), and the
method for determining this period can be established us-
ing the following equation:
Tp ¼ ½lg C  lgðC  K  iÞ= lgð1 þ iÞ ð21Þ
where Tp is the additional investment return period, a; C is
the years of operational cost saving ($); K is the investment
difference ($); i is the annual interest rate, 0.75 %.
As indicated above, Tp = 0.03 can be calculated from
Table 2. This demonstrates that the investment difference
between electrical heat tracing and hot-water tracing could
be balanced in 0.03 years or about 11 days, while the
comparison results reveal that the electrical heat-tracing
technology has better economic benefits than hot water in
the process of inhibiting gas hydrates.
Optimization of production process and operation
parameters
Downhole throttle technology
During the development of a high-pressure and low-pro-
duction gas field, formation of gas hydrates, pressure
fluctuations and temperature drop caused by throttle are
all challenges to the traditional technology of pressure
control valves. The downhole throttle technology has
gradually come to maturity and will be of great advantage
for surface and subsurface integration (Wang et al. 2013a;
Wu et al. 2005). This technology realizes the effect of
throttling and pressure dropping through the installation
of a choke downhole. After throttling the gas using this
technology, heat can be preserved as reservoir energy, the
formation temperature of the gas hydrates is reduced, and
Table 3 Production parameters of gas well before and after downhole throttling
Well Before downhole throttling
Oil Gas production Water Temperature
pressure (m3 d-1) production (°C)
(psi) (m3 d-1)
Xs-209 2001 4.80 4.20 20.3
Xs-104 3814 10.30 1.60 21.6
Average 2908 7.55 2.90 20.9
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Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904
the gas gathering pressure is also decreased. By reducing
investment and operation costs, the safety of the trans-
portation system can be improved, and the surface process
can be simplified. Furthermore, the downhole throttle
technology has better applicability to a gas well with a
higher wellhead pressure and a lower liquid production
capacity.
The parameters for two typical gas wells before and
after throttling are shown in Table 3, and those parameters
with which wellbore temperatures and pressure distribu-
tions are compared are shown in Fig. 2. These provenly
reveal that the downhole throttle technology can effectively
prevent the formation of gas hydrates. This is also benefi-
cial for maintaining the safety of downhole operations and
reducing the wellhead pressure.
Simplification and optimization of gas gathering
process
Simplified gas gathering processes have been widely ap-
plied in the Xushen gas field in recent years. They include
rotation metering, differential pressure gathering and
transportation and centralized disposal (Chase et al. 1988;
Fu and Chao 2011). Among them, differential pressure
gathering and transportation produce gas and heat exchange
under higher pressure and separate, meter and dehydrate gas
under moderate pressure. The centralized disposal system
brings together the processes of heat exchange, separation
and dehydration, as shown in Fig. 3. Simplification and
optimization of the gas gathering process is significant for
the surface and subsurface integration in the development of
a high-pressure and low-production gas field.
Simplification of pipeline network layout
Single gas wells connected to a station is the traditional
process for gathering gas. The layout of the connections is
limited by gas well locations, and the level of investment in
the pipeline network is noticeable.
Simplification of the pipeline network layout and
economizing on the length of the gas gathering pipeline are
efficient ways to reduce the investment costs. An example
After downhole throttling
Oil Gas production Water Temperature
pressure (m3 d-1) production (°C)
(psi) (m3 d-1)
798 3.60 1.50 17.1
2233 9.60 1.30 18.8
1523 6.60 1.40 18.4
Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904
Fig. 2 Wellbore temperature and pressure distribution before and
after downhole throttling
of simplification case for a detailed pipeline network layout
is illustrated in Fig. 4.
Integration of production facility
Compared with the traditional method of block design and
installation in situ, the integration method has desirable
advantages for industrial production. The various process-
ing units including the inlet valve block, heating furnace,
production valve block, separator and metering valve block
are each modularized and prefabricated into a skid-
mounted equipment (see Fig. 5). So the surface process
layout is simplified to enable savings in the area occupied
and the level of investment. The management and main-
tenance levels are also increased.
Electrical heat tracing and freeze-proofing technology
Electrical heat tracing and freeze-proofing technology are
efficient for inhibiting the formation of gas hydrates as
indicated above. Generally, an electrical heat-tracing band
Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of
gas gathering process
5897
Fig. 4 Example of pipeline network layout simplification
with a tandem type meets the design of a gas gathering
pipeline, and a band with a parallel type is used in the
station design, as shown in Fig. 6.
Traditional designs for managing electrical heat tracing
use a centralized control. This means that each process area
has one or two control points for managing the operation of
the electrical heat-tracing band. The statistical data from
the gas gathering station power load show that the energy
consumption for the electrical heat band accounts for 50 %
of the total. However, such a control method has short-
comings, especially when several gas wells are shut-in as it
would cause other electrical heat bands to join into the no-
load run. Electricity would be wasted, and the service life
of the pipeline coatings, insulation layers and bands
weakened. To improve this situation, some necessary op-
timization methods should be carried out. On the one hand,
the control of each well should be guaranteed, the rule that
each control point should be responsible for one well only
should be followed and each loop in the pipeline should be
set at a different operating temperature. Spontaneously, one
multiloop distribution box should be set up in every pro-
cess area and several loops separated out for controlling the
band of each well. On the other hand, the installation
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5898 Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904

Fig. 5 Integration of
production facility

Fig. 6 Structure of electrical

heat-tracing bands

location of the temperature sensor probe should be opti-
mized. The temperature measurement on gathering pipeli-
nes can be canceled, and the temperatures registered in the
inlet valve block. In the station, a temperature sensor probe
can be installed on the initial and terminal ends of the heat-
tracing band to realize accurate monitoring and control of
the temperature data. Furthermore, the layout method of
the electrical heat band should involve the thermal char-
acteristics of a Christmas tree, meters, valves and
separators.

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Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904 5899

Optimization of separation and dehydration
systems
A cyclone separator which belongs to the first stage of
separation is widely used for removing droplets above
5 lm (Hreiz et al. 2014). But when coalesce is plugged by
the impurity from the gas, the natural gas would channel
into the second stage because of its structural limitations
and the separation effect deteriorates. As shown in Fig. 7, a
division plate is installed on the fluid cylinder to improve
the effect of separation. Then, the two cyclone separation
parts are mutually independent, the channel is prevented
and the separation effect is improved. After optimized, the
effect of droplet separation is enhanced by seven percent-
age points, and the separation efficiency achieved up to
97.05 % in production practices.
When the operating of the dehydration process is un-
stable, the dew point of natural gas would rise, and the
transportation safety will be under threat. Taking one block
of Xushen gas field as an example, the influence of the
disposal capacity and operation pressure on the gas
gathering system to the dew point is investigated. From
Fig. 8, it can be seen that dehydration effect deteriorated
when the disposal capacity decreased. It can be deduced
that the dehydration device is operating in conditions of
ultra-low load, leading to low velocity of gas in the de-
hydration tower, and the dispersity of lean glycol is
weakened, while the dew point rises spontaneously. Fur-
thermore, the quantity of triethylene glycol circulating is
decreased with the drop in the operating pressure, which is
responsible for the undesirable dehydration effect. In this
experimental investigation, the dew point is above -10 °C
when the operating pressure is lower than 725 psi. So it is
available to enhance the operating pressure by means of the
pressure control valve which is installed on the exit of the
dehydration device. The design of defoaming process be-
fore separating can play a role in reducing the dehydration
load, preventing the losses of triethylene glycol and
avoiding foaming in the dehydration tower. Again, mea-
sures for injecting the pH regulator to revive the triethylene
glycol also contribute to promoting the production of a
high-pressure and low-production gas field.

Anti-corrosion measure

According to Lee et al. (2015), Cl- ion concentration can

be used to estimate the mixing of seawater in cavern

15

10

5
Dew point( )

0
35 50 65 80 95 110 125 140
-5 Daily dispoal capacity(×104 m3 )

-10

-15

-20
dispoal capacity

Operation pressure(psi)
490 540 590 640 690 740 790
0

-5
Dew point( )

-10

-15
operation pressure

Fig. 7 Optimization of separator structure Fig. 8 Influence of dehydration parameters on dew point

123
5900
Fig. 9 Corrosion condition of
facilities
Fig. 10 Energy spectrum of corrosion product
seepage water and assess the seawater intrusion into un-
derground oil storage cavern. A natural gas gathering
system always encounters the challenge of corrosion. If the
causes of this corrosion are CO2 from the gas and Cl- in
the produced water, then the safety and operational costs of
the field will be seriously affected. The corrosion due to
CO2 is influenced by temperature, differential pressure and
material quality. However, the solubility of CO2, which
depends on pressure, is the key to the corrosion. As Huq
et al. (2014) presented, dissolution of alkali feldspar might
be promoted by the lowering of pH due to the formation of
carbonic acid in the presence of high CO2 partial pressure.
The primarily mechanism of corrosion is electrochemical
which results from the physicochemical reaction between
CO2 and metallic matrix. These factors may cause a
mitigation or promotion effect on the corrosion through
their action on the formation of the corrosion product
(Fatah and Ismail 2011).
Analyzing the corrosion conditions of the facilities from
the Xushen gas field, it was revealed that corrosive pitting,
which would cause crippling, is the main pattern. As shown
in Fig. 9, it is fatally destructive to metals, whose products
are soft and easy to strip. The black corrosion product on
the surface is FeCO3, as shown in Fig. 10, whose elemental
composition includes Fe, O, Ca, Cl and Na, and the amount
of Fe, O and Ca is much higher.
123
Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904
Several targeted field practices are carried out to prevent
corrosion. In high-pressure and normal-temperature areas
(e.g., 2900–3625 psi, \30 °C) in which the pipeline ex-
tends from the wellhead to the station, the differential
pressure of CO2 is 2.9–29 psi, 20 carbon steels are still
selected for the pipeline, but the wall thickness is intensi-
fied by 1–2 mm, and an anti-corrosive agent is injected into
it. During this process, the inhibition efficiency of corro-
sion is above 80 %, and the corrosion rate is controlled to
below 0.02 mm a-1. When the differential pressure of CO2
is above 29 psi, the steel pipeline must be exchanged with
a 316-L corrosion-resistant material. As shown in Fig. 11,
the corrosion will be effectively relieved.
In a high-pressure and high-temperature area (e.g.,
2900–3625 psi, 50 °C) in which the pipeline extends from
the heating furnace to the outlet throttle valve, except for
areas where the corrosion rate of CO2 has reached its
maximum value, the corrosion resulting from Cl- cannot
be ignored at this moment. So, the use of comprehensive
and effective methods should be taken into consideration in
this situation.
Selection of defoaming agent
Foam drainage gas recovery consists of a combination of
foaming, dispersing, friction-reducing and deterging effects
in one process (Li et al. 2005). When a foaming agent is
injected into the wellbore, it will mix with the liquid which
had already accumulated. After agitating by natural gas flow,
a large amount of low-density hydrous foam is produced. By
means of this process, liquid density and slippage loss along
the wall of the production tubing would be reduced, and the
vertical lifting capacity of the gas flow could be increased.
Therefore, the productivity of a water-producing gas well
can be improved. In this study, however, difficulties emerged
after performing the process of foam drainage gas recovery.
The separation effect of natural gas and water was weakened.
Especially during the operation of the dehydration process,
when challenges from the crystallization in the high-salinity
Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904
Fig. 11 Corrosion conditions
of test blocks in gas gathering
system
foaming water were encountered. Therefore, the selection of
a defoaming agent plays an important role in the develop-
ment of a gas field.
The experimental results indicate that the process in which
organic silicon combines with polyether at a volume ratio of
3:2, adding an essential addictive, plays a favorable role in
defoaming technology in the development of a high-pressure
and low-production gas field. It offers favorable com-
patibleness with a corrosion inhibitor, antifreezer (methanol),
dehydrant (triethylene glycol) and decarburizer (methyl-
diethanolamine). Furthermore, it is well known that low
temperature and high concentration of foam can improve the
foaming velocity while high temperature and high concen-
tration of the defoaming agent can save the defoaming time,
so the best time for defoaming is late in the foaming process.
Treatment to the produced water
Gas fields with water-producing wells have the following
properties: dispersed well location, poor water quality and
uneven distribution of wells. Combination of pipeline and
tank truck transport, re-injection and discharge are the
basic treatment for the produced water.
Evaluation of re-injection ability
Four kinds of water (I, II, III, IV) were obtained after un-
dergoing different disposal methods, including physical
sedimentation, filter, chemical flocculation and steriliza-
tion. The properties of the produced water after disposal
are given in Table 4. Subsequently, experiments were
carried out to re-inject the disposed water into natural
5901
cores. The results indicate that water quality had a sig-
nificant improvement with the intensity of the disposal.
When the oil content shows little change, suspended solid
content is lower than 3 mg L-1 and median diameter is less
than 2 lm, core permeability will reduce negligibly with
increasing volume of the re-injected water (see Fig. 12).
Prediction of invalid re-injection ability
As Wang et al. (2013b), resistance coefficient parameter is
introduced by the equation:
kp Kp =lp
RF ¼ ¼ ð22Þ
kc Kc =lc
According to the published relevant literatures (Al-
Rumhy and Kalam 1996; Zhong et al. 2013), it is assumed
that the length of porous medium and velocity of flow are
constants. Hence,
DPp
RF ¼ ð23Þ
DPc
In the two formulas, RF is the resistance coefficient;
DPp the re-injection pressure of the produced water, psi;
DPc the injection pressure of clear water, psi.
Then, according to the evaluation results of re-injection
ability into cores from the pilot well, the constraint pa-
rameters of injection velocity and pressure are considered,
and the field injection threshold pressure (2030 psi) and the
maximum allowable wellhead injection pressure (3625 psi)
were defined. So, the maximum resistance coefficient can
be determined as being below 1.8, and the variation of
injection volume with the resistance coefficient in the
123
5902 Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904

Table 4 Properties of produced Kinds of water Oil content (mg L-1) Suspended solid content (mg L-1) Median diameter (lm)
water after undergoing different
disposal methods I 3.578 15.031 4.12
II 0.894 6.527 3.61
III 0.560 3.291 2.08
IV 0.308 1.004 0.75

0.15 2500
water water
2

Re-injection pressure(psi)
Effective permeability(×10 μm

water water 2300

0.12
-3

2100
0.09
1900

0.06
1700

0.03 1500
0 50 100 150 200 250

0.00 Re-injection rate(m3 /d)

0 5 10 15 20
Pore volume of cumulative injection Fig. 13 Injection index curve of pilot well for re-injection

Fig. 12 Relation between permeability and re-injection volume

re-injection cycles are significantly prolonged with dis-
Table 5 Prediction of invalid re-injection ability of the disposed posal intensity. This result is in agreement with the stable
water water injectivity of the pilot well (see Fig. 13).
Kinds of re- Maximum re- Injection Re-
injection injection volume allocation rate injection
water (m3) (m3 d-1) cycle (d) Conclusions
I 21,354 60 356
30 712
1. Although the consumption of energy from renewable
energy sources is showing a higher growth rate, hy-
II 37,370 60 623
drocarbons will remain the basis of the world’s energy
30 1246
source over the next 30 years. As a clean energy,
III 48,047 60 800
natural gas will be applied extensively in the energy
30 1600
consumption structure. It is important to take advan-
IV 53,385 60 890
tage of the role of surface and subsurface integration,
so that the efficient development of gas reservoirs will
be promoted.
process of re-injection can be established as indicated 2. Taking a high-pressure and low-production field of the
above. Xushen gas field as an example, the analytical method
When the pore volume of re-injection unit is considered, of hydraulic and thermal characteristics is established,
the following expression by Hosseini and Nicot (2012) and and the formation limits of gas hydrates determined.
Al-Homadhi (2013) is used: By comparing the magnitude of investment and
operational costs for two inhibiting technologies (i.e.,
Q ¼ pR2 h/Swc ð24Þ
electrical heat-tracing and hot-water tracing), electrical
where Q is the pore volume of the re-injection unit (m3); R heat-tracing technology has finally been selected as the
is the effective radius of re-injection (m); h is the perfo- most economical process of gas hydrate inhibition.
rated gas reservoir thickness (m); / is the porosity (%); and 3. The downhole throttle technology has a significant role
Swc is the water saturation (%). in the development of a high-pressure and low-
The invalid re-injection ability for the different kinds of production gas field. It contributes to the inhibiting
disposed water can be predicted, and the results for a of hydrate formation, simplifying surface processes
typical gas well in the field are given in Table 5. This and reducing operational and investment costs. Sim-
indicates that, with a constant injection allocation rate, the plification of pipeline network layout, integration of

123
Environ Earth Sci (2015) 73:5891–5904
the production facility and optimization of the separa-
tor structure are all beneficial to the running of the gas
field.
4. Gas gathering systems always encounter corrosion,
and the principal reasons for this are CO2 from the
natural gas and Cl- in the produced water. By
responding to the different degrees of corrosion, it is
possible to slow down the corrosion and prolong the
service life of the facilities by replacing materials and
injecting anti-corrosive agents. The technology of
produced water re-injected in situ after simple treat-
ment is validated.
Acknowledgments This work presented in this paper was finan-
cially supported by the National Natural Science Funds for Young
Scholars of China (Grant No. 51404068). We would also like to
express our gratitude to the Daqing Oilfield Company Limited for
their basic data support.
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