18CEE311T – AIR AND NOISE POLLUTION CONTROL

UNIT-1

 Air pollutants
Potentially, air pollutants can be found in air anywhere - outdoors and indoors. Air pollutants can
be divided into three groups:

I. Criteria pollutants
II. Air toxics
III. Biological pollutants

Criteria pollutants

'Criteria air pollutants' is a term used internationally to describe air pollutants that have been
regulated and are used as indicators of air quality. The regulations or standards are based on
criteria that relate to health and/or environmental effects. One key feature of criteria air
pollutants is that they are generally widely distributed across the country.

Australia has set national standards for six criteria air pollutants in outdoor (or ambient) air:
carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particles and sulfur dioxide. A Factsheet is
available for each of these air pollutants:

 Carbon monoxide
 Lead
 Nitrogen dioxide
 Ozone
 Particles
 Sulfur dioxide

Air quality in Australia

Information about air quality in major urban airsheds in Australia is available in the State of the
air: national ambient air quality status and trends report 1991-2001. The report presents an
analysis of national air quality based on 2001 data for the criteria pollutants, and examines the
trends over the past decade or so, with emphasis on the period from 1991 to 2001.

This report indicates that particles and ozone are the air pollutants of concern in Australia,
having peak concentrations at or above national air quality standards and showing no consistent
downward trend in some major cities. For this reason, the Australian Government is supporting
the States and Territories in their efforts to reduce levels of particles and ozone in Australia's
urban airsheds.

Air toxics
Air toxics are sometimes referred to as 'hazardous air pollutants'. The Living Cities-Air Toxics
Program defines air toxics as 'gaseous, aerosol or particulate pollutants that are present in the air
in low concentrations with characteristics such as toxicity or persistence so as to be a hazard to
human, plant or animal life'. See factsheet on Air Toxics.

Sources of air toxics include motor vehicle emissions, solid fuel combustion, industrial
emissions, and materials such as paints and adhesives in new buildings.

Air toxics have the potential to cause serious harm to human health and/or the environment. For
this reason, the Commonwealth, States and Territories have been working together to assess the
risks posed by these pollutants. The Living Cities: Air Toxics Program, which concluded in June
2003, was established by the Australian Government to focus attention on this area.

The State of Knowledge Report: Air Toxics and Indoor Air Quality in Australia (2001) was
prepared under the Living Cities Air Toxics Program. The report provides a compilation of
existing information on air toxics and indoor air quality in Australia. It contains a Glossary that
provides definitions of the technical terms used in relation to air toxics and profiles on individual
air pollutants.

In recognising the potential health problems arising from the exposure to air toxics, Australia has
set national benchmarks for 5 priority air toxics in ambient air: benzene, toluene, xylenes,
formaldehyde and polyaromatic hydrocarbons within the National Environment Protection
Measure for Air Toxics(link is external).

Biological pollutants

'Biological pollutants' are another class of pollutants. They arise from sources such as
microbiological contamination, eg moulds, the skin of animals and humans and the remains and
dropping of pests such as cockroaches. Biological pollutants can be airborne and can have a
significant impact on indoor air quality.

Types of air pollution

The most common and harmful pollutants outdoors include:

 particulate matter
 nitrogen dioxide
 ozone
 sulphur dioxide

We also have information on indoor air pollution.

Particulate matter (PM)

What is particulate matter (PM)?
Particulate matter is a mix of solids and liquids, including carbon, complex organic chemicals,
sulphates, nitrates, mineral dust, and water suspended in the air.

PM varies in size. Some particles, such as dust, soot, dirt or smoke are large or dark enough to be
seen with the naked eye. But the most damaging particles are the smaller particles, known as
PM10 and PM2.5. PM10 refers to particles with a diameter smaller than 10 microns (10µm) – that’s
100 times smaller than a millimetre. PM2.5 refers to particles with a diameter smaller than 2.5
microns, and these are known as fine particles. The smallest fine particles, less than 0.1 micron
in diameter, are called ultrafine particles.
Where does PM come from?

Man-made particulate matter mainly comes from industry, building work, diesel and petrol
engines, friction from brakes and tyres, and dust from road surfaces. Diesel engines tend to
produce much more than equivalent petrol engines.
Natural sources of particulate matter include volcanoes, sea spray, pollen and soil. It is also
formed in the atmosphere when gases such as nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide are changed
in the air by chemical reactions.

How does PM affect your lungs?

The size of particulate matter will determine where it will end up once you breathe it in. Larger
particles may be trapped in your nose, while PM10 can reach your airways. Fine particles (PM2.5)
may reach the breathing sacs deep in your lungs, and ultrafine particles may even cross into your
blood stream. These particles can also carry toxic chemicals that are linked to cancer.

Particulate matter irritates your nose and throat and may be associated with more severe
symptoms in people with asthma. It results in more people with lung conditions (COPD, asthma,
bronchitis) and heart conditions (heart attacks, strokes) being admitted to hospital. It also causes
early deaths from lung and heart disease.

There’s also evidence that long-term exposure to particulate matter can contribute to the
development of lung cancer and possibly asthma.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

What is nitrogen dioxide (NO2)?

Nitrogen dioxide is a gas and is a major component of urban air pollution episodes.

Where does NO2 come from?

Man-made sources of nitrogen oxides, including nitrogen dioxide, are vehicles, power stations
and heating. Diesel vehicles are major contributors in urban areas. Roadside levels are highest
where traffic is busiest.

How does NO2 affect your lungs?

High levels of NO2 can irritate and inflame the lining of your airways, causing a flare-up of
asthma or COPD and symptoms such as coughing and difficulty breathing.

Children and older people are also more likely to be affected and develop a respiratory infection
and may react more to allergens (any substance that triggers an allergic reaction, such as pollen).

Ozone (O3)
What is ozone?

Ozone is a gas composed of 3 atoms of oxygen. In the upper level of the Earth’s atmosphere, it
absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Where does ozone come from?

Near the ground, ozone is made by a chemical reaction between the sun’s rays and organic gases
and oxides of nitrogen emitted by cars, power plants, chemical plants and other sources.

Ozone is usually highest in the spring and summer and lowest in the winter. Ozone levels are
highest during the afternoon and are often higher in the country than in towns. Ozone is a major
component of summer air pollution episodes.

How does ozone affect your lungs?

Ozone can irritate the airways of both healthy people and those with lung conditions. High levels
can cause discomfort when you breathe, reduce your lung capacity (the amount of air your lungs
can hold) and trigger asthma symptoms.

If you have a lung condition, high levels of ozone can cause difficulty breathing, wheezing and
coughing. People with asthma may need to use their reliever inhaler more often.

When there are high levels of ozone, more people are admitted to hospital with asthma-related
health problems and COPD symptoms, and there is a greater risk of illnesses like pneumonia and
bronchitis.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

What is sulphur dioxide?

Sulphur dioxide is a colourless gas, with a pungent, suffocating smell. It’s produced by burning
sulphur-containing fuels such as coal and oil. This includes vehicles, power generation and
heating.

Where does sulphur dioxide come from?

Most sulphur dioxide comes from electric industries that burn fossil fuels, and also from petrol
refineries and cement manufacturing. It can travel over long distances and contributes to the
formation of ozone.

How does sulphur dioxide affect your lungs?

Sulphur dioxide can irritate the lining of your nose, throat and lungs. It can cause coughing and
tightness of your chest, as well as a narrowing of your airway that will reduce the flow of air to
your lungs. It inflames the airways, causing coughing and more mucus. It makes conditions like
asthma and COPD worse and can lead to people being more prone to chest infections.

People with asthma are much more sensitive to sulphur dioxide than those who do not have
asthma. They may find breathing more difficult and have flare-ups when concentrations of
sulphur dioxide are high.
  SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION

Types of Sources

There are four main types of air pollution sources:

 mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains

 stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries, industrial facilities, and factories
 area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood burning fireplaces
 natural sources – such as wind-blown dust, wildfires, and volcanoes

Mobile, stationary, area, and natural sources all emit pollution into the air.

Mobile sources account for more than half of all the air pollution in the United States and the
primary mobile source of air pollution is the automobile, according to the Environmental
Protection Agency. Stationary sources, like power plants, emit large amounts of pollution from a
single location, these are also known as point sources of pollution. Area sources are made up of
lots of smaller pollution sources that aren't a big deal by themselves but when considered as a
group can be. Natural sources can sometimes be significant but do not usually create ongoing air
pollution problems like the other source types can.

Pollution On The Move

Pollution from human-generated and natural sources is often created in one place and transported
through the air. Sometimes chemical reactions in the atmosphere change pollutants before they
are deposited. Pollutants in the air can create haze, making it harder to see, and pollutant
deposition can have biological effects. NPS areas experience these effects just like other places.
Location and even the time of year can determine which pollution sources are most important to
each park.

Wind can move air pollutants short or very long distances before they cause harmful
impacts.

Parks downwind of power plants that lack modern pollution controls can have increased smog.
Tailpipe emissions from cars and trucks, as well as industrial processes such as oil and gas
development, give rise to elevated ozone concentrations. Summertime wildfires can also reduce
visibility in NPS areas. There are even examples of pollutants that originated from other
countries and were transported thousands of miles arriving at parks. The effects of this pollution
can be seen as haze and through negative biological effects. Learn more about effects of air
pollution on nature and visibility, and human health.
 The Burning of Fossil Fuels

Most of the air pollution takes place due to the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil,
gasoline to produce energy for electricity or transportation. The release of carbon
monoxide in high level indicates how much fossil fuel is burned. This also emits other
toxic pollutants in the air. Inhaling air induced with pollutants due to the burning of
natural gas and fossil fuel reduces heart’s ability to pump enough oxygen causing one
to suffer respiratory illness.

2. Industrial Emission

Industrial activities emit several pollutants in the air that affects the air quality more than
we can even imagine. Particulate matter 2.5 and 10, Nitrogen dioxide, Sulfur dioxide,
and carbon monoxide are key pollutants that are emitted from industries that use coal
and wood as their primary energy source for production of their goods. Industrial
pollution effects associated with your health can range from irritation in your eyes and
throat to breathing issues, at times can even lead to chronic illness.

3. Indoor Air Pollution

Use of toxic products also called as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), inadequate
ventilation, uneven temperature, and humidity level can cause indoor air pollution,
whether you are in office, school or at your comfortable home. House air pollution can
take place due to ignorant factors, for instance, smoking tobacco inside a room or
leaving mold infected wall untreated. Use of wood stove or space heaters is capable to
increase the humidity level which can directly affect the health a person in no time.

4. Wildfires

Climate change is not just increasing wildfire but also spiking air pollution. Burning
stubble and farm residue is also a major contribution to wildfire. It causes increased PM
2.5 in the air which collides with other harmful substances like chemical gas and pollen
creating smog. Smog makes the air hazy and people find it difficult to breathe.

5. Microbial Decaying Process

Manufacturing, chemical, and textiles industries release a large number of carbon

monoxides, hydrocarbons, chemicals and organic compounds which contaminate our
environment. Bacteria and fungi play a fundamental role in the biogeochemical cycles in
nature. They are the key indicators of abnormal environmental conditions. Decaying of
these microorganisms present in the surrounding releases methane gas which is highly
toxic. Breathing toxic gas like methane may lead to death.

6. Transportation
There is no denying that vehicle pollution is the major contributor to air pollution,
especially in urban cities. When the car burns gasoline, it emits pollutants in the air
which is as harmful as smoking 10 cigarettes a day. Your vehicle emits carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxide, and particulate matter. When the vehicle
pollution is high in the atmosphere, it creates a hole in the ozone layer contributing to
smog and causing various health issues.

7. Open Burning of Garbage Waste

Open burning of garbage is much more harmful to your health and the environment than
one may think. As per Engage EPW, Delhi Air Pollution is choking public health. Delhi
generates a whopping 9500 tons of waste every day, which makes it India’s second
waste dumping city. Exposure to open burning of garbage waste can pose serious
health risk including cancer, liver issues, impairment of immune system, reproductive
functions; can also affect the developing nervous system.

8. Construction and Demolition

During clean air act movement, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) registered
the highest number of air pollution complaints in the Delhi NCR due to construction and
demolition activities. With the rise of population in the city, construction and demolition
is a part of the ever going development phase of the national capital. Several
construction sites and raw materials such as bricks and concrete cause haze and foul
air which is hazardous for the people especially, children and elderly citizens.

9. Agricultural Activities

Agricultural activities have had a serious impact on the decreasing air quality. To begin
with pesticides and fertilizers are the main source to contaminate the surrounding air.
Nowadays, pesticides and fertilizers are mixed with new invasive species which are not
found in nature, for quick growth of the crops and vegetation. Once they are sprayed
over, the smell and the effect of the pesticides are left in the air. Some mix with water
and some seeps into the ground which not only destroys the crops but also causes
numerous health-related issues.

10. Use of chemical and synthetic products

Talking about air pollution, we always consider outdoor air pollution dangerous for our
lives but never talk about indoor air pollution. Household products cause indoor air
pollution which is 10 times more harmful than outdoor air pollution. Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) found in paints, cleaners and personal care products such as
perfume and deodorants are a reason for common heath issues. Risks like asthma or other
respiratory issues and lung disease are other issues cause by inhaling poor house air quality.

Types and Sources of Air Pollution

Introduction

Air pollution is defined as the presence of any particle or gas found in the air that is not part of
the original composition. Air pollution is a change in the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of the air surrounding us. The substances that cause air pollution are called air
pollutants, and they may be in the form of a gas, liquid, or solid.

Air pollutants are transboundary in nature as they travel and affect areas far away from their
point of origin. Air pollution causes adverse effects on humans and other living organisms. Our
PE Environmental exam review course thoroughly reviews the types and sources of air pollution
for those preparing for the PE Environmental exam.

Air Quality Index

Air quality index (AQI) indicates whether pollutant levels in the air may cause health concerns.
AQI ranges from 0 to 500, with a higher number meaning a lower air quality.

The table below provides the AQI limits for human health.

Air Quality Index

Air Quality Air Quality Index Range
Good 0-50
Moderate 51-100
Unhealthy for sensitive groups 101-150
Unhealthy 151-200
Very unhealthy - ALERT 201-500

The air quality index table is a useful reference for environmental engineers preparing to take the
PE exam.

Types of Air Pollutants

Air pollutants may be natural, such as wildfires, or may be synthetic (manmade). Air pollutants
are classified as primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.

· Primary air pollutants are emitted directly into the atmosphere by the original source
· Secondary air pollutants are formed because of reactions between primary pollutants and other
elements in the atmosphere, such as the ozone.

The common air pollutants are discussed below:

· Carbon Monoxide - Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas. Carbon monoxide can be
present in car exhaust and smoke. Carbon monoxide deprives humans of their oxygen supply,
which causes headaches, fatigue, impaired vision, and even death.
· Sulfur Dioxide - Sulfur dioxide is produced when coal and fuel oils are burned and is also
present in power plant exhaust. Exposure to sulfur dioxide narrows the airways in the respiratory
system, which causes wheezing and shortness of breath.

· Nitrogen Dioxide - Nitrogen dioxide is both a primary and secondary air pollutant. Nitrogen
dioxide is created when nitrogen reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere. Nitrogen dioxide can
cause respiratory infections and other respiratory problems.

· Particulate Matter - Particulate matter contains particles of different sizes that are released into
the atmosphere from various sources, including fossil fuels, dust, smoke, and fog. Particulate
matter can accumulate in the respiratory system, which can aggravate the heart and lungs and
increase the risk of respiratory infections.

· Ground-Level Ozone – Ground-level ozone is formed from automobile, power, and chemical
plant exhausts. Ground-level ozone irritates the respiratory system and causes asthma by
reducing lung function.

· Smog - Smog is the combination of gases with water vapor and dust and forms when heat and
sunlight react with gases, which is known as photochemical smog.

 MONITORING TECHNIQUES OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is monitored at certain sites around Scotland 24 hours a day. There are many
different ways of sampling the air to check how polluted it is.

Ways to sample ambient air

There are 5 main methods of sampling air quality:

1. Passive Monitoring

 Diffusion tubes absorb a specific pollutant from the ambient air - no power supply is
needed
 Diffusion tubes normally monitor for 2-4 weeks at a time
  The tubes must be sent to a laboratory for analysis to see how much pollution they have
detected

2. Active (Semi Automatic) Sampling

 An analyser pulls the ambient air through a filter for a set period of time e.g one filter per
day
 The filters are then collected and sent to a laboratory for analysis to see how much
pollution they have detected

3. Automatic point monitoring

 Ambient air is pulled through an analyser which recognises the chosen gas and will
calculate its concentration
 Automatic sites monitor pollutants 24hours a day
 Data is sent from the site directly to your computer which means it can be seen instantly

All the information gathered from automatic point monitoring sites published online to let the
public know what the current air quality is like. There is also a forecasting system called 'Know
& Respond' which alerts you if poor air quality is forecast for the day ahead.
4. Photochemical and optical sensor systems

 These are portable monitoring tools that can continuously monitor a range of pollutants.
The sensors are of low sensitivity and mostly suitable for identifying hotspots at
roadsides and near point sources.
 Data can be downloaded to your computer and analysed.

5. Remote optical/long-path monitoring

 This method of sampling detects pollution between a a light source and a detector which
are placed separately at a site
 Real time measurements can be taken with this type of sampling.
 Data can be sent from the analyser directly to your computer which means it can be seen
instantly
  What is Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is unwanted and unpleasant sound which can deteriorate human health and other
living organisms present in the Environment.

 Why to Measure Noise at the Workplace

At workplace machines, traffic, vehicles create occupational noise. Employees and occupants are
exposed to this harmful noise. Due to this occupants can face many health problems such as
headache, hearing impairment, hypertension, heart problem, annoyance and sleep disorder. to
Avoid this situation Perfect Pollucon Services conducts Noise Testing in the company or home
to measure high noise within premises. Actions can be taken once the locations and source are
identified which are causing the noise. it helps to keep your employee or family safe from
Harmful Noise.

Measurement of Noise Level Using Noise Testing Equipment

Sound/Noise level meter equipment measures noise pollution. It consists of several parts, mainly
Microphone, Pre-amplifier, frequency weighting, Processor, Display System, communication
System and Power Supply. dB(A) Leq denotes the time-weighted average of the level of sound
in decibel on scale A which is relatable to human hearing.

A “decibel” is a unit in noise measurement. “A”, in dB (A) Leq, denotes the frequency
weighting in the measurement of noise and corresponds to frequency response characteristics of
the human ear.

Leq: It is an energy mean of the noise level over a specified period.

Noise level Survey schedule is planned in such a way that it covers the noise generation by
normal daytime activities i.e. from 08:00 am to 10:00 pm and a part of nighttime activities i.e.
10:00 pm to 12:00 am (at night).

Due to the increase in noise pollution in recent years, it is recommended to conduct a

measurement of noise pollution program on company premises.
  Noise level Monitoring & Testing

The answer to the question of how to measure sound lies in Noise level Monitoring or sound
Measurement for a particular instance or for 24X7 hrs to analyze trends for better understanding
of the environment. these Processes also used in Noise Impact Assessment (We love to do thisby
Noise level Testing companies. This process is also called as Noise level Measurement.

A) Industrial Noise Measurement

Industrial Noise is the loud sound in industries. In general, it is produced, at every stage in the
industry by various aspects like welding, hammering, drilling, blowing, running machinery,
motors, sheet metal work, lathe machine work, operation of cranes, grinding, turning,
fabricating, forging, compressing, breaking, moulding, steaming, boiling, cooling, heating,
venting, painting, pumping, packing, transporting etc. It creates very serious of large-scale noise
problems; significantly affect the working people as well as surrounding people.

B) Non-Industrial Noise Measurement

i)Road Traffic Noise:

Road traffic is the most widespread source of the noise. It is directly proportional to the volume
of vehicles. Increasing the population is increasing in vehicles and hence increasing of Noise
pollution. The major sources of noise in automobiles are exhaust, intake, engine and fan, and
tires at high-speed. Noise Level Monitor instrument (or with noise level data logger) measures
the noise level.

 MONITORING TECHNIQUES OF NOISE POLLUTION

Noise or sound level monitoring or measurement is a process to measure the magnitude of Noise
in industries and residential area. Data collected from Noise level monitoring & Testing helps us
to understand trends and action can be taken to reduce noise pollution. Noise pollution is Low or
High-frequency sound that can cause/harm the activity of human life. It can be caused by various
industrial Machines, Motor Vehicles and Craft etc. Noise Pollution Monitoring process is a part
of Environmental Monitoring & Testing as noise pollution is also increasing exponentially in
recent years.

ii) Residential Noise Measurement

In normal day –to – day activities, various home appliances in our residences produce noise.
Some of the major sources are Exhaust Fans, lawn movers, grinders, Fan, Cooling & Heating
System, T.V & Music System, motors used for pumping etc.

Noise Level Testing Standards

Limits or noise level standards defined by pollution control board during Day time for
Residential Noise < 55 dB and Limits during Night time for Residential Noise < 45 dB

In industry, there are of two types Sound Monitoring & testing or Noise Level Measurement:

 Ambient Noise level Monitoring

 In-plant Noise level Monitoring

A) Ambient Noise Level Testing Standards

Ambient Noise level Monitoring or Noise pollution Measurement within the industrial zone at
ambient conditions. (e.g. Near Main Gate, Near Canteen, Near Manufacturing plant etc.) As per
Central Pollution Control Board (as per Factory act 1948):
Limits or acceptable noise level during Day time for Ambient Noise < 75 dB and Limits during
Night time for Ambient Noise < 70 dB.
  COMBUSTION PROCESS

To move an airplane or a model rocket through the air, we must use a propulsion system to
generate thrust. Different types of aircraft use different types of propulsion devices, but all
aircraft rely on some type of engine to generate power. Rocket engines, internal combustion, or
piston engines, and jet engines all depend on the burning of fuel to produce power. Burning a
fuel is called combustion, a chemical process that we study in middle or high school.

Because combustion is so important for aircraft and rocket propulsion, we will review the
fundamentals. Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with
oxygen and gives off heat. The original substance is called the fuel, and the source of oxygen is
called the oxidizer. The fuel can be a solid, liquid, or gas, although for airplane propulsion the
fuel is usually a liquid. The oxidizer, likewise, could be a solid, liquid, or gas, but is usually a gas
(air) for airplanes. For model rockets, a solid fuel and oxidizer is used.

During combustion, new chemical substances are created from the fuel and the oxidizer. These
substances are called exhaust. Most of the exhaust comes from chemical combinations of the
fuel and oxygen. When a hydrogen-carbon-based fuel (like gasoline) burns, the exhaust includes
water (hydrogen + oxygen) and carbon dioxide (carbon + oxygen). But the exhaust can also
include chemical combinations from the oxidizer alone. If the gasoline is burned in air, which
contains 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen, the exhaust can also include nitrous oxides (NOX,
nitrogen + oxygen). The temperature of the exhaust is high because of the heat that is transferred
to the exhaust during combustion. Because of the high temperatures, exhaust usually occurs as a
gas, but there can be liquid or solid exhaust products as well. Soot, for example, is a form of
solid exhaust that occurs in some combustion processes.

During the combustion process, as the fuel and oxidizer are turned into exhaust products, heat is
generated. Interestingly, some source of heat is also necessary to start combustion. Gasoline and
air are both present in your automobile fuel tank; but combustion does not occur because there is
no source of heat. Since heat is both required to start combustion and is itself a product of
combustion, we can see why combustion takes place very rapidly. Also, once combustion gets
started, we don't have to provide the heat source because the heat of combustion will keep things
going. We don't have to keep lighting a campfire, it just keep burning.

To summarize, for combustion to occur three things must be present: a fuel to be burned, a
source of oxygen, and a source of heat. As a result of combustion, exhausts are created and heat
is released. You can control or stop the combustion process by controlling the amount of the fuel
available, the amount of oxygen available, or the source of heat.

 Air quality management in Indian cities and challenges

The air quality in most Indian cities is quite poor with a high concentration of PM 2.5. 21 of the
most polluted top 30 global cities are in India. In recent decades, increasing urbanization, vehicle
population growth, insufficient infrastructure to support municipal solid waste management, and
biomass burning for cooking have aggravated the situation further in urban areas. Presently about
80% of the urban population is exposed to air quality that does not meet the Central Pollution
Control Board ambient air quality standard for PM10 (60 μg/m3). In recent years, Indian states
and central governments have taken several initiatives to reduce air pollution. They have touched
upon different air quality management (AQM) components, such as establishing goals to reduce
air pollution level, assessing air quality and source status, developing air quality control
strategies, implementing policies on ground, and undertaking ongoing evaluation. Although
India made progress for different AQM components but considering the country's current air
quality status, population, and extent of geographic areas, it requires more serious attention.

The first objective of AQM is establishing goals to reduce the air pollution level, and National
Clean Air Programme (NCAP) launched in January 2019, has set a goal of 20-30% reduction in
PM concentration by 2024 for 122 non-attainment cities of India. However, to get efficient on
ground outcomes of the NACP goal, there is a need to develop a city-scale goal for each air
pollution source sector, which is currently missing from many of the urban areas. City-specific
goals are essential if we want to see on ground impacts. Each region and city has different
characteristics in terms of air pollution sources, local administrative, social, and political
conditions. Therefore, we need to define each area's goal separately, considering the source
profile and other local characteristics.

The second component of AQM is assessing the air quality and source status. This component
includes different tools such as emissions inventories, air quality monitoring, air quality
modelling, which allows air quality managers to determine emissions reduction targets to
achieve the goal of AQM. Without understating the level of air quality, sources of air pollution,
the contribution of different air pollution sources to regional and local atmosphere, and impacts
on receptors, it is difficult to suggest any efficient mitigation solution. India has 793 operating
stations in 344 cities/towns in 28 states and 7 Union Territories of the country under the National
Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP). There are 261 continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring
Stations in 134 Cities covering 23 States & Union Territories connected to the web-based system
providing Real-Time Ambient Air Quality details. It is important to note that most of these
monitoring stations are in urban areas, spatially in megacities like Delhi. Smaller cities only have
1-2 continuous monitoring stations and few manual air quality stations. There are no ambient air
quality monitoring stations available in rural areas. Another essential tool is the emissions
inventories requires for air quality modeling and understanding the air pollution sources. There is
limited emissions inventory data available in India, and the existing emissions inventory data is
not openly accessible. There is no high-resolution emissions inventories data available in the
country to assess the source contribution at local scale.

The third component of AQM is developing control strategies. In this step, policymakers develop
control strategies for each sector to mitigate air pollution emissions. For different air pollution
sources, India has identified various air pollution control strategies. For example, providing LPG
to solid fuel user households, increasing public transportation, improving MSW collection
efficiency, and electrification of public and private transport, etc. However, most of these
policies are based on the coarse analysis of overall air pollution sources in-country, considering
other priorities. To efficiently manage the air quality, India needs to develop city and district
level strategies with the proper understanding of local air pollution sources. It would allow
policymakers to build air pollution mitigation measures for nationally unrecognized sectors that
have high impacts on local and regional air quality.

India has come up with critical policies and we have started implementing them on ground to
mitigate air pollution. These policies are showing significant impacts on reducing emissions
from the associated air pollution source sector. For example, Prime Minister Ujjwala Yojna is an
important policy that reducing outdoor and indoor air pollution and also providing other co-
benefits to Indian households. The Indian government is working on transportation and
municipal solid waste (MSW) management with different policies that directly impact air
pollution emission reduction from the associated sectors. However, there is still a need to
consider other sectors such as industries, road dust, and nationally unrecognized sources. Many
of these existing measures focus on metro cities, ignoring smaller towns and rural areas. Some
measures require fewer investments but have more air quality benefits. We need to also identify
such measures. This only possible when we have local information with real ground truth.

The last component of AQM is to undertake ongoing evaluation to understand the air quality
goal's progress. At present this is only evaluated by the ambient air quality status, which gives a
false outcome since the air quality of any region depends on various parameters. Smaller changes
in air quality status cannot be considered a tool to evaluate the progress of goals. The mechanism
of air quality goal evaluation is currently missing in India to assess the progress in AQM.

The AQM cycle is a dynamic process, requires continuous evaluation of each of its steps. Every
component of AQI needs the participation of scientists, city managers, policymakers, politicians,
social scientists, as well as the community. Compared to the last decade, India has made progress
in the AQM system, but the current system requires much more effort to change the ground.

 GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's
heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The
greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live.

How does the greenhouse effect work?

As you might expect from the name, the greenhouse effect works … like a greenhouse! A
greenhouse is a building with glass walls and a glass roof. Greenhouses are used to grow plants,
such as tomatoes and tropical flowers.

A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the daytime, sunlight shines into the
greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside. At nighttime, it's colder outside, but the
greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls of the greenhouse trap the
Sun's heat.

A greenhouse captures heat from the Sun during the day. Its glass walls trap the Sun's heat,
which keeps plants inside the greenhouse warm — even on cold nights. Credit: NASA/JPL-
Caltech

The greenhouse effect works much the same way on Earth. Gases in the atmosphere, such as
carbon dioxide, trap heat similar to the glass roof of a greenhouse. These heat-trapping gases are
called greenhouse gases.

During the day, the Sun shines through the atmosphere. Earth's surface warms up in the sunlight.
At night, Earth's surface cools, releasing heat back into the air. But some of the heat is trapped by
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. That's what keeps our Earth a warm and cozy 58
degrees Fahrenheit (14 degrees Celsius), on average.

Earth's atmosphere traps some of the Sun's heat, preventing it from escaping back into space at
night. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

How are humans impacting the greenhouse effect?

Human activities are changing Earth's natural greenhouse effect. Burning fossil fuels like coal
and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere.

NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse gases
in our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause Earth's atmosphere to trap
more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up.

What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth?

Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of plants! Plants can help to balance
the greenhouse effect on Earth. All plants — from giant trees to tiny phytoplankton in the ocean
— take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen.

The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air. Unfortunately, the increased
carbon dioxide in the ocean changes the water, making it more acidic. This is called ocean
acidification.

More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such as certain shellfish and coral.
Warming oceans — from too many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — can also be harmful
to these organisms. Warmer waters are a main cause of coral bleaching.
  URBAN HEAT ISLAND

Urban heat islands" occur when cities replace natural land cover with dense concentrations of
pavement, buildings, and other surfaces that absorb and retain heat. This effect increases energy costs
(e.g., for air conditioning), air pollution levels, and heat-related illness and mortality.

An urban heat island occurs when a city experiences much warmer temperatures than nearby
rural areas. The difference in temperature between urban and less-developed rural areas has to do
with how well the surfaces in each environment absorb and hold heat.

An urban heat island occurs when a city experiences much warmer temperatures than nearby
rural areas.

An illustration of an urban heat island. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Why does this happen?

An urban area is a city. A rural area is out in the country. The sun’s heat and light reach the city
and the country in the same way. The difference in temperature between urban and less-
developed rural areas has to do with how well the surfaces in each environment absorb and hold
heat.

If you travel to a rural area, you’ll probably find that most of the region is covered with plants.
Grass, trees and farmland covered with crops, as far as the eye can see.

Plants take up water from the ground through their roots. Then, they store the water in their
stems and leaves. The water eventually travels to small holes on the underside of leaves. There,
the liquid water turns into water vapor and is released into the air. This process is called
transpiration. It acts as nature’s air conditioner.
An illustration of the process of transpiration. Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

See it for yourself!

You can feel cooling transpiration at work on a hot summer day. On a sunny day, go outside and
find a sidewalk that is right next to a patch of grass. Feel both surfaces. The grass should feel
cooler on your skin than the pavement—and that’s mostly due to transpiration!

When you visit a big city, you won’t see many plants. Instead, you’ll see sidewalks, streets,
parking lots and tall buildings. These structures are usually made up of materials such as cement,
asphalt, brick, glass, steel and dark roofs.

What do urban building materials have in common?

First of all, materials such as asphalt, steel, and brick are often very dark colors—like black,
brown and grey. A dark object absorbs all wavelengths of light energy and converts them
into heat, so the object gets warm. In contrast, a white object reflects all wavelengths of light.
The light is not converted into heat and the temperature of the white object does not increase
noticeably. Thus, dark objects—such as building materials—absorb heat from the sun.
Dark surfaces--whether a black t-shirt or an asphalt street--absorb the sun's heat, while lighter
colored surfaces reflect heat from the sun. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

To cool down urban heat islands, some cities are ‘lightening’ streets. This is done by covering
black asphalt streets, parking lots, and dark roofs with a more reflective gray coating. These
changes can drop urban air temperatures dramatically, especially during the heat of summer.

Planting gardens on urban rooftops can also help to cool down the city, too! In fact, a study in
Los Angeles, California, calculated that changes like these would be enough to save close to
$100 million per year in energy costs!

Urban building materials are another reason that urban areas trap heat. Many modern building
materials are impervious surfaces. This means that water can’t flow through surfaces like a brick
or a patch of cement like it would through a plant. Without a cycle of flowing and evaporating
water, these surfaces have nothing to cool them down.
Skyscrapers in Chicago. Image credit: Flickr user GiuseppeYahoo Cortese

To help cool the heat island, builders can use materials that will allow water to flow through.
These building materials—called permeable materials—promote the capture and flow of water,
which cools urban regions.

What does it mean?

Urban heat islands are one of the easiest ways to see how human impact can change our planet.
After all, sidewalks, parking lots and skyscrapers wouldn’t exist if humans weren’t there to build
them. And although these structures are essential to city living, the heat islands they create can
be dangerous for humans.

In the summer, New York City is about 7°F (4°C) hotter than its surrounding areas. That doesn’t
seem like much, but these higher temperatures can cause people to become dehydrated or suffer
from heat exhaustion. The hot temps also require more energy to operate fans and air
conditioners. This can lead to power outages and a serious danger to public health.

But, there are things we can do to help cool the cities down. And NASA satellites can help to
figure out where these cities are the hottest.

Caption: These images from the NASA/USGS satellite Landsat show the cooling effects of
plants on New York City’s heat. On the left, areas of the map that are dark green have dense
vegetation. Notice how these regions match up with the dark purple regions—those with the
coolest temperatures—on the right. Image credit: Maps by Robert Simmon, using data from the
Landsat Program.

Earth-observing satellites, such as Landsat and Suomi-NPP, can keep a close eye on the Earth’s
vegetation and surface temperature. Scientists can use this information to track hotspots in cities
across the planet. NASA scientists, with their global satellite views, are working to understand
urban heat islands and help urban planners to build more energy efficient, cooler and safer cities.
  NOISE QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

In WHO noise quality guidelines, values are summarized with regard to specific environments
and effects. For each environment and situation, the guideline values take into consideration the
identified health effects and are set, based on the lowest levels of noise that affect health (critical
health effect). Guideline values typically correspond to the lowest effect level for general
populations, such as those for indoor speech intelligibility. Noise guideline values are for the
onset of health effects from noise exposures.

Time Standard limits as per WHO guidelines

Specific Environment Base
LAeq [dB] LAmax, fast [dB]
(hours)
Outdoor living area 16 50 - 55 -
Dwelling, indoors, Inside 16 35 -
bedrooms 8 30 45
Outside bedrooms 8 45 60
School class rooms and pre- During
35 -
schools, indoors class
Sleeping
Pre-school bedrooms, indoors 30 45
time
During
School, playground outdoor 55 -
play
8 30
Hospital, ward rooms, indoors 40 -
16 30
Hospitals, treatment rooms,
- As low as possible -
indoors
Industrial, commercial,
shopping and traffic areas, 24 70 110
indoors and outdoors
Ceremonies, festivals and
4 100 110
entertainment events
Public addresses, indoors and
1 85 110
outdoors
Music through 85 (under headphones, adapted to
1 110
headphones/earphones free-field values)
120-140 (peak sound
Impulse sounds from toys, pressure (not LAmax,
- -
fireworks and firearms fast), measured 100
mm from the ear)
Existing quiet outdoor areas
should b e preserved and the ratio
Outdoors in parkland and
- of intruding noise to natural
conservation areas
background sound should be kept
low