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Installation Practices Manual

Antenna Practices

Table of Contents

Paragraph Page

4.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-1

4.2 ANTENNA LOCATION......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2.1 Comm Antenna Location ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2.2 VHF Comm and GPS Antenna Spacing Guidelines............................................................................................................................. 4-1
4.2.3 ADF Antenna Location ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4-2
4.2.4 Nav Antenna Location ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.5 L-Band Antenna Location .................................................................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.6 Radio Altimeter Antenna Location ...................................................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.2.7 Radar Antenna Location....................................................................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.3 ANTENNA SELECTION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.1 Comm Antenna Selection..................................................................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.2 ADF Antenna Selection ....................................................................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.3 Nav Antenna Selection......................................................................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.3.4 L-Band Antenna Selection ................................................................................................................................................................... 4-4
4.4 FACTORS AF F ECTING VHF COMMUNICATION .......................................................................................................................... 4-5
4.4.1 Line-of-Sight Range............................................................................................................................................................................. 4-5
4.4.2 Radiated Power Output/Received Power ............................................................................................................................................. 4-5
4.4.3 Free Space Loss.................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.4.4 Antenna Factors ................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.4.5 Multipath.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-6
4.4.6 Locally Generated Noise or Interference.............................................................................................................................................. 4-7
4.5 BONDING, CABLE BUNDLING, AND CORROSION PROTECTION............................................................................................. 4-7
4.5.1 Antenna Bonding ................................................................................................................................................................................. 4-7
4.5.1.1 RF Strap for Reducing RF Interference............................................................................................................................................. 4-8
4.5.1.2 Bonding on Composite, Fiberglass, or Fabric Skins ......................................................................................................................... 4-8
4.5.2 Cable Bonding ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 4-9
4.5.3 Corrosion Protection ............................................................................................................................................................................ 4-9
4.6 ANTENNA SEALANT........................................................................................................................................................................... 4-9
4.7 ANTENNA SKIN MAPPING .............................................................................................................................................................. 4-10

NOTICE: This section replaces second edition dated 6 March 1992.

 List of Effective Pages *The asterisk indicates pages changed, added, or deleted by the current change.

Page No Issue

* Title ........................................... 4 Mar 98

* List of Effective Pages............... 4 Mar 98
*4-1 thru 4-10 .............................. 4 Mar 98

RETAIN THIS RECORD IN THE FRONT OF THE MANUAL. ON RECEIPT OF

Record of Revisions REVISIONS, INSERT REVISED PAGES IN THE MANUAL, AND ENTER DATE
INSERTED AND INITIALS.

REV REVISION INSERTION SB NUMBER REV REVISION INSERTION SB NUMBER

NO DATE DATE/BY INCLUDED NO DATE DATE/BY INCLUDED

1st Ed 22 Mar 90 None

2nd Ed 6 Mar 92 None

3rd Ed 4 Mar 98 None

 section IV
antenna practices

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The following paragraphs provide information on the installation of avionics antennas. The location of the
antenna greatly affects the efficiency of the antenna. Antenna mounting practices and antenna location re-
quirements are included. The importance of a good antenna installation cannot be over-emphasized, it is es-
sential if optimum system performance is to be obtained.

4.2 ANTENNA LOCATION

The location of the antenna for each type of equipment requires specialized information. The following para-
graphs contain information for each equipment type, starting with comm equipment.

4.2.1 Comm Antenna Location

Maintain maximum spacing between comm antennas and nav antennas. It is essential that all antennas be
bonded to the aircraft skin. Failure to do so can create VHF RFI problems in autopilot systems and other air-
craft equipment, and comm to nav interference.

A line-of-sight path should be maintained between the receiving station and the VHF transmitter antenna. A
bottom-mount antenna can be used for en route operations and a top-mounted antenna can be tied to the
other comm for ground communications. This arrangement also gives a higher degree of antenna isolation
which will help to minimize comm to comm interference.

The top antenna should be mounted at the highest point above the cabin to ensure a good radiation pattern.
Typically the top-mounted antenna should be connected to Comm 2 and the belly antenna to Comm 1. This
arrangement provides good communications while on the ground via Comm 2 and when airborne via Comm
1.

If it is absolutely necessary to mount both antennas on the same side (both on top or bottom) of the aircraft,
make sure the separation between antennas is a minimum of 1.2 meters (4 ft). The comm antennas can in-
teract with each other if mounted too close together, and produce large directional "dead spots".

Keep vhf comm antennas at least 1 meter (3 ft) away from VOR antennas. Interaction between the two can
result in VOR needle movement during comm transmission.

4.2.2 VHF Comm and GPS Antenna Spacing Guidelines

This information provides installed equipment spacing guidelines to address VHF Comm and GPS mutual
interference (refer to Figure 4-1).

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Figure 4-1. VHF and GPS Antenna Spacing Recommendations

Background: GPS receivers calculate position by receipt of very low-level RF signals from orbiting satel-
lites. These low-level signals may be interfered with, causing loss of satellite tracking capability (and loss of
position). VHF COMM radios, at certain transmit frequencies, produce harmonics which could cause such in-
terference. (Note that the only item of concern being addressed is interference with the GPS.)

Assumptions: 2 dB loss from antenna to the antenna port terminals of the units.
Unity antenna characteristic (no gain, no loss).

Any deviation from these assumptions must be accounted for independently.

Recommendation D1:

Antenna-to-antenna spacing of no less than 1 Meter.

Recommendation D2:

GPS antenna-to-VHF transceiver spacing be as far apart as possible, and not closer than 25 feet. This 25
foot spacing may be reduced by isolating the VHF radio in shielded enclosures (e.g. equipment bay), and
by orienting the radio so that the face of the COMM points away from the GPS antenna.

Recommendation D3:

Receiver-to-transceiver spacing of not less than 1 Meter.

4.2.3 ADF Antenna Location

ADF systems are susceptible to L-band interference. Locate the ADF antennas as far from the DME and
transponder antennas as possible. If an HF is installed on the aircraft, it is normal for the ADF to give erro-
neous bearing when transmitting on the HF. This is due to the extremely strong induced voltages.

The loop should not be mounted close to a long-wire antenna, since this can cause quadrantal error prob-
lems. A minimum of 3 feet separation is recommended between the ADF loop and all other antennas.

Combined sense loop antennas are critical to location and bonding techniques. Be sure to follow the installa-
tion section recommendations.

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ADF antennas are sensitive to other noise interferences such as alternator, generator, strobe, inverter, and
motor noises. The antenna location should be located to minimize this type of interference for optimal ADF
performance.

4.2.4 Nav Antenna Location

The nav antenna is normally located in the tail section of the aircraft. If an external balun is used in the nav
antenna system, it should also be bonded to the aircraft skin. Comm to nav interference has been caused by
the balun itself being susceptible to RFI. The cure in some cases has been to wrap the balun in a conductive
material such as metallic tape.

4.2.5 L-Band Antenna Location

It is important that adequate isolation be provided between two DME antennas, or a DME and a trans-
ponder antenna to prevent receiver front-end damage. It is possible, with the use of DME Y-channels, for one
DME to transmit directly on the frequency of a second DME as well as the receiver frequency of the trans-
ponder. The transponder can also transmit directly on the receiver frequency of the DME. Minimum isola-
tion of 40 dB between L-band antenna isolation plus cables loses. A separation of 4 feet between L-band stub
antennas, on a common ground plane, provides about 32 dB of isolation. The isolation increases 6 dB for each
doubling of the separation in distance; that is, 38 dB for 8 feet, 44 dB for 16 feet, etc.

In determining cable length, allow sufficient length so that bends will have a minimum of 75-mm (3-in) ra-
dius. Maximum cable length for RG-214/U is 9 m (30 ft) and for RG-142B/U, 7 m (22 ft).

Placement of the L-band antenna should be carefully planned and installation instruction followed closely to
ensure optimum performance of the system. Random placement of the L-band antenna may result in aircraft
antenna shielding causing dead spots in normal flight attitude. Select a mounting area well removed from
projections such as propellers, landing gear, and engines. Mount the antenna on the belly so that the an-
tenna will be vertical relative to the ground in normal flight attitude. The surface to which the antenna is at-
tached should be a flat plane having the largest possible area. In addition, ensure maximum separation be
maintained between the ADF sense antenna and the transponder antenna.

4.2.6 Radio Altimeter Antenna Location

The radio altimeter system requires a receive and transmit antenna. These two antennas are directional.
Follow the directions in the installation manual for mounting of radio altimeter antennas. The antennas
must be mounted on the bottom of the aircraft, and in the same direction, 90° from each other. (The 90° re-
fers to the transmit or receive antenna to be located on either side of, in front of, or behind the other an-
tenna.)

Radio altimeter antennas require special attention to prevent leakage between the receive and transmit an-
tenna. Poor bonding, insufficient separation, or failure to follow directional characteristics may cause erratic
operation. Antennas such as the 437X-1( ) must be mounted so that if an imaginary line is drawn between
the receive and transmit antenna, the coax fitting will face perpendicular to the imaginary line. Poor bond-
ing or leakage will cause intermittent low altitude reading when the aircraft is flying above the readout
range of the altimeter.

4.2.7 Radar Antenna Location

A radar antenna is located in the front section of the nose of the aircraft. The radar antenna requires a ra-
dome so the signal can pass through to reflect any precipitation in front of the aircraft. Refer to Advisory
Circular AC 43-14 in the appendix section of this manual for maintenance information on weather radar ra-

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 antenna practices 523-0776009

domes. Also in the appendix section is Advisory Circular AC 20-68B which contains the recommended radia-
tion safety precautions for ground operation of weather radar.

4.3 ANTENNA SELECTION

The following paragraph lists some of the factors in determining the proper antenna type to be used.

4.3.1 Comm Antenna Selection

There are two basic shapes for the Comm antenna, the bent whip and straight antennas. A bent whip, L-
shaped antenna located on the belly of the aircraft is acceptable but could cause problems if mounted on the
top. The bent whip antenna mounted on top of an aircraft has reduced reception and transmit distances due
to the effects of cross-polarization. A straight element comm antenna is recommended on top-mounted comm
antennas.

4.3.2 ADF Antenna Selection

The ADF antenna is part of the ADF system. The antenna to be used is specified with the ADF receiver to be
installed.

4.3.3 Nav Antenna Selection

There are many types of VOR/LOC antennas to choose from. Some VOR/LOC antenna types include the con-
ventional V-shape, Deerhorn, towel bars, and fins. The V-shape and Deerhorn are usually mounted high on
the vertical stabilizer on a short mast toward the forward part of the fuselage. The towel bars and fins are
balanced loop antennas and are normally mounted high on the vertical stabilizer. Installation of the V-shape
and Deerhorn are normally easier then the balanced loop antennas but the balanced loop antennas provide
increased reception over the V-shape and Deerhorn.

The balanced loop antenna offers an advantage over the V and Deerhorn antennas in that they exhibit a
great resistance to signals polarized in the vertical direction. Since VOR signals are horizontally polarized,
sensitivity and range are maximized while signal reflections, which tend to be vertical, are minimized. For
these reason, the balanced loop antenna will provide superior performance.

If you are performing a helicopter installation, use a balanced loop antenna. Rotor modulation (blades phase
shifting and reflecting the VOR signal) generates a good deal of reflected signal around the aircraft, and
therefore, maximum rejection of vertically polarized signals and reflections is imperative.

4.3.4 L-Band Antenna Selection

There are basically two types of L-band antennas, the stub or the blade. For DME antennas, a high-quality
blade antenna is recommended. The stub may be used on some transponder installations. The blade antenna
offers many advantages over the stub antenna. The blade antenna has a longer range, more durable, and is
less corrosive than the stub antenna. The stub antenna is generally much less expensive than the blade an-
tenna.

If a stub L-band antenna is used, the following paragraph should be used as a guide for installation of the
antenna.

Accumulation of oily film, ice, slush, or other foreign material in and around the transponder antenna may
cause transmitter frequency pulling. Normally these undesired accumulations occur on the stub antenna
near the base of the antenna around the recessed Teflon insulator. If the insulator is recessed within a flange
at the antenna base, normal aircraft washing may not remove the contamination.

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 antenna practices 523-0776009

As a preventative measure against contamination buildup in new installations, or when correcting an existing installation,
completely fill the flange surrounding the Teflon insulator with RTV-140 or equivalent. Be sure to thoroughly clean antennas
that have been in actual flight before applying RTV.

After RTV has cured, use a razor blade to trim away any excess material. The recessed area should be filled flush with RTV.
Any excess that extends beyond the specified area will result in an increase in system vswr. Care should be taken to ensure all
excess material has been trimmed away.

4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING VHF COMMUNICATION

The following is a list of factors affecting VHF communications:

a. Line-of-sight range
b. Radiated power output/received power
c. Free space loss
d. Antenna factors
e. Multipath
f. Locally generated noise or interference

4.4.1 Line-of-Sight Range

Barring obstructions, the line-of-sight range can be approximated by the following:

Distance in statute miles = Square root of 2 times the altitude in feet above the ground.

An example of the above formula is: If the altimeter indicates 15000 feet above sea level, and the ground is
4000 feet above sea level, the altitude above ground is 15000 - 4000 = 11 000. The square root of 2 times the
altitude = 148 statute miles.

4.4.2 Radiated Power Output/Received Power

The radiated power output delivered to the coax and antenna system is the peak radio power output minus
normal matched loss and SWR (standing-wave ratio) losses.

The peak radio power output may be reduced by a bad audio interface (including microphone). This will re-
sult in low modulation levels, and therefore, a low AM sideband level. The low sideband level will result in a
reduced level in the detected audio at the receiver.

The matched loss can be determined by loss curves for coax cable. The matched loss is offset somewhat by
the antenna gain, which is the ratio (in dB), if the signal in any one direction exceeds the signal level in the
opposite direction.

SWR is a measure of the degree to which the antenna and the transmission line are made for each other. The
impedance match between the antenna and the transmission line is measured by the SWR ratio.

Finding the SWR is accomplished by the following method:

a. Connect an RF wattmeter, (such as a Bird Thru line wattmeter) in line with the antenna and the an-
tenna coax.
b. With the RF wattmeter set to measure power output, key the transmitter. Record the output power.
c. Reverse the RF wattmeter setting to measure reflected power. Key the transmitter and record the re-
flected power.
d. Use VSWR nomograph, Figure 4-2, to determine the SWR ratio.

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 antenna practices 523-0776009

An SWR ratio of 2:1 (10 watts out: 1 watt reflected) is normally considered acceptable. A general rule of
thumb is: a ratio of output power to reflected power of 10:1 is considered good. This corresponds to an SWR
of approximately 2:1. Example, if the output power were 20 watts and reflected power greater than 2 watts,
a poor match exists; less than 2 watts reflected, antenna match OK. In the example, the SWR would be
1.925:1.

4.4.3 Free Space Loss

The transmitted radiated power output is attenuated by free space loss. The loss can be calculated using the
following:

FSL(dB) = 36.6 + 20 Log10D + 20 Log10F

Where: D = path distance in nautical miles

F = operating frequency in MHz

Example: If the distance is 179 miles and the frequency is 136 MHz, then this equals 124.33 dB loss.

This means the signal transmitted from the source antenna is attenuated by 124.33 dB at the receiving an-
tenna. If the transmitter puts out 20 watts (+43 dBm), then the level at the receiver is +43 dBm -124.33 dB =
-81.33 dBm. For a 50-ohm system (receiving antenna perfectly matched) with no antenna gain or loss, this
equates to 19.19 μV across the antenna terminals. This would produce an (s+n)/n ratio of at least 20 dB in a
receiver rated at 3-μV sensitivity.

4.4.4 Antenna Factors

The radiated power pattern may have a very significant effect on the power radiated in a given direction.
Pattern distortion is caused by the vertical stabilizer, other antennas, skin bonding deficiencies, etc.

The receiving antenna pattern is just as important when considering the received energy. The antenna pat-
tern can be checked in many different ways. Usually, the VHF comm transmitter is keyed down and the air-
craft changes heading to get different readings on a receiver AGC. These readings are changed into signal
level measurements and plotted.

If the antenna is bent over, then some of the energy is horizontally polarized and some is vertically polar-
ized. The horizontally polarized energy may be attenuated 20 dB(+) when being received by a vertically po-
larized antenna. Therefore, the polarization of the sending and receiving antennas is important.

4.4.5 Multipath

Multipath may cause problems in the received signal. This type of problem is usually caused by reflections
off nearby structures (usually metal). This actually results in a hole in the receive antenna pattern. Refec-
tions are characterized by a magnitude and angle. An in-phase reflection of the same magnitude as the di-
rect path will decrease the path loss by 3 dB. An out-of-phase reflection can increase the path loss and actu-
ally produce deep nulls. Reflections on a flat ground plane are predictable. Reflections on the body of an
aircraft can only be characterized with difficulty. Path loss, though, can be measured with the proper equip-
ment.

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 antenna practices 523-0776009

Figure 4-2. Graph of VSWR Using Forward Versus Reflected Power

4.4.6 Locally Generated Noise or Interference

Local interfering signals or noise on either the receiver or transmitter end of the link may block reception of
the desired signals. Many times, the receiver is placed in an environment with a high interfering signal or
noise level. Therefore, the incoming signal, which is normally acceptable, cannot overcome the effects of the
interference. This problem can be determined by measuring the AGC with the antenna versus a 50-ohm
termination. A large change would indicate one of these conditions is present. On an aircraft, a noisy power
system could cause this kind of problem.

4.5 BONDING, CABLE BUNDLING, AND CORROSION PROTECTION

The following paragraphs describe some techniques in improving bonding, cable bundling, and corrosion pro-
tection of antenna installations.

4.5.1 Antenna Bonding

Antennas are designed so the antenna pattern depends on a low impedance path to a ground plane. A gasket
is normally required for moisture and pressure sealing between the antenna and the mounting surface. This
gasket can be of conductive material. Gasket material no. 25 mesh aluminum wire cloth impregnated with
silicone rubber compound per AMS 3302 is a suitable alternative. The following vendors sell conductive gas-
ket material.

Technical Wire Prod. Inc

129 T. Dermody St
Cranford, NJ 01016

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Metex Electronics Corp.

970 New Durham Rd
Edison, NJ 08817

The antenna ground plane is supplied from a conductive antenna gasket and/or through the antenna
mounting screws. If a conductive gasket is used, clean off all paint, grease, oil, lacquer, metal finisher, or
other high resistance properties from an area slightly larger than the contact area. Ground, using the an-
tenna mounting screws, is accomplished through the doubler plate installed to reinforce the aircraft surface
skin. A bond between the aircraft skin and the doubler is required. Follow the bonding procedure listed in
paragraph 2.1.1 when installing a doubler plate.

RF bonding or grounding requires a strap of metal instead of a wire. This strap must be bonded directly to
the airframe using silver- or tin-plated copper strap or aluminum strap or equivalent structure. The length
to width ratio of the strap should not be more than 5 to 1 (that is, 127-mm (5-in) strap should be minimum of
25.4 mm (1 in) wide).

Bonding to anodized or painted surfaces is not acceptable for good RF grounds. Surfaces to be bonded should
be sanded free of paint or anodic film and joined using screws with washers to ensure maximum surface con-
tact over as large an area as possible. Materials should be carefully selected to avoid corrosion due to dis-
similar metals. An electrically conductive substance should be used on all bare metal surfaces to retard cor-
rosion. Refer to bonding paragraph 2.1 for additional information.

The antenna base should be well bonded to metal aircraft skin. Remove paint from around the mounting
holes and use external-tooth lockwashers between the antenna base and the skin, or under the screw heads,
to ensure a good connection between antenna and the skin. Inadequate bonding often results in poor range
and in interference to other receivers. The skin should extend at least 24 inches from the base of the antenna
in every direction. Any less will probably reduce the usable communication distance at some bearings around
the aircraft.

4.5.1.1 RF Strap for Reducing RF Interference

RF bonding or grounding requires a strap of metal instead of a wire. This strap must be bonded directly to
the airframe using silver- or tin-plated copper strap or aluminum strap or equivalent structure. The length
to width ratio of the strap should not be more than 5 to 1 (that is, 127-mm (5-in) strap should be minimum of
25.4 mm (1 in) wide).

Bonding to anodized or painted surfaces is not acceptable for good RF grounds. Surfaces to be bonded should
be sanded free of paint or anodic film and joined using screws with washers to ensure maximum surface con-
tact over as large an area as possible. Materials should be carefully selected to avoid corrosion due to dis-
similar metals. An electrically conductive substance should be used on all bare metal surfaces to retard cor-
rosion. Refer to bonding paragraph 2.1 for additional information.

4.5.1.2 Bonding on Composite, Fiberglass, or Fabric Skins

Aircraft with composite, fiberglass, or fabric skins require special antenna mounting techniques. In many
cases, a metal doubler plate must be installed inside the skin to structurally support the antenna. The dou-
bler plate should, then, extend at least 24 inches, in every direction, from the antenna base. If this is imprac-
tical, it may be possible to cement metal foil inside the skin to extend the electrical ground plane to the
minimum 24 inches. A foil extension must be well bonded to the doubler plate to be effective.

The antenna input cannot be protected against lightning voltages and currents without seriously degrading
performance. In composite aircraft, it may be necessary to connect the antenna to the transceiver structures
at both ends to help divert lightning currents away from the transceiver.

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4.5.2 Cable Bundling

Use the coax cable (or equivalent) recommended by the unit's manufacturer. Avoid sharp bends in the cable.
Keep transmit cables away from receive cables if possible. Separate cables by routing transmit cables on one
side of the aircraft and receive cables on the other side.

4.5.3 Corrosion Protection

Connector corrosion is an easily prevented problem that is all too often encountered with antenna installa-
tions. An excellent means of retarding, and in many cases eliminating, corrosion is a liberal application of
Dow-Corning DC-4 silicon grease (Collins part number 005-0201-000) on both inside and outside of the an-
tenna connector and its mate. DC-4 will not adversely affect performance in any way; its sole purpose here is
to provide an effective barrier against moisture.

If RTV is used to seal connectors or antennas, a non-corrosive version of RTV, such as RTV-3415 is recom-
mended. Some RTV's, such as RTV 732, contain Ascetic Acid. The Ascetic Acid causes connector contamina-
tion and corrodes the connector. The RTV without Ascetic Acid does take longer to cure but the additional
time more than makes up for a noncorroded connector.

4.6 ANTENNA SEALANT

Antenna installations require some sealant to supply a protection barrier from harmful elements. Follow the
installation notes from the antenna manufacturer as to the sealing method recommended.

A connector seal kit is provided by Dorne and Margolin Inc. in kit #409. The compound supplied in this
sealing kit is an easily applied room-temperature curing, tough, flexible silicone rubber encapsulant with an
exceptional resistance to moisture, acids and alkalies, fuels, grease and oils (including Skydrol). The Dorne
and Margolin, Inc. address is:

Dorne and Margolin, Inc.

2950 Veterans Memorial Highway
Bohemia, NY 11716
Telephone: (516) 585-4000
TWX: 510-228-6502

If the antenna is to be mounted on a pressurized fuselage, a leveling and sealing compound such as Coast
Proseal Aerodynamic Smoother may be needed. Proseal #890 (grey color) or #895 (aluminum color) may be
purchased from:

Aero Hardware
1037 Boston Post Rd.
Rye, New York 10580
Telephone: (914) 967-8550
Fax: (914) 967-8553

Coast Seal Distributors

3795 Northwest 38th St.
Miami, Florida 33142
Telephone: (305) 888-6578

Wiles Associates
1442 South Main St.
Gardena, California
Telephone: (213) 538-4510

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4.7 ANTENNA SKIN MAPPING

Antenna skin mapping is the procedure of attempting to identify the location of least noise for a given an-
tenna. Skin mapping is normally done on new equipment installations on a particular aircraft. Before skin
mapping, contact the aircraft manufacturer to check if a previous installation may have already determined
the ideal location for a particular antenna.

The basic principle of skin mapping is to try different antenna locations on the aircraft until the antenna lo-
cation with the least interference is found. Anything electrical on the aircraft needs to be on, with the air-
craft powered only by its engine alternators. All engines need to be running in order to simulate actual oper-
ating conditions. Difficulties involved include: bonding the antenna to the aircraft at the different locations,
locating the aircraft in a noise free area, running all the electronics on the aircraft, measuring the signal to
noise strength of each location, running the engines while conducting tests. These are some of the difficulties
to overcome in order to have reliable data. Consult your area field service engineer for additional informa-
tion on skin mapping.

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