This article was downloaded by: [University of Nebraska, Lincoln]

On: 23 October 2014, At: 11:04

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office:
Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

The Journal of Architecture

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription
information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjar20

The aesthetic of the absent The Chinese

conception of space
Li Xiaodong
Published online: 08 Dec 2010.

To cite this article: Li Xiaodong (2002) The aesthetic of the absent The Chinese conception of space, The
Journal of Architecture, 7:1, 87-101, DOI: 10.1080/13602360110114740

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13602360110114740

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”)
contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our
licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or
suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication
are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor &
Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently
verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any
losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities
whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial
or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use
can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 87

The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002

The aesthetic of the absent

The Chinese conception of space
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

1111 Li Xiaodong Department of Architecture, National University of

2 Singapore, Singapore, 119620
3111
4
5 The Chinese understanding of space can be traced back to Lao Zi’s (also spelled as Lao Tzu)
6 idea that ‘carving out a void to create a room, only where there is emptiness does the
7 room acquire utility.’ The ‘utility of a room’ is a function of its space, or ‘nothingness’.
8 According to Lao Zi, the concept of nothingness is equivalent to the Dao (the way, also
9 known as Tao): ‘You’, the general term for ‘Being’, i.e. all entities in the phenomenal world
10111 have been produced from an original state called ‘Non-being’ (‘Wu’). This idea of indeŽ n-
1 able, ‘unnameable’ Non-being that lies at the origin of all existence was to persist in later
2 development of Chinese cosmology and the concept of space and time.
3 The Chinese deŽ nition of space as explained in the term ‘Yu’ (space): extension, what Ž lls
4 different locations; ‘the four directions and the above and the below are called “Yu”’(Liu An,
5 179–122 B.C.); ‘Reality without anything in it is “Yu” ’(Zhuang Zi, Ž rst century). So, according
6 to the Chinese, space is clearly deŽ ned not only by itself but also by its referential relation-
7 ship to the context.
8
9
20111 Philosophy tion. Liu Xuzai (a famous poet of the twelfth
1 In ancient Chinese thought, space is formless, century) said: ‘In describing things meaningful and
2 immeasurable, untouchable, vast and contiguous, profound, we fail to express our thoughts entirely;
3 yet at the same time perceivable and having an rather we do our utmost to use the describable to
4 objective existence1. And because the scope, get our thoughts across. If you cannot describe a
5 content and signiŽcance of space are of an inde- thing itself, describe it inversely. If you cannot
6 terminate nature, man who perceives it can make describe it from a direct perspective, describe
7 subjective associations in trying to understand it. it from another angle. To perceive the existence
8 To the Chinese mindset, even though space of a pole through its shadow is a very subtle
9 emerges as an absence and exists outside of the experience.’ 2
30111 physical description of a form, it provides man with Lao Zi, (Fig. 1) in his Dao-de-Jing (also known as
1 boundless material for imaginative associations, the Tao-Te-Ching, see p. 88), suggested that a void is
2 image beyond image, the landscape beyond land- more useful than a solid; he favoured the metaphor
3 scape. Since such images and landscapes are empty of the vacuum and claimed that only in a vacuum
4 and exist beyond physical forms, they are blurry lay the essential. Hence, reality is to be found in a
5111 and illusory, the images exist yet elude descrip- vacuum space; motion becomes possible only in a

1111 © 2002 The Journal of Architecture 1360–2365 DOI: 10.1080/13602360110114740

 88

The aesthetic of
the absent
Li Xiaodong
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

Figure 1. Portrait of equivalent of noumena and phenomenal spheres 1111

Lao Zi, reproduction and clearly distinguishes them. All our ordinary 2
from ‘Xianpoji’ knowledge is of the phenomenal world and there- 3
(ancient Feng Shui
fore only relatively true. It is only when one has 4
Manual, 13th
obtained perfect enlightenment that one knows 5
century).
the noumena world.”4 6
Another important characteristic of the Chinese 7
conception of space is the emphasis on harmony. 8
According to Confucianism, harmony is crucial for 9
human existence. A moral code, which stressed a 10111
rational order and a social order based on strict 1
ethical rules, meshed with the structure of Chinese 2
society. Space, which is to be planned to reect 3
social hierarchy, is essential in keeping social 4
harmony. An hierarchical system of social classiŽ- 5
vacuum space. Lao Zi says that all things are cation dominated Chinese life, spatial conŽgura- 6
produced out of nothing. Thus, for the Chinese, tions were and are affected . 7
the intangible content of things, though not mate- A much later philosopher in the Ming Dynasty, 8
rially manifested, is regarded as something real3; Wang Yangming, whose school of the Mind devel- 9
accordingly, emptiness can be real space. Emptiness oped in opposition to that of the Song Neo- 20111
permeated every aspect of Chinese culture, in Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi, provides another 1
painting, calligraphy, garden, architecture, and dimension to the understanding of the Chinese 2
even poetry. conception of space. Wang took the objective 3
The idea of a void also appeared in the ancient approach of Zhu Xi, that the extension of know- 4
schools of Buddhism, transmitted to China from ledge was attained through the investigation of 5
India around 400 AD. According to Buddhism, things, as an analytical elaboratio ad absurdum. 6
there is no real existence, all things are but appear- Wang said: ‘What Zhu Xi meant by investigation 7
ances and in truth empty, standing right in the of things is “to investigate the principle (Li) in 8
middle between Buddhism’s existence and non- things to the utmost as we come in contact with 9
existence polarity. Mountains, rivers, and the great them.” ’5 To investigate the principles in things as 30111
earth are all illusions. Where there is nothing to be we come in contact with them means to look into 1
excluded, void is the ultimate reality. In a sense, each individual thing for its so-called deŽnite prin- 2
the Buddhist concept of space and time afŽrms ciples. ‘This means to apply one’s mind to each 3
that the world of experience is a pluralistic world. individual thing and look for principles in it. This is 4
‘The Buddhist divides all existence into the to divide the mind and principle into two.6 5111

Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014
1111 Wang Yangming felt that principle was prior in
2 the mind and was superimposed as a grid over
3 neutral nature. He did not recognise the duality of
4 the perceiver and the perceived but believed that
5 all things were contained in the mind. Things, then,
6 were equivalent to the event of perception and had
7 no active existence outside the mind. For Wang,
8 space is a mental notion devoid of objective exis-
9 tence. His primary interests, then, were in structure
10111 rather than detail, a theoretical position which had
1 inuenced the approach of the late Ming artists
2 and the way space was perceived: paintings in
3 the Ming period were characterised by being struc-
4 tural rather than anecdotal, indicative rather than
5 descriptive.
6 of universe. This is clearly presented in the FengShui
7 Geomancy
8 A major factor that inuenced the Chinese percep-
9 tion of space was geomancy. In China, since
20111 ancient times, FengShui practice, which involves
1 the identiŽcation of directions, seasons, signs of
2 the zodiac, and the elements from the Book of
3 Changes (I Jing, also known as I Ching), has played
4 a major part in determining the location of Chinese
5 cities, buildings and tombs. The words FengShui,
6 which literally mean wind-water, also have a strong
7 indication of the meaning of the placement of a
8 physical object in space. Feng actually represents
9 intangible and spiritual aspects of environment,
30111 whereas Shui represents tangible and physical
1 elements. The intention of FengShui is to identify
2 a good location for human settlement, the right
3 time for its construction and the proper space
4 arrangement for channelling the positive ow of
5111 Qi (the life energy). The Chinese believe that
89
The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002
mankind can avoid calamities and ensure its well
being by keeping an harmonious relationship with
nature, which involves paying respect to various
locations and then acting in accordance. FengShui
thus has exerted a strong inuence over the
Chinese conception of space.
According to FengShui, man and landscape are
linked together in a system of immanent order.
Nature, consisting of balanced forces, reacts to any
interference imposed on it, and this reaction imme-
diately resounds in man. As in a large organism,
everything is interdependent and pulsating with
energy, penetrating and embracing every single
part. The rhythm of time guided by spatial posi-
tions combined to create the Chinese conception
Compass (Fig. 2), where three categories (heaven,
man and earth) of symbols are encoded such that
time elements, spatial elements and human factors
coordinate with each other.
FengShui in general is rooted in three basic con-
cepts: immanence, interconnection, and balance.
The Žrst – immanence – names our primary under-
standing that the Earth is alive, part of a living
cosmos. The FengShui compass is actually an
encoding system of natural phenomena as an
abstract model. It functions as a Žlter through which
we identify the proper relationship of a human
being with its living environment. Interconnection –
the central issue of FengShui indicates that human
actions can affect the earth, because all compo-
nents of nature (including human being) are all
connected with each other.
FengShui’s symbols, such as Yin/Yang, the Five
Elements, Eight Trigrams engraved on the surface
 90

The aesthetic of
the absent
Li Xiaodong
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

of the FengShui Compass represent the oldest in the works of these philosophers. The apocrypha 1111
faiths and deepest symbols reecting a primal and commentaries of the Book of Changes, in 2
connection between the human being and the which the Žnal syntheses were made between all 3
natural world, a living planet that long ago the elements, and the phasing of time, constitute 4
imprinted on human consciousness a cyclic sense the most outstanding source of cosmology. 5
of death and decay, rebirth and renewal. As to the Another dimension of FengShui that inuenced 6
concept of balance, it is mostly ascribed by the two the perception of Chinese space is its graphical 7
cosmic forces of Yin/Yang and their underlying prin- representation of space. For example, a typical 8
ciples. The Yin/Yang concept is a generalisation of FengShui diagram presents a condensed view 9
the polar understanding of opposites: they are not of landscape with a high level of generalisation of 10111
exclusionary or conicting rather complementary landscape features. It consists of the pictorial 1
with each other. There is no Yin without Yang, and mapping of a nearly vertical picture of the land- 2
vice versa. In FengShui’s paradigm, neither Yin nor scape, like an aerial photograph, but of course 3
Yang is dominant. It pictures the idea perfectly and differing from the photograph in its limited thor- 4
in an appropriately non-discursive way. A circle, oughness, and its lack of a single overall perspec- 5
suggesting unity and wholeness, is divided evenly tive. Still, the result is a representation of landscape 6
– but uidly, organically, embryonically – into white that is faithful and effective (even though not 7
and black Želds. In the centre of the lobe of each complete) and beautiful (Fig. 2). 8
is a small circle of the opposite value. One circle Indigenous Chinese thought about nature is very 9
embraces polar opposites; the head of one lies over process-, as opposed to entity-, oriented. One of 20111
the tail of the other; and at the centre of the the most important terms to describe process 1
maximal extension of arch lurks its counterpart – is ‘Qi’ which turns out to be one of the crucial 2
its alter ego, so to speak. concepts in FengShui practice and thus in the 3
FengShui, on the other hand, appears to be a Chinese conception of space. The contribution of 4
form of divination and is therefore lumped together the concept of ‘Qi’ to the Chinese understanding 5
with popular religion and superstition by Western of environment could not be over-emphasised. ‘Qi’ 6
authors. But, as soon as we truly understand the is not ‘matter’, nor ‘substance’. It is more ‘hylo- 7
deep structure of FengShui theory, it can be seen zoistic energy’ and a reference to the spirit of a 8
as far from being an invention of popular super- being as well as to its corporeality. Qi does not 9
stition. It stems from Chinese syncretistic philos- reside only inside living things, but also with non- 30111
ophy from the Han Dynasty School of Naturalists living objects. Different shapes of space conduct 1
to the Neo-Confucians of the Sung Dynasty; different energy ows. In fact, Qi provides natural 2
FengShui cosmology is constructed on solid theo- processes with a kind of internal motive power. 3
ries. The symbols of FengShui cosmology and the The FengShui compass is the choreographic char- 4
correlation made between them can all be found acter of their combined exfoliation. The criterion 5111
 91

The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

1111 for judging a good space is that it can hold and Figure 2. FengShui
2 maintain positive Qi. It is believed that a balanced, compass and a
3 steady symmetrical space best suits that purpose. typical FengShui
diagram, author’s
4 This is one of the reasons that almost exclusively,
collection.
5 Chinese living spaces, from a city down to a house-
6 hold, are all symmetrical and in most cases, square
7 in shape and axial in orientation, which also has
8 an inherent suggestion of wholeness and unity.
9 According to FengShui, the four directions
10111 are considered to belong to the dragon (east),
1 the crimson bird (south), the tiger (west), and the
2 tortoise (north); mountains, streams, buildings are
3 the objects that represent these beasts. It was
4 commonly held that the ideal site should have a
5 stream on the East side, a long road on the West,
6 a pond on the South and hills or mountain on the
7 North. By studying the conŽguration of mountains
8 and rivers, one selects a site where the vital energy
9 that ows throughout the earth is conŽned by
20111 water and not scattered by the wind, and there
1 one builds houses. It was believed that if one
2 followed this principle, one’s descendants would
3 partake of the earth’s vital energy and obtain
4 riches, happiness, and long life.
5 Even though static and constrained, FengShui
6 does add an unique layer of meaning to the
7 Chinese perception of space.7
8
9 Spatial conception in landscape painting
30111 The sense of space that was represented in Chinese
1 landscape painting is another unique and impor-
2 tant contributor to the formalisation of Chinese
3 space and is equally as crucial as FengShui. The
4 ideal of painting, for the Chinese, has never been
5111 the truthful representation of reality. Its main focus
 92

The aesthetic of
the absent
Li Xiaodong
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

was, and still is, the imagination and expression of of the perpetually revolving universe. An artist who 1111
the artist’s mind, for which the sense of space has observes and describes a natural scene is different 2
always been the central issue, into which the artist from a normal person who would view the scene 3
put his main efforts. from a certain set spot. Instead, height, depth, 4
Starting with the Wei and Jin Dynasties and broadness guide the artist to explore different 5
(900–1000), Chinese painting had already enjoyed viewpoints. That is to say, the spatial conŽguration 6
a sense of unrestrained aesthetics exempliŽed by presented in a painting does not conform to the 7
natural scenic paintings of mountains and streams. principles of perspective or of natural science. 8
The guiding principle of the day was not simply to Rather, space or objects in painting are fragments 9
copy nature, but to embody and emulate it. Thus, of reality and the placements and management of 10111
the scenery of landscape paintings was quite them are determined by the emotions and inspi- 1
different from a direct representation of natural rations of the artist. The sense of space and depth 2
scenery. A painting is an object, which has been is achieved by projecting fragmented images on 3
Žltered through the artist’s thoughts, and emotions different levels, and through differences in scale 4
have been thus added. The creation of a painting and darkness such as to suggest an effect of spatial 5
adopts the limits of brush and ink to express the recession. In most cases, a landscape painting 6
limitless imagination; it invites the viewer to make contains a mountain, or an entire mountain range, 7
their own associations and relive the feeling that covering an immense range of space. To establish 8
the artist attempted to capture at the moment of an ideal scene, the artist normally shows the subject 9
creation. A painting becomes a great work of art in a small scale and viewed from a far distance, 20111
by means of the spirit beyond the actual image. It such that he may include streams and waterfalls, 1
is a part of the Chinese world-view to see the tracing them among the mountain folds, and may 2
unlimited in the limited. The charm of this concept look down from above to grasp their full lengths. 3
is that it is neither static nor unidirectional, but is By tilting forward, the ground plane provides a 4
a concept of perpetual revolution like the Wheel larger scope of vision, with the horizon shifted 5
of Buddhist Dharma. This is the salutary spatial towards the upper edge of the painting, probably 6
aesthetics unique to the Chinese, an aesthetic remaining undeŽned. 7
which breaks the limits of time and space, and sees In this way, what the artist presents in the 8
the world in the supernatural. painting is an unique perspective angle, from which 9
Holism permeates the whole concept of land- viewer does not only see, but also scans the land- 30111
scape painting. Details and individual elements are scape. (Fig. 3.) With miniaturisation of the scale of 1
never as important as the relationship among them. the subjects, space becomes expansive, making and 2
To represent that relationship, Chinese painting watching a landscape painting becomes a process 3
contains scattered perspective points. It is a method of meditation. As Guoxi (AD 1100–1165) estab- 4
of examining the fragments from the perspective lished Žrst in his treatise on landscape painting: 5111
 93

The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

1111 from the soul in a carefree way. This differs from Figure 3. A
2 the clear outlines in the statuary of the Greeks, the FengShui Master is
3 straight corridors of the Egyptian tombs, or the making diagnosis of
a potential site,
4 indistinct images in Rembrandt’s paintings. Space
reproduction from
5 is here rhythmatised, not calculated.
‘Xianpoji’.
6 Starting with the Ming dynasty, the expression
7 of space in painting is combined with dramatic
8 gesture, in which the explicit attempt at emotion
9 – or commotion – without the attendance of drama
10111 itself became the intentional effort of the artist.
1 Strong effects are often produced, but the effects
2 are sometimes improbable due to a lack of accom-
3 modation to the formal needs of drama. Still, the
4 unique value that such development in painting
5 provides is that its tension arises from a structure
6 that is closely argued. Not simply a collection of
7 instants, there is as much drama in the overall
8 structure as in the details. And this makes a new
9 dimension in the understanding of space.
20111 In Wu Bing’s Landscape, (Fig. 4), one is impressed
1 by the muscular shapes that overlap and ow
2 boldly into and around each other. Here, one
3 formidable superstructure encompasses the entire
4 composition. The two groups of trees in the fore-
5 ground set the scale and spatial reference for
6 ‘Mountain has three distances. Looking at the top the rising vertical tripartite mountain above – the
7 of a mountain from its base shows distance double foundation providing space and support for
8 stressing its height; looking at the back of a moun- the narrower Žve-part articulations of the middle,
9 tain from its front shows distance stressing its which in turn support the triple peak at the top.
30111 depth; looking at the mountain beyond from a The sinuously articulated superstructure is divided
1 mountain close by shows distance stressing its horizontally by drifting mists. Architecture, solidly
2 levelled broadness.’8 It was written in I Jing (Book but precariously situated on inaccessible plateaus,
3 of Changes) that, ‘everything between heaven and deŽnes small areas of three-dimensional space on
4 earth works in cycles and returns to its roots.’ For an otherwise two-dimensional plane. The solidity
5111 the Chinese, objects in space should be viewed of forms is constantly denied or made ambiguous
 94

The aesthetic of
the absent
Li Xiaodong
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

Figure 4. Fan Bing 1111

(Song), Landscape, 2
Courtesy of Palace 3
Museum, Tapei.
4
5
6
Figure 5. Dong
7
Qichang (Ming), 8
Landscape, Courtesy 9
of Palace Museum, 10111
Tapei. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
20111
1
2
3
4
by the insistent juxtapositions of at edges and articulation of generalised forms. Even though the 5
articulated recessions. method of painting consisted of the integrated 6
Late Ming artist Dong Qichang (1555–1636) grouping of these forms, which had been drawn 7
moved the representation of space in painting even from an orthodox artistic tradition, kept un- 8
one step further towards abstract manipulation of changed, it was the intention that was switched 9
form through his diagrammatic and self-assertiv e to a more spatially oriented perspective. Here, what 30111
composition. For Dong, an individual element was was presented was independent of time and place 1
never as important as the overall framework, he and removed from historical contexts. Figure 5 2
paid little attention to the sort of detail that would shows a highly reductive representation of land- 3
link his representation of reality to speciŽc natural scape by Dong Qichang. New styles that can be 4
phenomena, but focused on the integration and identiŽed include (1) the making of an abstract 5111
 95

The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

1111 formal vocabulary; (2) the systematic way of suggested only by changes in the darkness of
2 depicting rocks with repeated contours, treating lines, the pink and blue dots which presumably
3 them as smaller forms enclosed by larger ones, and represent plants are indicational rather than repre-
4 of shadowing with small brushstrokes to create the sentational.
5 effects of concavity and convexity; leaving at the
6 same time some undeŽned blank areas; (3) stan- Figure 6. Dao Ji
(Qing), Landscape,
7 dardised tree types, including foliated trees and
Courtesy of Palace
8 shaggy feather-like trees, all done with an air of
Museum, Tapei.
9 naiveté and obvious sense of clumsiness.
10111 Here, space was understood as distilled essences.
1 The artist’s attention had thus changed from the
2 speciŽc and particular to the generalised and
3 categorised representation of visual events. The
4 shifting of vision was achieved with subtle and
5 clever transitional passages, used for spatial
6 contrasts and dissonances among trees and houses,
7 with a sense of unresolved tension. However, under
8 the impression of disarranged space, there are in
9 fact coherent dynamic movements. The landscape
20111 unfolds itself by rows of trees tapering in height.
1 The foreground, mid-ground and Žnally back-
2 ground were suggested through different levels of Figure 7. Liu Chai
(Ming), Fishes,
3 darkness, not by perspective. So that the viewer
Courtesy of
4 may understand the whole story of landscape, the
Philadelphia Museum
5 horizon and ground plane are shifting and tilting.
of Art.
6 For Dong Qichang, in order to express the inten-
7 sity of the artist’s inner world, it is necessary to
8 deny the external world order, and the dynamic
9 movements are brought out more forcefully by
30111 stripping away the more naturalistic manner of
1 previous generations of artists.
2 Dao Ji (1630–1707) pushed Dong’s exercise
3 of abstraction even further (Fig. 6). The volumes
4 of mountain rocks and sense of space were
5111 presented purely by lines, the depth of space was
 96

The aesthetic of
the absent
Li Xiaodong
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

The painting of three Žshes in a pond (Fig. 7) format, perspective points are multiple and parallel, 1111
gives an idea of the creative level of imagination watching a painting engages time, through which 2
that must have gone into the artist’s study of his space is understood bit by bit, almost like what 3
simple subject. Here, the pond is left a blank space. one experiences by watching a Žlm. Figure 8 shows 4
The material sense of water is suggested indirectly one part of the famous Qing Ming Shang He Tu 5
by the presence of the moving Žshes. The Žshes (the market place in Spring, by Zhang Zeduan, 6
are drawn in very careful angles with graceful Song Dynasty). 7
curves such that the forms do not seem to make 8
any clear symmetrical pattern, but a dynamic The symbolic representation of space 9
balance of movement. Space and time are captured in opera 10111
here with immense assurance. Chinese operas are fundamentally ‘historical’. That 1
Another type of representation of space in land- is, the plays deal with events which the Chinese 2
scape painting unique to the Chinese is the hand- believed to have transpired in the past and 3
scroll: mostly, a continuous composition depicts a with which even the illiterate seem to have been 4
narrative cycle in consecutive scenes, which are astonishingly conversant. In addition, Chinese 5
woven into one organic entity with a clear sense opera always exists on a plane of abstraction and 6
of continuity in time and space. Here, subjects are removal from ‘realism’. Not unlike western dramas, 7
painted horizontally on a long hand scroll where the characters in Chinese opera were type-charac- 8
space is unfolded and expanded when the ters, whose general lineaments were predictable 9
viewer unfolds the painting. In this type of and known to the audience to such a degree that 20111
1
2
Figure 8. Zhang 3
Zeduang (Song), the 4
market place in
5
Spring, courtesy of
6
Palace Museum,
7
Beijing.
8
9
30111
1
2
3
4
5111

Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014
1111 the poetry of the lines they spoke often gained an
2 extra dimension of universality.
3 As such, the action and stage setting in Chinese
4 operas were presented with a high level of symbolic
5 and dramatic power. A few steps in a speciŽcally
6 deŽned manner may represent a distance of thou-
7 sands of miles; and a couple of people dressed and
8 acting in a certain way may represent an army. This,
9 of course, is achieved via a ready-made agreement
10111 between the audience and the convention of
1 opera. Spatial representation in Chinese operas
2 was equally abstract, space was not presented or
3 deŽned via physical objects or visual images, rather
4 by action. And during the process of performance,
5 the audience’s imagination is always an important
6 factor for the enjoyment of the play.
7 Due to the low requirements of the physical
8 and visual aspects of the play, an opera stage is
9 normally a simple open platform (whether a rural
20111 temple stage or a palace theatre stage). A typical
1 stage setting may involve a table and a few chairs,
2 which can be used to represent both indoor and
3 outdoor space, as well as quite a range of objects
4 in the play. The time and space of the show are
5 represented by a series of clearly deŽned elements
6 which include song, declaimed verse, entrance
7 and exit couplets and quatrains, slang, ordinary
8 speech, rhythmic but unrhymed passages, and the
9 whole gamut of theatrical accompaniments,
30111 including acrobatics, dance, lavish costumes, and
1 stylised miming. All these offer the play such a
2 high level of exibility that Chinese operas enjoy
3 much wider dimensions than Western drama in
4 that they not only encompass all the vast world
5111 of Chinese folklore and myth but also draw upon
97
The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002
an elegantly polished literary tradition for their
verse forms.
In Chinese opera, from the actor’s point of view,
the acting stage is perceived as if it were divided
into a matrix of nine areas, which are used for
orientation. All sequences of movement in the
opera performance are dedicated to the exploration
of this scheme. A good actor should be able
to repeat his movement sequence exactly in any
size of space in any orientation. That is, he moves
according to the nine-point grid, and not according
to a Žxed number of steps between movements.
The matrix is like a fractal, nine-point system that
can be expanded or contracted into inŽnity. That
is, each unit of space retains its independence
regardless of changes in size. In other words, the
concept of space here is not Žxed or determined,
the performing body is not constrained by the
restrictions of shape or size of the body and space,
rather, it can move in a Žctive world/space.
Again, as in landscape painting, here in opera
the relations the performer makes with his body
as he moves between each cell or area of the stage
space are more important than the perspective of
the spectators. That is, the performance is aimed
at making connections of meaning through the
space of the stage that correspond to the creation
of the Žctive world.
Architectural and urban space
Underpinning Chinese architectural space was a
complex set of ideas, which ‘suggests an intimate
parallelism between the mathematically expressible
regimes of the heavens and the biologically deter-
mined rhythms of life on earth’9. For the ancient
 98

The aesthetic of
the absent
Li Xiaodong
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

Chinese, who conceived themselves part of the genius loci, were different from place to place due 1111
natural world and consequently apprehended to the different morphology of terrain and from 2
nature in terms of human experience, ‘the “real” hour to hour by dispositions and conjunctions of 3
world transcended the pragmatic realm of textures heavenly bodies. The identiŽcation of the morpho- 4
and geometrical space, and was perceived logical and spatial expressions of Qi was to be done 5
schematically in terms of an extra-mundane, sacred by FengShui masters. As discussed before, a desir- 6
experience’ (Wheatley, 1971). In other words, due able site was the one set among landforms that 7
to this close relationship between human order and can generate auspicious channelling of Qi. The 8
nature, the ancient Chinese dramatised their layout of building complex or city was subsequently 9
cosmogony by reproducing on earth a reduced designed to ‘contain’ and ‘sustain’ a positive 10111
version of the cosmos, and architectural space ow of Qi. Wall thus became one of the most 1
became their vehicle of expression. important architectural elements in Chinese history, 2
Two of the most important sources of inspira- applying on as small a scale as the individual 3
tion for the development of Chinese architectural household, temple compound, palace, to as large 4
space are Confucianism and Taoism. The two a scale as a city: even the whole country is enclosed 5
modes of thought exercised in fact a kind of dual by the Great Wall. Architectural space is like a 6
or complementary inuence, with Confucianism series of closed worlds, of complete, independent, 7
providing system (a clearly deŽned social hierarchy, progressively smaller units, which repeat on a 8
which became the guiding principle for planning reduced scale the forms of the larger units. 9
space) and Taoism deŽning individual spatial unit A house may be viewed as a town in miniature, 20111
(solid or void in response to the Taoist Yin and Yang the town as a collective family on a vast scale. 1
division of universal forces). Four basic elements of Symmetry and axial control are essential rules for 2
the genre of Chinese architectural as well as urban the planning of space. This conception matches 3
space can be identiŽed as follows: (1) Enclosure Confucianism on the moral and social plane and 4
and Qi; (2) Void vs solid; (3) Symbolism; and (4) was considered of supreme importance to the 5
Cardinal orientation and axiality. Each of these balanced overlapping relations between individual 6
elements is apparent to a greater or lesser degree and family, human order and cosmic order. This 7
in the layout of the Chinese building complex and interplay of relationships strengthens the indepen- 8
urban space. dent family cells, just as the symbolic organisation 9
Space, according to the Chinese is Žrst of all, of space harmonises architectural units. For the 30111
enclosed or at least conceptually ‘deŽned’ such that purpose of control and standardisation, space 1
it can retain the cosmic breath (Qi). In order to had been modularised since the Tang (618–907) 2
capture Qi, the site for a building or a city was, Dynasty 10. The concept of Jian (the space between 3
Žrst of all, expected to be adapted to the local two columns) was used as a basic unit of space in 4
currents of Qi. The Qi, or dynamic powers of the a building. Jian has different sizes (according to 5111

Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014
1111 the sizes of timbers used for structural members
2 such as Gong, which were also standardised and
3 classiŽed into eight grades of units, Cai) and the
4 number of Jians that were allowed to be built in
5 a house was related to the social status of the
6 house owner: here again, physical space was
7 imbued with social meanings.
8 One of the most important characters of Chinese
9 architecture is the dualism of void and solid11 in
10111 the planning of space. Almost exclusively, every
1 individual building unit, from smallest room to city,
2 is planned to be adjacent to an equally sized open
3 space. This is to achieve the maximum balance
4 between what is ‘within’ and what is ‘without’.
5 This concept of duality is one of Lao Zi’s important
6 tenets. He believed that any notion contained
7 within itself its opposite. As a result, the dispersed
8 complex rather than the dense form distinguishes
9 Chinese architectural space. The size and scale of
20111 the individual building has never been as impor-
1 tant as the overall building complex. The horizontal
2 unfolding of space was preferred over the vertical
3 conglomeration of space. In this sense, Chinese
4 architecture is to be experienced from within rather
5 than viewed from without. A Žxed perspective of
6 visual effect on form is less emphasised than the
7 dynamic process of the experience of space.
8 Symbolism is important to the planning of
9 Chinese architectural space, to maintain the paral-
30111 lelism between macro-cosmos and micro-cosmos.
1 The link between the realm of heaven and the
2 realm of the real world was ontologically estab-
3 lished through the imitation of a celestial arche-
4 type. The built form, in other words, is abstracted
5111 from the landscape. The intention of this exercise
99
The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002
is of course ‘to convert profane space into sacred
(propitious, habitable) space’ (Wheatley, 1971).
Two levels of cosmic symbolism can be identiŽed
in Chinese architectural space: overall layout and
individual form.
First, hierarchy and the principle of centripetal
symbolism were clearly manifested in the traditional
Chinese building complex and city. And since the
primary concern was with the ordering of society
in this world, the hierarchically planned symbolism
was presented to echo either family structure (in
a residence) or the seat of secular authority (in a
city). Secondly, since irregularities in cosmic order
could only be interpreted as misfortunes, it
became extremely important to maintain order and
control in a human being’s physical environment.
According to Chinese cosmology, heaven is consid-
ered round and Earth is square, which actually
deŽnes Chinese architectural space as a series of
imbricate squares (Figs. 9, 11).
Prominent among the morphological features of
the ideal Chinese space were ‘cardinal orientation
and strong sense of axiality (Fig. 10), and a more or
less square perimeter delimited by a massive wall’
(Wheatley, 1971). The expression of closely related
attitudes towards the cosmological ordering of
space could not be clearer than this. South-facing
and north-south axis as principles, were almost
exclusively applicable to all city planning and resi-
dential layouts. This processional way of organising
spaces was again of symbolic rather than visual
signiŽcance. In fact, the full sweep of a building
complex or urban space was never revealed and
perceived at one time or from one perspective point.
It was not so much a vista as a succession of varied
 100

The aesthetic of
the absent
Li Xiaodong
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014

Figure 9. Ideal city 1111

(Tang), reproduction 2
from an ancient 3
print.
4
5
6
Figure 10. Beijing
7
City (Qing). 8
9
10111
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Figure 11. Animal
symbolism expressed
9
in FengShui, 20111
reproduction from an 1
ancient print. 2
3
4
5
Figure 12. An ideal 6
relationship between
7
building complex and
8
nature according to
9
FengShui, reproduc-
tion from an ancient
30111
print. 1
2
spaces organised into an axial whole (Fig. 12), very orientation of Chinese space, which has an impor- 3
much like the scroll painting discussed earlier. tant impact on spatial organisation, has to do with 4
Another aspect of the symbolism and cardinal the point of ontological transition of divine power 5111

Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:04 23 October 2014
1111 to the ‘real’ world. Starting with the Han dynasty,
2 space has been encoded with a Žxed pattern of
3 meanings to ensure the projection of divine power,
4 which has been universally applicable to the whole
5 range of spatial organisation (from individual resi-
6 dence to a larger city, even to the whole kingdom).
7 The East is the habitat of the Cerulean Dragon –
8 the earth was blue-green – which symbolises the
9 bursting of the vegetation of spring in the direc-
10111 tion of the rising sun. South is the location of the
1 Red Phoenix, the colour of red symbolising the Žre
2 and strongest Yang ‘Qi’. The West is white and the
3 residence of the Tiger, the season of autumn. The
4 North is black, winter, the home of Tortoise. The
5 Centre is allocated to the colour yellow, the place
6 where the divine power comes to earth. Though
7 transcendental, the encoding of symbolism to
8 architectural space does offer us a unique angle
9 from which to appreciate and understand the
20111 Chinese conception of space.
1 1985).
2 Conclusion
3 Any general statement about Chinese space can
4 be challenged by examples from other cultures.
5 This paper began with the hypothesis that there is
6 a spatial conception that is distinctively Chinese.
7 The investigations of spatial conception in the
8 domains of philosophy, painting, geomancy, opera
9 and Žnally architecture are meant to identify a
30111 general notion of framework for the indigenous
1 sources and elements of spatial concepts, which
2 are reinterpreted throughout Chinese history.
3 Space in early Chinese minds was Žrst abstract,
4 having an absolute entity and permeating every-
5111 thing, even the void. Absolute space was being
101
The Journal
of Architecture
Volume 7
Spring 2002
gradually deŽned, and comprehended. Its attributes
became conditioned and Žnite. Buddhism’s empti-
ness and Lao Zi’s void contributed to the Chinese
emphasis on space: for the Chinese, space invites
the mind to penetrate it and enclose it. This is
the reason why courtyard space was the main focus
of the Chinese building complex, and the artist’s
main intention in landscape painting was to create
a sense of spatial depth instead of presenting a
physical object.
Notes and references
1. See more in Chun-Chieh Huang and Erik Zurcher,
(eds.): Time and Space in Chinese Culture (Leiden,
1995).
2. Li Xiaodong’s Poetry of Space in Dialogue (Taiwan,
1997).
3. As FengShui symbolises, both physical and spiritual
aspects of the world, and of the two worlds, should
coexist and complement each other.
4. Ching-yu Chang, Japanese Spatial Conception (Tokyo,
5. John Hay, ‘Chinese Space in Chinese Painting’ in
Recovering the Orient (Chur, 1994).
6. Ho Ping-ti, The Ladder of Success in Imperial China
(New York, 1962).
7. More reading in Eliade Mircea, The Myth of Eternal
Return (Princeton Press, 1965).
8. See more in Craig Clunnas, Art in China (Oxford
University Press, 1997).
9. Paul Wheatley, The Pivot of The Four Quarters (The
University Press, Edinburgh, 1971).
10. Further explanation of this is in Laurence Sickman
and Alexander Scoper, The Art and Architecture of
China (Yale University Press, 1956).
11. Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt, Chinese Traditional
Architecture (New York, 1984).