‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerin Civil Engineering (3" Serhestet) 1" (©) Gi) Explanation: The first enzyme molecule to be isolated in pure crystalline form was urease, prepared from the jack bean in 1926 by American biochemist J.B. Sumner, who suggested, contrary to prevailing opinion, that the molecule was a protein, (@ @ Explanation: Sucrose, glucose and fructose all are sugars. Glucose and fructose are monosaccharides and sucrose is a disaccharide of the two combined with a bond. Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula (CH Og) but glucose has a six member ring and fructose has a five member ring structure, (©) Gi) Explanation: The three domains are the Archaea, the Bacteria, and the Eukarya. Prokaryotic organisms belong either to the domain Archaea or the domain Bacteria; organisms with eukaryotic cells belong to the domain Eukarya, @® div) (2) @ Explanation: In gas chromatography, the mobile phase (or “moving phase”) is a carrier gas, usually an inert gas such as helium or an unreactive gas such as nitrogen. (h) (iv) @@ (0X0) 2. We are aware of the fact that the cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. It is also the smallest and the most basic biological unit of living organisms. On the basis of the cellular organization, cells are further classified as eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Plant cells and animal cells fall under the eukaryotic category. ‘Ananimal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has a true, membrane-bound nucleus along with other cellular organelles. Animal cells range in size from a few millimetres to microscopic microns. ‘The largest known animal cell is the ostrich egg, which can stretch over 5.1 inches across and weigh about 1.4 kilograms. This is in stark contrast to the neuron in the human body, which is just 100 microns across. The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval or rod-shaped. There are also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave and rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can only be seen under the microscope. As stated before, animal cells are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound nucleus, Furthermore, these cells exhibit the presence of DNA inside the nucleus. They also comprise of other organelles and cellular structures which carry out Specific functions necessary for the cell to function properly. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3 Semester) 11 2. The second step involves the separation of mRNA from DNA and then its transfer from nucleus to cytoplasm and final attachment of 5! end of mRNA with 30s (smallet) sub-unit of ribosome in presence of protein initiation factor. Before the mRNA migrates from nucleus to ribosome in cytoplasm it undergoes process of maturation. In eukaryotes the newly formed RNA is called heterogenous nuclear RNA (hn RNA). Many of the functional RNA molecules including? RNA and mRNA in eukaryotes are processed from much longer precursor RNAs which are 5,000 to 50,000 nucleotides long and may be 10 to 100 times longer than the mature functional RNA molecules which are derived from them. Precursor RNAs are transcripts of split genes which contain both sequences coding for aminoacids (exops and those not coding for aminoacids (introns) interspersed. The non-coding sequences from the pre-RNAs are cleaved out and coding sequences are spliced together to produce functional mature RNA molecules. Few of the eukaryotic genes are not split. In prokaryotes some of the RNA molecules are cleavage products of longer pre- RNA. 3. Translation: As has been pointed out, mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain which in tum is determined by sequence of nucleotides in DNA (gene). This process is called translation, Translation involves the following steps. (a) Activation of aminoacid: Elsewhere in the cytoplasm, aminoacids are selected for activation, Professor Fritz Libmann and others discovered in 1956 that before amino acids can combine to form proteins, they must be activated and this is achieved by combining with phosphate. The activation involves the reaction between aminoacid and ATP. The reaction is catalysed by specific enzyme aminoacyl RNA synthesize. So, for the activation of 20 aminoacids there should be at least a set of 20-such enzymes in the cytoplasm. Amino acid activating enzymes were first discovered by M. Hoagland. The product formed after activation is aminoacyl-adenylate enzyme complex which is energy rich compound. AA + ATP + enzyme ——> AA — AMP — enzyme + PP aminoacid (aminoacyl (aminoacyl (Pyrophosphate) synthetase) adenylate enzyme complex) (b) Attachment of activated aminoacid to tRNA: The CCA end of RNA molecule now attaches with specific aminoacid adenylate-enzyme complex. The aminoacyl-adenylate remains BES ie enzyme in the form of monocovalent complex until itis a TY NA. The carboxyl group of aminoacid residue of aminoacy! aueeet zed toup of ribose sugar of terminal adenosine at CCA end a aminoacyl-tRNA, AMP and enzyme are formed. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) 123 Polypeptide chain Fig. 04 Diagrammatic representation of protein synthesis in E coli: ‘Adz = phenyl slanine. AAs = Arginine, AA, = Valine, AAs = Lysine F),F) to form the ribosome. The codes of mRNA are not read by a single ribosome but by many ribosomes interlinked by mRNA (Polysomes). (@) Initiation of Protein Synthesis: ‘The messenger RNA always has frst triplet as AUG or GUG at its 5-end and these triplets code for aminoacids N-formyl methionine (F. met) which usually initiates a protein chain. ‘Thus, inall proteins formyl methionine occupies the first place, ie. at, amino nd and when the protein molecules are completely synthesised formyl methionine may be detached from the protein molecules by activity of hydrolytic enzyme deformylase, In formyl methionine-tRNA complex the amino group is blocked by formyl group leaving only COOH group free to react with NH group of the second amino acid (AA,). In this way, polypeptide chain always grows from amino end toward- COOH end.‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3! Semester) 127 This law states that when two traits come together in one hybrid pair, the two characters do not mix with each other and are independent of each other, Each gamete receives one of the two alleles during meiosis of the chromosome, Mendel’s law of segregations supports the phenotypic ratio of 3:1 i.e. the homozygous dominant and heterozygous offsprings show dominant traits while the homozygous recessive shows the recessive trait. This law states that when two traits come together in one hybrid pair, the two characters do not mix with each other and are independent of each other. Each gamete receives one of the two alleles during meiosis of the chromosome. Law of Independent Assortment ssyy ssyy Parental (P) @ g generation a5 ssYy F1 generation ¢ > Ee pe sy ‘s) Gametes x Fig, 09 This means that at the time of gamete formation, the two genes segregate independently of each other as well as of other traits. Law of independent assortment emphasizes that there are separate genes for’ separate traits and characters and they influence and sort themselves independently of the other genes. This law also says that at the time of gamete and zygote formation, the genes are independently passed on from the parents to the offspring. 5. Free energy, in thermodynamics, energy-like property or state function of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium. Free energy has the dimensions of energy, and its value is determined by the state of the system and not by its history. Free energy is used to determine how systems change and how much work they can produce. It is expressed in two forms; the Helmholtz free energy F, sometimes. called the work function, and the Gibbs free energy G. If U is the internal energy system, PV the pressure-volume product, and TS the temperature-entropy product (T being the temperature above absolute zero), then F = U-TS and G=U+PV- TS. The latter equation can also be written in the form G=H~TS, where H= U + PV is the enthalpy. Free energy is an extensive property, meaning that its magnitude depends on the amount of a substance in a given thermodynamic state. Underline The changes in free energy, AF or AG, are useful in determining the direction of spontaneous change and evaluating the maximum work that can be obtained Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3 Semester) = Helmholtz free energy is energy that may be converted into work at constant temperature and volume, The equation for Helmholtz free energy is: A = U = TS where A is the Helmholtz free energy, U is the internal energy of the system, T is the absolute temperature (Kelvin) and S is the entropy of the system. Landau free energy describes energy of an open system in which particles and energy may be exchanged with the surroundings. The equation for Landau free energy is: = A-N = U-TS —yN where N is the number of particles and U is chemical potential. .) Living vs Non-living Things: We come across both living and non-living things in our daily lives. Sometimes itis very easy to differentiate between the two, but at times itis difficult. There are many features and factors which make living things different from non-living things. Living things, as the name suggests, are lively and active. They are made up of cells; exhibit characteristics of life, like growth, movement, reproduction, response to stimuli; they evolve, and require energy for daily activities. Some of the daily life examples of living things around us are human beings, animals, plants and micro organisms. All living things require energy for the sustenance of life. This can be achieved through various methods. For example, humans breathe in oxygen to release energy from the foods consumed. Plants trap the light energy for photosynthesis. Likewise, to protect our body from cold weather, we make use of heat energy, we maintain homeostasis, and require energy for our all activities. Non-livings things have no activities, and hence, do not require energy. Living things grow and reproduce, Humans and animals produce young ones through various methods. Plants also have the ability to reproduce through seeds, stems, etc. After a period of time all living things mature and die. Non-living things do not grow, reproduce or die. ‘Adapting to the environment is another quality of living things. They have senses, and respond to stimuli. For example, when we are pricked by a pin, we move our hand away. Chameleons change colors to adapt to the surroundings. Desert plants have spine-like leaves which are also a form of adaptation to the environment, Non-living things have no responses. If we puta stone in water it will sink to the bottom, if we putt in fire, it stays there and gets heated up. There is no response to the stimulus being applied. Difference between Living and Non living things ah i Here are some of the major difference between living and non living things: Living Things Non Living Things (i) They do not possess life. (ii) Non living things do not (i) They possess life.‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3! Semester) wt 9. Allliving beings, apart from plants move from one place to another. This type of movement is called as the locomotion. 10. All living beings, including humans, animals, plants, birds, and insects Tequire oxygen gas to breath and produce energy. (b) The Big Bang theory represents cosmologists' best attempts to reconstruct the 14 billion year story of the universe based on the sliver of existence visible today. Different people use the term “Big Bang” in different ways. Most generally, it illustrates the arc of the observable universe as it thinned out and cooled down from an initially dense, hot state. This description boils down to the idea that the cosmos is expanding, a broad principle analogous to survival of the fittest in biology that few would consider debatable. More specifically, the Big Bang can also refer to the birth of the observable universe itself — the moment something changed, kickstarting the events that led to today. Cosmologists have argued for decades about the details of that fraction of a second, and the discussion continues today. ‘The classic Big Bang theory For most of human history, observers of the sky assumed it eternal and unchanging. Edwin Hubble dealt this story an experimental blow in the 1920s when his observations showed both that galaxies outside the Milky Way existed, and that their light appeared stretched —a sign that they were rushing away from Earth. George Lemaitre, a contemporary Belgian physicist, interpreted data from Hubble and others as evidence of an expanding universe, a possibility permitted by Einstein’s recently published field equations of general relativity. Thinking backwards, Lemaitre inferred that today’s separating galaxies must have started out together in what he called the “primeval atom.” The first public use of the modern term for Lemaitre’s idea actually came from a critic— English astronomer Fred Hoyle. On March 28, 1949, Hoyle coined the phrase during a defense of his. preferred theory of an eternal universe that created matter to cancel out the dilution of expansion. Hoyle said the notion that “all matter of the universe was created in one big bang at a particular time in the remote past,” was irrational. In later interviews, Hoyle denied intentionally inventing a slanderous name, but the moniker stuck, much to the frustration of some. “The Big Bang is a really bad term,” said Paul Steinhardt, a cosmologist at Princeton. “The Big Stretch would capture the right idea.” The mental image of an explosion causes all kinds of confusion, according to Steinhardt. It implies a central point, an expanding frontier, and a scene where light shrapnel flies faster than heavier chunks. But an expanding universe looks nothing like that, he said. There's no center, no edge, and galaxies large and small all slide apart in the same Way (although more distant galaxies move away faster under the cosmologically recent influence of dark energy). Regardless of its name, the Big Bang theory found widespread acceptance for its unparalleled ability to explain what we see, Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3"4 Semester) 138 They knew that: DNA — has P but nos Protein — has $ but not P They also knew that something from T2 phage entered E. coli cells and directed the bacteria to produce more phage. They assumed that the genetic material was the material that entered the cell. So they set out to determine the chemical nature of the material. In separate experiments they infected E. coli cells with 35S or 32P labeled phage. By analyzing the products they determined that 32P entered the cell. Thus DNA must be the genetic material. 8. (a) A genetic disease is any disease caused by an abnormality in the genetic makeup of an individual. The genetic abnormality can range from minuscule to major — from a discrete mutation in a single base in the DNA of asingle gene toa gross chromosomal abnormality involving the addition or subtraction of an entire chromosome or set of chromosomes. Some people inherit genetic disorders from the parents, while acquired changes or mutations in a preexisting gene or group of genes cause other genetic diseases. Genetic mutations can occur either randomly or due to some environmental exposure. What are the four types of genetic disorders (inherited)? There are a number of different types of genetic disorders (inherited) and include: 1. Single gene inheritance 2. Multifactorial inheritance 3. Chromosome abnormalities 4, Mitochondrial inheritance Symptoms and Signs of Down Syndrome: The baby with Down syndrome has a hallmark appearance. However, every aspect of the appearance does not need to be present as the phenotype, the way the genes make the child look, can be markedly different for each patient. Common Down syndrome symptoms are: 1. a small head and short neck, 2. flat face, and 3. upward slanting eyes, ears are flat and positioned lower than "normal,” 4>the tongue protrudes and seems to be too large for the mouth, 5. hands tend to be wide, 6. short fingers and there is just a single flexion crease in the palm, and 7. joints tend to be more flexible and muscles may lack tone. Single gene inheritance disorders: Single gene inheritance is also called Mendelian or monogenetic inheritance. Changes or mutations that occur in the DNA sequence of a single gene cause this type of inheritance. ‘There are thousands, of known single-gene disorders. pass disorders are known as monogenetic disorders (disorders of a single gene). x Single-gene disorders have different pattems of genetic inheritance, including Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) 4 ways. One method is through secondary active transport in which the transport takes place against the glucose concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called GLUT proteins, also known as glucose transporter proteins. These transporters assist in the facilitated diffusion of glucose. Glycolysis is the first pathway used in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy. It takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It was probably one of the earliest metabolic pathways to evolve since it is used by nearly all of the organisms on earth. The process does not use oxygen and is, therefore, anaerobic. Glycolysis is the first of the main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration to produce energy in the form of ATP. Through two distinct phases, the six-carbon ring of glucose is cleaved into two three-carbon sugars of pyruvate through a series of enzymatic reactions. The first phase of glycolysis requires energy, while the second phase completes the conversion to pyruvate and produces ATP and NADH for the cell to use for energy. Overall, the process of glycolysis produces a net gain of two pyruvate molecules, two ATP molecules, and two NADH molecules for the cell to use for energy. Following the conversion of glucose to. pyruvate, the glycolytic pathway is linked to the Krebs Cycle, where further ATP will be produced for the cell’s energy needs. Key Points: > Glycolysis is present in nearly all living organisms. > Glucose is the source of almost all energy used by cells. > Overall, glycolysis produces two pyruvate molecules, a net gain of two ATP molecules, and two NADH molecules. (©) Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is the process by: which plants, some bacteria and some protistans use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This glucose can be converted into pyruvate which releases adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by cellular respiration. Oxygen is also formed. Photosynthesis may be summarised by the word equation: Carbon dioxide + water —#"_, glucose + oxygen chlorophyll The conversion of usable sunlight energy into chemical energy is associated with the action of the green pigment chlorophyll. ; Chlorophyll is a complex molecule. Several modifications of chlorophyll occur among plants and other photosynthetic organisms. All photosynthetic organisms have chlorophyll. a. Accessory pigments absorb energy that chlorophyll a does not absorb. Accessory pigments include chlorophyll b (also ¢, d, and e in algae and protistans), xanthophylls, and carotenoids (such as beta-carotene). Chlorophyll a absorbs its energy from the violet-blue and reddish orange-red wavelengths, and little from the intermediate (green-yellow-orange) wavelengths. Leaves and leaf structure Plants are the only photosynthetic have leaves). A leaf may be viewed Photosynthetic cells. organisms to have leaves (and not all plants ‘as a solar collector crammed full of Scanned with CamScanner238 '8.Q.B. in Civil Engineering 3% Semester) a The raw materials of photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide, enter the cells Of the leaf, and the products of photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, leave the leaf, Water enters the root and is transported up to the leaves through specialized plant cells known as xylem vessels. Land plants must guard against drying out and So have evolved specialized structures known as stomata to allow gas to enter and eave the leaf. Carbon dioxide cannot pass through the protective waxy layer covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter the leaf through the stoma (the singular Of stomata), flanked by two guard cells. Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis can only pass out of the leaf through the opened stomata, Unfortunately for the plant, while these gases are moving between the inside and Outside of the leaf, a great deal of water is also lost. Cottonwood trees, for example, will lose 100 gallons (about 450 dm) of water per hour during hot desert days. The structure of the chloroplast and photosynthetic membranes The thylakoid is the structural unit of photosynthesis. Both photosynthetic prokaryotes and eukaryotes have these flattened sacs/vesicles containing photosynthetic chemicals. Only eukaryotes have chloroplasts with a surrounding membrane. Thylakoids are stacked like pancakes in stacks known collectively as grana, The areas between grana are referred to as stroma. While the mitochondrion has two membrane systems, the chloroplast has three, forming three compartments. Thylakoid—_ Granum—_ (Stock of thylakoide) Intermembrane space: Inner membrane ‘Outer membrane- Fig. 12 Structure of a chloroplast ‘Stages of photosynthesis ‘The chemical reactions involved include: > Condensation reactions — ‘i (the Tesponsible for water molecules spliting out, sap addition of a Phosphate group:‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) 143 Similar to the way the order of letters in the alphabet can be used to form a word, the order of nitrogen bases in a DNA sequence forms genes, which in the language of the cell, tells cells how to make proteins. Another type of nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, translates genetic information from DNA into proteins. Nucleotides are attached together to form two long strands that spiral to create a structure called a double helix. If you think of the double helix structure as a ladder, the phosphate and sugar molecules would be the sides, while the bases would be the rungs. The bases on one strand pair with the bases on another strand: adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine. DNA molecules are long — so long, in fact, that they can't fit into cells without the right packaging. To fit inside cells, DNA is coiled tightly to form structures we call chromosomes. Each chromosome contains a single DNA molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, which are found inside the cell’s nucleus. RNA Structure: RNA typically is a single-stranded biopolymer. However, the presence of self-complementary sequences in the RNA strand leads to intrachain base-pairing and folding of the ribonucleotide chain into complex structural forms consisting of bulges and helices. The three-dimensional structure of RNA is critical to its stability and function, allowing the ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases to be modified in numerous different ways by cellular enzymes that attach chemical groups (e.g., methyl groups) to the chain. Such modifications enable the formation of chemical bonds between distant regions in the RNA strand, leading to complex contortions in the RNA chain, which further stabilizes the RNA structure. Molecules with weak structural modifications and stabilization may be readily destroyed. As an example, in an initiator transfer RNA (RNA) molecule that lacks a methyl group t8NA™", modification at position 58 of the tRNA chain renders the molecule unstable and hence nonfunctional; the nonfunctional chain is destroyed by cellular tRNA quality control mechanisms. 9. (b) Translocation of Mineral Tons in the Plant: Though it is generally considered that xylem transports inorganic nutrients while phloem transports organic nutrients, the same is not exactly true. In xylem sap, nitrogen travels as inorganic ions, as well as organic form of amino acids and related compounds. Small amounts of P and S are passed in xylem as organic compounds. There is also exchange of materials between xylem and phloem. Therefore, mineral elements pass up xylem in both inorganic and organic form. They reach the area of their sink, namely young leaves, developing flowers, fruits and seeds, apical and lateral meristems and individual cells for storage, Minerals are unloaded at fine vein endings through diffusion. They are picked up by cells through active uptake. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) Ee A human eye is roughly 2.3 cm in diameter and is almost a spherical ball filled with some fluid. It consists of the following parts: Function of the human eye: As we mentioned earlier that the eye of a human being is like a camera. Much like the electronic device, the human eye also focuses and lets in light to produce images. So basically, light rays that are deflected from or by distant objects land on the retina after they pass through various mediums like the cornea, crystalline lens, aqueous humor, the lens, and vitreous humor. Lens Muscles to move eye Fig. 01 The concept here though is that as the light rays move through the various mediums, they experience refraction of light. Well, to put it in simple terms, refraction is nothing but the change in direction of the rays of light as they pass between different mediums. The table below shows the refractive indices of the various parts of the eye. Medium Refractive Index Air 1.000 Cornea 1.376 Aqueous Humor 1.336 Lens 1.42 Vitreous Humor 1,336 Having different refractive indexes is what bends the rays to form an image. The light rays finally are received and focused on the retina, The retina contains photoreceptor cells called rods and cones and these basically detect the intensity and the frequency of the light. Further, the image that is formed is processed by millions of these cells, and they also relay the signal or nerve impulses to the brain via the optic nerve. The image formed is usually inverted but the brain corrects this Phenomenon. This process is also similar to that of a convex Tens, “In any case, now that we have learned something about the human eye, each cye is very important, and they play a distinct part in helps humans to see. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3 Semester) 151 atom. Usually electrons recombine with the atom extra energy will be converted back into layer. The rejected electron pushed away and it can't recombine with atom. When lot of photons reject the electrons and current of electrons builds up and current can be measured, (b) Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance, He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent. Mendel tracked the segregation of parental genes and their appearance in the offspring as dominant or recessive traits. He recognized the mathematical patterns of inheritance from one generation to the next. Mendel’s Laws of Heredity are usually stated as: (i) The Law of Segregation: Each inherited trait is defined by a gene pair. Parental genes are randomly separated to the sex cells so that sex cells contain only one gene of the pair. Offspring therefore inherit one genetic allele from each parent when sex cells unite in fertilization. (ji) The Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are sorted separately from one another so that the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of another. (iii) The Law of Dominance: An organism with alternate forms of a gene will express the form that is dominant. (©) Carbohydrates come in two main forms: simple and. complex, The difference between the two is how quickly they are digested and absorbed, which is determined by their chemical structure. Complex carbohydrates are formed from three or more sugar molecules, whereas simple carbohydrates are composed of either one sugar molecule (monosaccharides) or two (disaccharides). The four most common forms of simple sugars include: > Glucose > Fructose (a.k.a. fruit sugar) > Sucrose (a.k.a. table sugar) > Lactose (a.k.a. dairy sugar) (d) Molecular genetics emerged from the realization that DNA and RNA constitute the genetic material of all living organisms. (1) DNA, located in the cell nucleus, is made up of nucleotides that contain the bases adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). Deoxyribonucleic acid, more commonly known as DNA, is a complex molecule that contains all of the information necessary to build and maintain an organism. Alll living things have DNA within their cells. In fact, nearly every cell in a multicellular organism possesses the full set of DNA required for that organism, _ However, DNA does more than specify the structure and function of living things — it also serves as the primary unit of heredity in organisms of all types. In other words, whenever organisms reproduce, a portion of their DNA is passed along to their offspring. This transmission of all or part of an organism's DNA helps ensure a certain level of continuity from one generation to the next, while still allowing for slight changes that contribute to the diversity of life. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3° Semester) = above. The higher the magnification of the condenser, the more the image clarity. More sophisticated microscopes come with an Abbe condenser that has a high magnification of about 1000X. 10. Diaphragm: Its also known as the iris. Its found under the stage of the microscope and its primary role is to control the amount of light that reaches the specimen. Its an adjustable apparatus, hence controlling the light intensity and the size of the beam of light that gets to the specimen. For high-quality microscopes, the diaphragm comes attached with an Abbe condenser and combined they are able to control the light focus and light intensity that reaches the specimen. - Condenser focus knob: This is a knob that moves the condenser up or down thus controlling the focus of light on the specimen. 12. Abbe Condenser: This is a condenser specially designed on high- quality microscopes, which makes the condenser to be movable and allows very high ‘magnification of above 400X. The high-quality microscopes normally have a high numerical aperture than that of the objective lenses. 13. The rack stop? It controls how far the stages should go preventing the objective lens from getting too Close to the specimen slide which may damage the specimen. It is responsible for preventing the specimen slide from coming too far up and hit the objective lens. (Ocular lens (Eye piece): Diopter adjustment: Stage clip se ‘Aperture ———Head —Arm (Carrying handle) Diaphragm. ‘Condenser ay lluminator = (Light Souree) Fig. 05 6. (a) Some of the most important discoveries, which have occurred in the past 50 years, are bacterial insulin synthesis, gene therapy, stem cell technology, somatic cell nuclear transfer, transgenic organisms and organ transplant technology. = Bacterial insulin synthesis is one of the most remarkable discoveries, which ‘appear to have led to the advancement: of modern biology, especially in health and medicine, leading a significant impact on human life, Human insulin was first discovered by Banting and Best, jn 1921 but, its application in treatment. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) 159 are all RY. That gives us Fl start text, F, end text, start subscript, 1, end subscript offspring that are all RrYy, The allele specifying yellow seed color is dominant to the allele specifying green seed color, and the allele specifying round shape is dominant to the allele specifying wrinkled shape, as shown by the capital and lower-case letters, This means that the F} start text, F,end text, start subscript, 1, end subscript plants are all yellow and round. Because they are heterozygous for two genes, the F; start text, F, end text start subscript, 1, end subscript plants are called dihybrids (di-= two, - hybrid = heterozygous), 7. (a) Cell membranes contain a host of proteins with diverse functions that support the life of a cell. Receptors are a special class of proteins that function by binding a specific ligand molecule, When a ligand binds to its receptor, the receptor can change conformation, transmitting a signal into the cell. In some cases the receptors will remain on the surface of the cell and the ligand will eventually diffuse away. In other cases, ligand binding to a receptor triggers a series of events leading to intemalization of the receptorligand complex in a Process known as receptor-mediated endocytosis. This type of endocytosis requires that the receptor be “captured” into a clathrin ~ coated pit. Clathrin is a Peripheral membrane protein that self-assembles into cage-like structures that cause membranes to bend. The region of membrane surrounded by clathrin will eventually form a vesicle that will s eparate or “pinch oft” from the plasma membrane (PM) and travel into the cell. underline sale Receptor proteins are transmembrane Proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bil Tegion of the protein spanning the bilayer an on both the intracellular (cytoplasmic) and The extracellular domain of areceptor proteit proteins. Transmembrane receptor layer of the PM with a hydrophobic \d hydrophilic regions extending out extracellular sides of the membrane. in is associated with ligand binding. In Contrast, the cytoplasmic domain of a receptor may have multiple functions. One of these functions may be to interact with the proteins responsible for forming the clathrin-coated pit. Receptor proteins are located in the cell's plasma membrane and, in some cases, within the cytoplasm of the cell. However, receptor proteins and their associated signal pathways not necessarily are evenly distributed over the surface of the cell. The importance of a specialized region of a eukaryotic cell known as the primary cilium in cell signaling has recently been established, Like other cilia and flagella, the primary cilium is formed by a microtubule cytoskeleton or axoneme, surrounded by plasma membrane, which extends out into the extracellular space. However, unlike other cilia and flagella, the primary ee nonmotile. Instead, these cilia appear to acts as sensors of the: ae = mechanical environment. Loss of signaling ability of the Laer, rae the epithelial cells lining the kidney, is linked to polycystic kidney disease, : ; imary cilia can lead toa range of Mutations that impact the function of es ‘i development defects including blindness and mental retardati Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) Lal with each other to form more complex carbohydrates like cellulose and starch. The cellulose is considered as the structural material that is used in plant cell walls. 8. As a field of science, biology helps us understand the living world and the ways its many species (including humans) function, evolve, and interact. Advances in medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and many other areas of biology have brought improvements in the quality of life. Biology, study of living things and their vital processes. The field deals with all the physicochemical aspects of life. The modem tendency toward cross-disciplinary research and the unification of scientific knowledge and investigation from different fields has resulted in significant overlap of the field of biology with other scientific disciplines. Foods and Beverages: People consume biological products both to survive and for enjoyment. Livestock provide food for humans, and those animals in turn need their own food to survive. Plants provide endless options for food: feed for animals, fruits, vegetables, oils for eating or cooking and flavoring extracts. Beets and sugarcane can be made into sugar for sweetening. Honeybees use flower nectar and make honey. Sugar maple trees’ sap can be boiled to make maple syrup. Coffee comes from coffee tree seeds, whereas tea originates from tea plant leaves. Microbes and enzymes enable the creation of foods such as cheese, yogurt and bread. Bacley, yeast and hops work together to make beer, with enzymes activated with the malting of barley and the yeast metabolizing in fermentation. Wine is made in similar fashion from grapes and other fruits. Other biological processes aid in food production. Compost made from decaying plant and animal waste serves as a natural fertilizer for organic crops. Whether insect or bird, pollinators continue the process of plant life, giving humans and other animals food and beverages to eat and drink. Clothing and Textiles: People wear clothing made from biological substances. Cotton provides material for many clothing items. Linen, made from flax, is another plant-based fabric. Even polyester is made from biomass in the form of fossil fuels. Plants provide the basis for fabric dyes and nylon. Carpets, upholstery, curtains, towels and countless other household textiles are made from plants, Beauty and Personal Care: Biological sources make up the ingredients for ‘many personal care and beauty products. Shampoo, henna dye, lotion, cosmetics, perfumes, diapers, loofahs, nail polish remover and soap represent only a few examples of biology-based everyday items, ‘Transportation and Leisure: Tires are made from the rubber of the rubber tree. Wood serves as the source for sports equipment such as baseball and cricket bats, bowling pins and lanes. People often play sports on living grass turf. Musical instruments such as clarinets, violins, drumsticks, drums and pianos contain biologically sourced components. Many boats are still made of wood, as are docks. Boaters still use plant-based ropes. Buildings: Many homes around the world are built from plants. Wood from tees provides framework for houses and other buildings and the furniture within Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) 4 9. The Krebs cycle or Citric acid cycle is a series of enzyme catalysed reactions occurring in the mitochondrial matrix, where acetyl-CoA is oxidised to form carbon dioxide and coenzymes are reduced, which generate ATP in the electron transport chain. Krebs cycle was named after Hans Krebs, who postulated the detailed cycle. He was awarded the Nobel prize in 1953 for his contribution. It is a series of eight-step processes, where the acetyl group of acetyl-CoA is oxidised to form two molecules of CO, and in the process, one ATP is produced. Reduced high energy compounds, NADH and FADH, are also produced. Two molecules of acetyl-CoA are produced from each glucose molecule so two turns of the Krebs cycle are required which yields four CO.,, six NADH, two FADH, and two ATPs. Krebs Cycle is a part of Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration is a catabolic reaction taking place in the cells. It is a biochemical process by which nutrients are broken down to release energy, which gets stored in the form of ATP and waste products are released. In aerobic respiration, oxygen is required. Cellular respiration is a four-stage process. In the process, glucose is oxidised to carbon dioxide and oxygen is reduced to water. The energy released in the process is stored in the form of ATPs. 36 to 38 ATPs are formed from each glucose molecule. The four stages are: 1. Glycolysis: Partial oxidation of a glucose molecule to form 2 molecules of pyruvate. ‘This process takes place in the cytosol. Formation of Acetyl CoA: Pyruvate formed in glycolysis enters the mitochondrial matrix. It undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form two molecules of Acetyl CoA. The reaction is catalysed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme. 2 Pyruvate + 2NAD* + 2CoA —Pustae Seniesa, 2Acetyl COA + 2NADH +CO, _ Krebs cycle (TCA or Citric Acid Cycle): Itis the common pathway for complete oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as they are metabolised to acetyl coenzyme A or other intermediates of the cycle. The Acetyl CoA produced enters the Tricarboxylic acid cycle or Citric acid cycle. Glucose is fully oxidized in this process. The acetyl CoA combines with 4-carbon compound oxaloacetate to form 6C citrate. In this process, 2 molecules of CO, are released and oxaloacetate is recycled. Energy is stored in ATP and other high energy compounds like NADH and FADH. mae ee 4, Electron Transport System idative Phosphorylation: is generated when electrons are transferred from the energy-tich molecules like NADH and FADH,, produced in glycolysis, citric acid cycle and idation to molecular O , by a series of electron carriers.O, is fatty acid oxidation sedocd to'H,O. Ir tes plage ia fho'inser mexiioeane of seaoctiendeie: bp Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) 2 Code: BSC-109 (100301) B. Tech 3" Semester Special Examination, 2020 (New Course) BIOLOGY (Biology for Engineers) Time: 3 Hours Pass Marks: 28 Full Marks: 70 Introductions: (i) There are NINE Questions in this paper. (i) Attempt FIVE Questions in all. (iii) Question No. 1 is compulsory. (iv) The marks are indicated in the right hand margin. 1. Choose the correct alternative from any seven of the following multiple choice questions: 2x7=14 (a) Which of the following was a major diseovery of molecular biology when the adenovirus replication strategy was uncovered? (@ The function of RT (ii) Mechanism of replication of DNA (iii) The importance and frequency of mRNA splicing (iv) The speed of action of viral DNA dependent DNA polymerase (b) The movement of particles in liquids and gases is observed as ) Bruneian motion (ii) Brownian motion (iii) Blackian motion (iv), Randomium motion (©) The continuous motion of tiny particles (atoms) is termed as (i potential model of atoms —_(ii) kinetic model of matter (ii) potential model of matter (iv) kinetic model of atoms (@) The first experiment regarding evolution of life on earth was proposed by (i) Watson and Crick (ii) Oparin and Haldane (iii) Urey and Miller (iv) Meselson and Stahl (€) Which blood type would not be possible for children of a type AB mother and a type A father? i) 0 Gi) A Gi) B (iv) AB (fA strand of DNA with the sequence AACTTG will have a complementary strand with the sequence (i) CCAGGT (i) AACTTG TICAAG (iv) TTGAAC (g) Which of the following crosses will give a 1:2:1 genotypic ratio? (i) Aax Aa (ii) Aax AA (iii) AAx Aa (iv) AA x aa Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3 Semester) td it, was capable of producing amino acids, the building blocks of life, from inorganic substances. ©) Gi) (f) Gv) Explanation; There are four nitrogenous bases. They help in relation. of one of the strand of the DNA with the others strand. In the complementary strand adenine is replaced by thymine cytosine is replaced by guanine and vice versa. Hence the base pairs in the complementary strand changes a lot with respect to the original strand of the DNA. The DNA is converted into RNA by the process of transcription by using the enzyme DNA dependent RNA polymerase. @@ (h) Gv) (® Gi) Explanation: The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665. He remarked that it looked strangely similar to cellula or small rooms which monks inhabited, thus deriving the name. (@ @ Explanation: Histones are a family of basic proteins that associate with DNA in the nucleus and help condense it into chromatin, they are alkaline (basic pH?) proteins, and their positive charges allow them to associate with DNA. They are found inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. 2. The Plant Cell is a eukaryotic cell made up of a definite nucleus and various membrane and non-membrane bound cell organelles. Plants are multicellular organisms, in which the plant cells act as the basic structural and functional units, These plant cells carry out specific functions in a coordinated manner to bring about various physiological functions like growth, photosynthesis, exchange of gases, transpiration, etc. Plant Cell is an eukaryotic cell primarily involved in photosynthesis and having its genomic content present in a membrane bound cell organelle, i. the nucleus and other structural organization called organelles, that are coordinated in a manner to carry out specific functions. Plant Cell Diagram: The plant cell is rectangular and comparatively larger than the animal cell. Even though plant and animal cells are eukaryotic and share a few cell organelles, plant cells are quite distinct when compared to animal cells as they perform different functions. Some of these differences can be clearly understood when the cells are examined under an electron microscope. Observe the labeled diagram of plant cell structure as given below: Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering 3" Semester) 12 maintain homeostasis of a cell are termed a: ictures m ' that make up a plant cell are as follows: ae eee a Plant Cell Wall: Itis a rigid layer that is composed of cellul ins, ligni i ‘ : lose, glycoproteins, lignin, pectin and hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane and is completely permeable. The primary function of a plant cell wall is to protect the cell against mechanical stress and to provide a definite form and structure to the cell. The cell wall consists of four layers namely: 1, Middle lamella: Outermost cementing layer between the cells, made up of Ca and Mg pectates, absent in outer free spaces and ruptures to create intercellular spaces. 2. Primary cell wall: Thin, clastic, capable of growing cells and diminishes as the cells mature possess more hemicellulose and Jess cellulose in their cell wall, only cell wall in meristematic and parenchymatous cells. 3, Secondary cell wall: Formed by accretion (growth or increase by the gradual accumulation of additional layers or matter). They have more cellulose, found in collenchyma, sclerenchyma and xylem vessels; it is rigid and non-elastic, and contains pits at intervals. 4, Tertiary celi wall: It is present occasionally, purely cellulosic and sometimes contains xylem found in the tracheids of gymnosperms. Plant Cell Membrane: It is the semipermeable membrane also called the plasma membrane that is present within the cell wall. Itis composed of abilayer of fat having intermediate proteins incorporated as protein channels. The transport of molecules across itis one of the most important functions of plasma membranes. Cytoplasm: It is the gelatinous liquid that fills the space inside of a cell. Itis mainly composed of water, various organic molecules, and salts. Some intracellular organelles, such the nucleus and mitochondria, are enclosed by ‘membranes that separate them from the cytoplasm. Central Vacuole: Its the largest cell organelle and occupies around 90% of the cell’s volume in a mature plant cell. The outermost membrane of the vacuole is called tonoplast, which facilitates the transport of a number of ions and other materials against the concentration gradient into the vacuole. The central vacuole consists of cell sap. It is a mixture of salts, enzymes and other substances, Vacuole functions in the storage of substances, maintenance of osmolarity and sustain turgor pressure. Plastids in Plant Cell: They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. > They are necessary to store starch, to carry out the process of photosynthesis. > Itisalso used in the synthesis of many molecules, which form the building. blocks of the cell. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.QB. in Civil Engineering (3" Semester) 2 The basic mechanism of protein synthesis in eukaryotes is similar to prokaryotes, but there are a number of differences coon individual steps. The mechanism offers greater complexity due to the involvement of some components that do not exist in prokaryotes, The eukaryotic ribosome has a sedimentation coefficient of 80S, comprising of a small 40S and a large 60S subunit. The smaller subunit contains a single 185 1RNA of about 1900 nucleotides and 30-35 proteins. The larger subunit contains 3 RNA chains, 5S, 5.88 and 28S, consisting of 120, 160 and about 2800 nucleotides respectively and about 45-50 proteins. However, the ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts resemble the prokaryotic ones. Eukaryotes require many more initiation factors compared to prokaryotes, and their interplay is much ‘more intricate. At least nine initiation factors are known, many of which consist of multiple subunits. The prefix elF denotes a eukaryotic initiation factor. The 40S subunit with initiation components binds to the 5’ cap of the mRNA, and ATP hydrolysis drives the 40S subunit to the start signal AUG. The factor elF2, a GTP binding protein, brings the initiator tRNA ( met - tRNA?"*), mRNA and the 40S subunit together with the help of elF4, elF3 and cap binding proteins The cap binding proteins bind to the cap of mRNA. ATP is hydrolyzed by eIF4 which drives the 40S subunit initiation complex along the start AUG codon. The complex is joined by elF3 which helps in finding the AUG closest to the 5’ end. AUG 8! cap-———______. all 2m GTP-MET tRNA‘ all +40 S Binding protein met: all -40 S Ribosomal subunit AUG Cs PL 40 S subunit with initiation components S' cap. s 60 S Ribosomal subunit ‘all 2-GDP and other sits met S'cap s' AUG Fig. 03, Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3 Semester) 12 mineral catalysts for critical reactions. Even now, these: ich in chemi thermal energy, sustain vibrant ecosystems, Yer ~ Chilly Start: Ice might have covered the oceans 3 billion years ago, as the sun was about a third less luminous than it is now. This layer of ice, possibly hundreds of feet thick, might have protected fragile organic compounds in the water below from ultraviolet light and destruction from cosmic impacts. The cold might have also helped these molecules to survive longer, allowing key reactions to happen. RNA World: Nowadays DNA needs proteins in order to form, and proteins require DNA to form, so how could these have formed without each other? The answer may be RNA, which can store information like DNA, serve as an enzyme like proteins, and help create both DNA and proteins. Later DNA and proteins succeeded this "RNA world," because they are more efficient. RNA still exists and performs several functions in organisms, including acting as an on-off switch for some genes. The question still remains how RNA got here in the first place. And while some scientists think the molecule could have spontaneously arisen on Earth, others say that was very unlikely to have happened. Other nucleic acids other than RNA have been suggested as well, such as the more esoteric PNA or TNA ‘Simple Beginnings: Instead of developing from complex molecules such as RNA life might have begun with smaller molecules interacting with each other in cycles of reactions. These might have been contained in simple capsules akin to cell membranes, and over time more complex molecules that performed these reactions better than the smaller ones could have evolved, scenarios dubbed “metabolism-first” models, as opposed to the “gene-first” model of the “RNA world” hypothesis Panspermia: Perhaps life did not begin on Earth at all, but was brought here from elsewhere in space, a notion known as panspermia. For instance, rocks regularly get blasted off Mars by cosmic impacts, and a number of Martian meteorites have been found on Earth that some researchers have controversially suggested brought microbes over here, potentially making us all Martians originally. Other scientists have even suggested that life might have hitchhiked on comets from other star systems. However, even if this concept were true, the question of how life began on Earth would then only change to how life began elsewhere in space. 7. Prokaryotes: (from Old Greek pro- before + karyon nut or kernel, referring to the cell nucleus, + suffix -otos, pl. -ofes; also spelled “procaryotes”) are organisms without a cell nucleus (= karyon), or any other membrane-bound organelles, Most are unicellular, but some prokaryotes are multicellular. Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures by internal membranes and a cytoskeleton. The most characteristic membrane bound structure is the nucleus. This feature gives them their name, (also spelled Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerin Civil Engineering (3" Somes dy In prokaryotic cells, the ribosomes are scattered and floating freely throughout the cytoplasm, The ribosomes in prokaryotic cells also have smaller subunits. All ribosomes (in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells) are made of two subunits - one larger and one smaller. In eukaryotes, these pieces are identified by scientists as the 60-S and 40-S subunits. In prokaryotes, the ribosomes are made of slightly smaller subunits, called 50-S and 30-S. The difference in types of subunits has allowed scientists to develop antibiotic drugs, such as streptomycin, that attack certain types of infectious bacteria, according to the British Society for Cell Biology, On the downside, some bacterial toxins and the polio virus use the ribosome differences to their advantage; they're able to identify and attack eukaryotic cells’ translation mechanism, or the process by which messenger RNA is translated into proteins. Reproduction: Most eukaryotes reproduce sexually (although some protists and single-celled fungi may reproduce through mitosis, which is functionally similar to asexual reproduction), Prokaryotes reproduce asexually, resulting in the offspring being an exact clone of the parent. Some prokaryotic cells also have pili, which are adhesive hair-like projections used to exchange genetic material during 4 type of sexual process called conjugation. Conjugation can occur in bacteria, protozoans and some algae and fungi. Cell Walls: Most prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall that surrounds the plasma membrane and gives shape to the organism. In eukaryotes, vertebrates don't have a cell wall but plants do, The cell walls of prokaryotes differ chemically from the eukaryotic cell walls of plant cells, which are primarily made of cellulose. In bacteria, for example, the cell walls are composed of peptidoglycans (sugars and amino acids). 8. Synthesizing a protein with the help of the information in RNA is similar to translating a language to another. A four-letter language is translated to 20 letter language during protein synthesis. There should be a specific relationship among the four bases of DNA and sequence of 20 amino acids in the protein. The genetic code can be defined as the set of certain rules using which the living cells translate the information encoded within genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences). The ribosomes are responsible to accomplish the process of translation. They link the amino acids in an mRNA-specified (messenger RNA) order using tRNA (transfer RNA ) molecules to carry amino acids and to read the mRNA three nucleotides at a time. Genetic Code Table: The complete set of relationships among amino acids and codons is said to be a genetic code which is often summarized in a table, Itcan be seen that many amino acids are shown in the table by more than one codon, For example, there are six ways to write leucine in mRNA language. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (" Semester) 12 (©) Nonoverlapping code: The code is read tially in a group of three aad which becomes pat of tripe never becomes pan ofthe next ipl For example, 5’ UCU ~3' codes for Serine 5! - AUG ~3' codes for methionine (d) Polarity: Each triplet is read from 5’ — 3’ direction and the beginning base is 5’ followed by the base in the middle then the last base which is3’. This implies that the codons have a fixed polarity and if the codon is read in the reverse direction, the base sequence of the codon would reverse and would specify two different proteins. (©) Degenerate code: Every amino acid except tryptophan (UGG) and methionine (AUG) is coded by various codons, i.e, afew codons are synonyms and this aspect is known as the degeneracy of genetic code. For instance, UGA codes for tryptophan in yeast mitochondria. () Start and Stop Codons: Generally, AUG codon is the initiating or start codon. The polypeptide chain starts either with eukaryotes (methionine) or prokaryotes (N-formylmethionine). On the other hand, UAG, UAA and UGA are called as termination codons or stop codons. These are not read by any tRNA molecules and they never code for any amino acids. (g) Non-ambiguous and Universal: The genetic code is non-ambiguous which means a specific codon will only code for a particular amino acid. Also, the same genetic code is seen valid for all the organisms i.e. they are universal. (h) Exceptions to the code: The genetic code is universal since similar codons are assigned to identical amino acids along with similar START and STOP signals in the majority of genes in microorganisms and plants. However, a few exceptions have been discovered and most of these include assigning one or two of the STOP codons to an amino acid. ‘Apart from this, both the codons GUG and AUG may code for methionine as a starting codon, although GUG is meant for valine. This breaks the property of non-ambiguousness. Thus, it can be said that few codes often differs from the universal code or non-ambiguous code. 9. (a) Sterilization methods 1. Wet Heat (Autoclaving): The laboratory sterilization method of choice in most labs is autoclaving: using pressurized steam to heat the material to be sterilized. This is a very effective method that kills all microbes, spores, and viruses, although, for some specific bugs, especially high temperatures or incubation times are required. Autoclaving kills microbes by hydrolysis and coagulation of cellular proteins, which is efficiently achieved by intense heat in the presence of water. The intense heat comes from the steam. Pressurized steam has a high latent heat; at 100°C it holds 7 times more heat than water at the same temperature. This Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering (3° Semester) 188 as catheters and stents. Ethylene oxide essential ibolism and PaRamtesaiguie centially prevents cell metabolism. _ Because ethylene oxide is easily absorbed, equipment must be aerated after sterilization to remove any residue. Ethylene oxide is also highly toxic and can present a number of health risks. As it’s generally used for healthcare products, you're not very likely to be using it in the lab. (b) Proteins structures are made by condensation of amino acids forming peptide bonds. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is called its primary structure, The secondary structure is determined by the dihedral angles of the peptide bonds, the tertiary structure by the folding of proteins chains in space. Association of folded polypeptide molecules to complex functional proteins results in quaternary structure. 1, Primary Structure of Protein: > The Primary structure of proteins is the exact ordering of amino acids forming their chains. > The exact sequence of the proteins is very important as it determines the final fold and therefore the function of the protein. > The number of polypeptide chains together form proteins. These chains have amino acids arranged in a particular sequence which is characteristic of the specific protein, Any change in the sequence changes the entire protein. The following picture represents the primary protein structure (an amino acid chain). As you might expect, the amino acid sequence within the polypeptide chain is crucial for the protein’s proper functioning. This sequence is encrypted in the DNA genetic code. If mutation is present in the DNA and the amino acid sequence is changed, the protein function may be affected. Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScannerS.Q.B. in Civil Engineering ("! Semester) th > The main forces which stabilize the secondary and tertiary structures of Proteins are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic forces of attraction. N-terminal ™ B sheet C-terminal Fig. 16 (©) plants, carbon dioxide CO, start text, C, O, end text, start subscript, 2, end subscript) enters the interior of a leaf via pores called stomata and diffuses into the stroma of the chloroplast—the site of the Calvin cycle reactions, where sugar is synthesized. These reactions are also called the light-independent reactions because they are not directly driven by light. rude calvin eyete Scanned with CamScanner‘Scanned with CamScanner