Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097

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Journal of Water Process Engineering

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Microbial disinfection of water using hydrodynamic cavitational reactors

Maharshi Yadav a, Jyoti Sharma a, Rajesh K. Yadav b, Vitthal L. Gole a, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, 273010, Uttar Pradesh, India
b
Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, 273010, Uttar Pradesh, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water disinfection is gaining importance with increasing waterborne diseases and associated impacts on human
Hydrodynamic cavitation health. An approach based on hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is highly beneficial for water disinfection. The
Water disinfection physical and chemical transformation that occurred during HC is useful for microbial inactivation. The selection
Constriction area
of a cavitation chamber/geometry plays a crucial role in the HC performance and energy requirements. It de­
Handpump
Rotational geometry
pends on serval factors such as operation, maintenance, wearing internal parts of geometry, frequency of
Fixed geometry replacement of parts of the cavitational chamber. The present review summarizes the work on HC-assisted water
disinfection. A detailed analysis has been presented on the understanding mechanism of HC-assisted microbial
disinfection and operational parameters such as type and selection of constriction area. Handpump is used for
providing the disinfected water to rural masses in developing and under-developing nations. Detailed guidelines
have been presented on modified water handpump base on principles of hydrodynamic cavitation. HC is
considered a highly energy-intensive operation and provides significant benefits compared to existing microbial
methods. Substantial efforts are required for the development of an energy-efficient hydrodynamic cavitation
technique for microbial water disinfection.

1. Introduction health issues in developing nations are related to waterborne diseases

Water disinfection is essential to protect every individual on the
planet from waterborne diseases and infection. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), 2.4 million/annum diarrhoeal deaths
occur, and about 73 million disability is due to an inadequate supply of
disinfected water. On a global scale, diarrhea contributes to sixth in
death cause and third in morbidity [1–3]. It is estimated that one-sixth of
the population is at risk and continuously exposed to endemic and
epidemic disease due to the non-availability of safe drinking water [4].
The common waterborne diseases, the number of deaths, and water
microbes were causing diseases shown in Table 1a. Many developing
and under-developing nations lack accessibility for safe and potable
water in a radius of 1 km of residents [5]. A million plans have been
made by WHO to reduce water risk exposure. However, most of these
plans could not achieve the desired goal and timeline due to a lack of
resources and shortcomings associated with existing water disinfecting
technologies [6,7]. Hence, there is a need to address these issues
sustainably.
Around 90 % of the world population is intense in 93 developing
nations and will lock in 9 developing countries by 2050. The majority of
[8,9]. Developing nations are failed to provide safe water to larger
masses. The goal of setting up a common and centralized water dis­
infection/treatment facility for the town/city is not successful due to a
lack of piping distribution network [10,11]. Some of the existing piping
infrastructures have many operational issues, such as the
non-availability of skilled human resources for handling operation and
maintenance of plant and supply chain of disinfecting chemicals. Local
bodies of small-town/villages in developing countries cannot afford the
piping distribution network’s operational and maintenance costs. In the
absence of a piping network, surface or groundwater is a water source
for rural masses [12,13]. Another issue related to rural and semi-urban
bodies is the non-accessibility of wastewater management network
systems. The wastewater drainage sent available surface freshwater
sources or dumped underground [14,15]. It contaminates available
freshwater supply and results in frequent waterborne diseases [9,10].
Hence pipeline water supply practice followed in the developed world
may not be helpful for the developing world. The solar energy-operated
water disinfection technique is considered a promising solution [7].
"Water is safe for drinking" is known as water without any microbial
contamination and acceptable natural organic matter [1]. Chlorination

* Corresponding author at: Department of Chemical Engineering, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, 273010, Uttar Pradesh, India.
E-mail address: vlgch@mmmut.ac.in (V.L. Gole).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102097
Received 16 February 2021; Received in revised form 18 April 2021; Accepted 20 April 2021
Available online 30 April 2021
2214-7144/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Yadav et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097

Table 1 bubble-liquid interphase reached 1000–1200 K [21–23]. These condi­

Common water-borne diseases. tions are beneficial for various physical and chemical transformations.
Disease Cases Number of Deaths Bacteria/Virus Shear stress, shock waves, and microjet velocities are generated at
bubble collapse and highly helpful for cell wall rapture or microbial
Cholera 1.4–4.0 21,000− 143,000 Vibrio, vibrio vulnificus,
million Aeromonas, Vibrionaceae inactivation [24–27]. Cavitation is broadly classified as acoustic, hy­
Typhoid 450− 500 per 130,000− 160,000 Salmonella typhi drodynamic, optical, and particle. Optical and particle cavitation are not
100,000 helpful in/for physical and chemical transformations [20]. Acoustic
people cavitation is produced from ultrasound interaction (frequency more
Hepatitis A & 5− 6 million 1− 1.3 million rotavirus, norovirus,
E caliciviruses,
than 16 kHz) with any liquid medium. Many studies confirmed that
enteroviruses, acoustic cavitation is beneficial for microbial inactivation. Cavitation
coxsackieviruses, and efficiency further enhanced additives presence to increase the concen­
polioviruses tration of oxidizing radicals [28–30]. High energy requirement: The
Giardiasis 1− 2 million 4000− 5000 Giardia Duodenalis
non-uniform distribution of cavitational activity in the reactor is a
Amoebiasis 1− 2 million 50,000− 100,000 parasite Entamoeba
histolytica limitation of acoustic cavitation. Development of commercial or
Dracunculiasis 20− 25 0.04− 0.05% parasite end-user technology based on acoustic cavitation is not encouraged [15,
million Dracunculusmedinensis 20]. Microbial disinfection studies using acoustic cavitation help gain
Bacillary 11 per 0.003% Enterobacteriaceae knowledge for large-scale operation development [21,22].
dysentery 100,000
E Coli diarrhea 1500− 1700 0.4− 0.5 million E. coli O157:H7
Hydrodynamic cavitation is produced from the pressure variation of
million liquid. When a liquid is passed through the sudden constriction area, it
Paratyphoid 500 per 130,000− 160,000 Salmonella enterica results in a drop of pressure below the liquid’s vapor pressure, and
fever 100,000 vaporous cavities are formed [29–33]. The typical set-up of hydrody­
Roundworm 0.8− 1.2 50,000− 60,000 Ascaris umbricoides
namic cavitation is shown in Fig. 1a. It consists of a tank for holding
billion
contaminate/untreated water, discharge from a tank connected to a
pump, and a delivery line linked to a constriction area known as a
is a widely accepted technique for water disinfection. However, free cavitation chamber. The release from the cavitation chamber was sent
chlorine reacts with natural organic matter present in water and results back to the holding tank. The cavitation chamber consists of a
in undesired products (chlorinated by-products). Some of these products constriction area such as the orifice and venturi. The cavitational in­
are trihalomethanes, chloroforms, monochloroacetate, dichloroacetate, tensity required for microbial disinfection depends upon selecting the
trihalomethanes, etc. [2,3]. These products have many carcinogenic constriction area [34–36]. The various types of constriction areas have
effects on human health. It has been reported that more than 0.6 mg/l been used for producing the desired cavitational effects. The constric­
free chlorine concentration remains in the water, changes its odor, taste, tion area/cavitation chamber’s selection and design are crucial for
and leads to higher health risks [8]. Ozonation can overcome the many designing the hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. It is dependent on cav­
shortcomings of chlorination and is considered a powerful oxidizing itational intensity, recovery pressure, and energy [37–40]. The detailed
agent. The hydroxyl and hydroperoxyl radicals formed during ozonation mechanism of cavitation-assisted microbial disinfection has been shown
are highly reactive. It enhances the protoplasmic oxidation for cell wall in Fig. 1b. In the last decade, researchers have done substantial work
disintegration [16]. Some of the distinguished/specific advantages of using hydrodynamic cavitational effects. It helps understand the futur­
ozonation are required significantly less contact time, no harmful res­ istic pathway in water disinfection technology development.
idue, no regrowth of microbes, and lesser safety issues [17,18]. The This review briefly discusses the understanding of cavitation effects
typical limitations of ozonation are a higher requirement of power and on microbial inactivation. Brief guidelines for selecting a constriction
corrosive. Bromate formation and release of toxic gases are severe area/cavitation chamber have been presented. Remarks water disin­
concerns that have cariogenic effects on human health [19]. fection in hydrodynamic cavitated hand pump has been reviewed. Final
Ultraviolet (UV) rays are beneficial for the inactivation of microbes brief remarks have been presented on the scope of hydrodynamic cavi­
present in water. The germicidal wavelength of UV rays is capable of tation of water disinfection at various scales of operation.
inactivating microbes present in water. The UV-based technique is
highly beneficial for killing many pathogenic organisms [6,7]. Inacti­ 2. Cavitation and microbial deactivation
vation of microbes is related to UV dose expressed in mW/cm2 or
mJ/cm2. UV dose of 30 mJ/cm2 is enough to induce a wide range of Cavitation is a well-known phenomenon of generation, expansion,
microbes [3,8]. It is determined from UV intensity per unit area and contraction, and bubbles/cavities collapse at million locations in a
contact time spent in the UV chamber. Many cited literature has re­ liquid medium. The phenomena occur due to rapid change/decrease in
ported that a more elongated UV chamber does not help enhance the pressure [24–27]. Inside the bubble, extreme temperature and pressure
inactivation rate. UV is advantageous due to low capital and operation conditions were attained. Extreme temperatures of more than 1000 K
cost, useful for a wide range of pathogens, and no formation of undesired results in a hot-spot generation. These activities result in highly reactive
products [6,8]. However, frequent replacement of UV lamps, regrowth radicals useful for chemical processing applications, especially for water
of microbes after treatment, and ineffective turbid and colored water are and wastewater treatment [25,27]. Cavitation is classified as hydrody­
the primary concerns [1]. Except for chlorination, other technologies are namic and acoustic cavitation based on energy use for generating cav­
not practiced for the massive quantities of water. In India, UV-based ities [21–23,28]. In hydrodynamic cavitation, the local pressure
small water disinfection purifiers are commonly used. The frequent decreases below the liquid temperature and results in cavity formation.
replacement of lamps and maintenance issues concern the UV water Acoustic cavitation is produced by passing ultrasound in an aqueous
purifier [12]. There are many excellent water disinfection reviews using medium [21,41–45]. Many good reviews are available on understanding
UV, solar and other techniques [3–8]. the hydrodynamic cavitation mechanism [14,15,20,42,43]. Under­
Cavitation is a helpful water disinfection technique and kills 99 % of standing the mechanism of hydrodynamic cavitated microbial disin­
microbes present in water without the requirement of any disinfecting fection is interesting.
chemical [15,20]. Cavitation is the nucleation, growth, and collapse of Cell disruption is a widely accepted mechanism for microbial inac­
vaporous bubbles at a million locations in the reactor. The extreme tivation. Several cavitational effects such as a) high shear stress/high-
temperature (5000− 6000 K) and pressure conditions (4000− 5000 atm) pressure conditions, b) shock waves, c) microjet velocities, and d)
are created inside the collapsing bubble, and the temperature at pressure impulse generated from collapsing cavities are highly

2
M. Yadav et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic of the hydrodynamic cavitational reactor (V1, V2, and V3: Valves, P1, and P2: Pressure Gauges). (b) Rapturing of bacteria due to high energy
collapsing cavities.
beneficial for microbial disinfection [41–46]. Several studies reported
on microbial inactivation using cavitational effects. These studies have
given helpful thoughts on understanding the hydrodynamic cavitation
mechanism of cell disruption [21,23,24]. A study on high shear
impingement (high-pressure homogenizer) of microbial cell disruption
of C. utilis, S. cerevisiae, and B. subtilis conclude that a higher velocity jet
produced from shear impingement was useful for cell disruption [41].
Keshavarz et al. (1990) observed similar effects of higher shear stress on
cell disruption’s impingement [44]. Doulah (1977) explained cell
disruption based on the concept of elastic waves released during violent
collapsing bubbles. Elastic waves are formed due to the hydrodynamic
flow behavior of fluid and associate eddies interaction. The cell moves
in, changing fluid eddy’s behavior and experiencing various amplitudes
and fluid eddies’ intensities. Higher intensities of fluid eddies are not
helpful for cell disintegration and allows to move cell in various location
reactor whereas shock waves produced from low fluid intensities are
beneficial for cell disintegration [46].
The work of Doulah based on Kolmogoroff’s theory has given useful
direction for understanding the cavitational effect on cell disruption.
According to this theory, cell distribution is dependent on the amount of
energy release and intensity of shock waves during bubble collapse. It is
highly dependent on collapsing cavity ways such as asymmetric and
symmetric [46,47]. The asymmetric cavity collapse occurred near any
solid surface and produced a very high-velocity jet with full energy
3
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
content [15,20]. The symmetric collapse occurred in the bulk of the
liquid and generates exceptionally high pressure and temperature con­
ditions, which are beneficial for producing shock waves. Collapsing
bubbles release a large quantum of energy release in liquid jets and
shock waves [14,42,43]. Doula (1977) developed a cell disruption
model considering viscous stress effects on the microbial cell. However,
this model lacks the analysis of turbulent energy delivery by cavitational
activities to the surroundings [46]. Mahulkar et al. (2009) developed an
empirical correlation for microbial killing by correlating parameters
such as the geometry of cavitation reactor, operational parameters,
cavity dynamics, and cell characteristics [21].
Few authors consider only the shear stress mechanism for cell
disruption. Shear stress (range of 0.019–100 Pa) is required for breaking
cell wall and treatment time (10 min to 24 h). Merely increasing shear
stress does not help for cell disintegration. It is essential to understand
the number of eddies generated in turbulent flow regions and their
beneficial cell disruption effects [23,26,45,48]. A study on S. Cerevisiae
disruption using shear stress apparatus operating at 10,000 rpm and
pressure of 2586.2 Pa observed cell disintegration occurs in turbulent
flow region. The size microscale region formed during disruption (is 1.2
m) was smaller than the yeast diameter of 5.4 m. This analysis confirms
that cell disruption occurred due to shear stress and energy dissipation
in the turbulent flow [22].
Continuous oscillation of bubbles in a liquid medium leads to
M. Yadav et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097

degassing and critical factors contributing to cavitational assisted mi­ used for microbial inactivation and chemical processing applications
crobial disruption. Cavitational activity may diminish with decreased [20,49]. Geometry selection is based on the low expense of energy and
dissolved gas concentration, which reduces with time. There may be two energy recovery for getting desire cavitational effects. The advantages
regions formed in a cavitational reactor, such as active and inactive and disadvantages of various geometries have been presented in Table 2.
cavitation zones (Gągol et al., 2018). Degassing experiments confirmed Fig. 2 shows the energy and cost associated with various geometries for
that microbial cell disruption microbial disruption rate increased with microbial inactivation.
dissolved air concentration. The critical air concentration is required to
maintain the desired cell disruption. A very high air concentration does 3.1. Fixed geometry
not help produce many nuclei. Critical air concentration provides many
nuclei for enhancing cavitational activities. It depends on the pressure High-pressure jet nozzle, orifice, venturi, vortex diode, liquid whis­
amplitude of ultrasound, which is inversely proportional to the applied tle, and swirling jet are standard fixed geometry [49,50]. The nozzle is
power intensity of ultrasound [21]. used for producing the high-pressure jets and opens in a large diameter
Hydrodynamic cavitation is most preferred over acoustic cavitation of the pipe. The ratio of the diameter of the pipe to the diameter nozzle is
due to higher scaling aspects and energy-efficient [23,24]. Several 5− 7. The intensity of cavitational activities is dependent on the diam­
chemical and physical effects of hydrodynamic cavitation, such as hy­ eter of the nozzle opening. Such type of geometry is not much beneficial
droxyl radical formation, shock waves, and micro-streaming, are helpful due to the requirement of high pressure in the range of 100− 150 bar and
for cell disruptions [20,28]. Save et al. (1994) did one of the pioneering non-recoverable energy losses [20,35].
works on hydrodynamic cavitation-assisted cell disruption of bakers’
and brewer yeast. The study did a comparative analysis of the mixer 3.1.1. Orifice and venturi
blender performance in acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation reactors. Orifice and venturi are the most preferred constriction geometries for
The performance of the hydrodynamic cavitied mixer blender was the creation of extreme cavitational conditions. Cavities formed in
highly energy-efficient. They reported that cavitational activities orifice are transient, whereas venturi produce stable cavities [49].
increased at a lower temperature of the reaction medium. At lower
temperatures, violent collapse of cavities and associated pressure im­
Table 2
pulse enhanced cell disruption [48]. Save et al. (1997) analyzed the
Geometries of Cavitating device.
effect of hydrodynamic cavitated cell disruption base on cell growth.
Geometry Advantages Limitations
The cavitational result was helpful in the cell growth phase compared to
the stationary phase [45]. Initial cell concentration and intensity of High-
- Producing very high-pressure - Very high-pressure range
discharge pressure are significant factors contributing to cavitational jets 100− 150 bar requirement
pressure
- Cavitational intensity is
reactor performance. Higher cell concentration increased the probabi­ jet - Non-recoverable energy loss
related to the nozzle opening
listic contact between the cell and the collapsing cavity [23,24,26]. A - multiple with smaller diameter - Huge energy loss
study on cell disruption at high-pressure intensities observed that higher has better control cavitational - Very amount of energy can be
pressure intensities were useful for complete cell disruption. Still, the net Orifice
activity and intensity recovered
- Speed of recovery of pressure
efficiency of the process was less at high-pressure intensity [41–45,48]. - operational and maintenance
is very high
The advantage of hydrodynamic cavitation over acoustic cavitation - cavitation is transient
issues
is pressure plus produced higher cavities of flow magnitude compared to - stable cavitational actives - cavitational activity related to
acoustic cavitation [15,20]. Temperature is an essential consideration in kinetic energy associated with
cell disruption. At high temperatures, cell wall damage is occurred due liquid
Venturi - pressure and energy recovery - non-recoverable energy loss
to water’s vapor pressure. Since temperature affects the cavity’s violent
more compare to an orifice - frequent clogging in the
collapse, more violent and vaporous cavities are formed at a lower constriction area
temperature than high temperatures. Low temperature favors cell - wearing of constriction area
disruption [33,42,43]. Analysis of these studies confirmed that micro­ - Vortex generation is major
- recovery of pressure is more
bial disruption is directly proportional to the cavitational intensity. - complete understanding of
Vortex - Lesser issues of operation and
Rotational hydrodynamic cavitational reactor increased in cavitational diode maintenance
cavitational activity and flow
activities. The performance reactor is dependent on the complex flow analysis is lacking
- scale-up aspects are more
pressure field, streaming/constriction structure, shear rate, and rotor compare to venturi and orifice
speed. The mathematical analysis confirmed that cavitational activities - type of modified orifice - inadequate control over the
cavitational activities
depend on the constriction area, shear rate, and pressure fields. The Liquid - cavitational efficiency increase
- No flexibility for geometry
pressure field and shear rate vary with rotation speed, and the pressure whistle by liquid shed vortices
- distance between blade and
reactor perpendicular to the direction
field reaches a local maximum level for rotor speed of 2000–3000 rpm orifice is a controlling factor for
of the original flow
[29]. The selection of a constriction area is a critical factor for enhancing cavitational activity
cavitational intensity. The next section discussed the various geometries - Super cavitation avoided
- Cavitational activity increase
and design features. Swirling Jet with the optimum release of
- Understanding of flow and
pressure in the cavitating
Loop energy from the cavity
chamber is lacking
3. Design features of cavitating devices - erosion, vibration, and noises
avoided
- deliver the constant - no control on cavitational
As discussed in an earlier section, microbial disinfection dependent cavitational effects and increase active volume and pressure
on shear stress, shock waves, microjet velocities, and collapsing cavities with the speed of rotation magnitude
conditions and associate impact [24–27]. These activities depend on - treat high concentration of - require massive quantum of
hydrodynamic cavitation operational parameters, such as inlet pressure microbial count with lesser energy for rotating constriction
operational and maintenance geometry and maintaining the
entering the cavitation geometry (constriction area), the constriction Rotating
issues initial pressure of a liquid
area geometry (opening of constriction) free area available for the flow. - complete understanding of
[14,15,42,43]. Availability of low free area enhanced the cavitational - reduce the processing time
flow and pressure relation are
from hours to the second
intensity and highly dependent on the selection of constriction geome­ lacking
try. The constriction geometry can be broadly classified as fixed (static) - few numbers of passes are - cost of operation is more
required for treatment compare to the fixed geometry
and rotating (dynamic). Some commercial cavitating geometry has been

4
M. Yadav et al.
Fig. 2. Energy consumption by various hydrodynamic cavitational geometries
for more than 99 % disinfection (OR: multi-hole orifice, VE: Slit Venturi, LWR:
Liquid Whistle reactor, VD: Venturi Diode, and RS: Rotor-starter assembly).
Various forms of single and multiple holes orifice geometries with
varying flow areas have shown in Fig. 3. Circular, rectangular, triangular
are common shapes of orifice opening. Multiple holes orifice plate
control cavitational intensity and events [51,52]. Venturi has three
sections viz convergent, throat, and divergent. Flow perimeter, area of
throat, convergence, and divergence angle are geometrical parameters
of venturi and available in circular, slit, and elliptical shapes and details
shown in Fig. 4 [53–57].
Cavitational effects in the orifice are dependent on the opening of the
flow area and shape and the number of holes on the orifice plate. The
recovering of pressure in the orifice is very fast due to sudden contrac­
tion and expansion type of geometry and results in a rapid and intense
collapse of cavities [51,52]. These activities are highly beneficial for cell
wall rupture and enhance microbe inactivation rate [36,57,58]. Cavity
generation is an orifice that occurs at the throat section and results in
smaller cavitational activities and is a significant shortfall associated
with an orifice [51–54,56–59]. Multiple hole orifice overcomes many
Fig. 3. Various configuration of orifice geometry.
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Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
shortfalls associated with a single orifice. A multiple-hole orifice gen­
erates more cavities than a single hole orifice with the same flow area. A
larger perimeter is available for flow in multiple hole orifice [59,60].
The efficiency of orifice depends on two critical ratios/parameters viz i)
perimeter of holes to total flow area (α), and ii) throat/hole opening area
to cross-sectional area of pipe (β). In multiple hole orifice plate, α
increased with the number of holes on the orifice plate and decreased
with an increase in the hole diameter/size. Perimeter is dependent on
the shape of a hole or throat cross-sectional area [35,50–52]. Thus, α
increases with a higher number of holes and shape with a higher
perimeter. Many studies confirmed that α > 2 useful for enhancing the
cavitational activities and thus microbial inactivation [50,60]. β repre­
sents the relation between the operational cavitational number and
volumetric flowrate/discharge from the reactor. Microbial inactivation
depends on the strength of the cell wall of microbes. β in the range of
0.3− 0.4 is preferred for microbial inactivation [58,59]. The enormous
energy loss significant shortfall associated with multiple holes orifices
hydrodynamic cavitational reactor. Another limitation associated with
orifice geometry is operational and maintenance issues and requires
frequent shut-down, which may not be preferred for commercialization
of technology.
It is reported that the venturi overcomes many shortfalls associated
with the orifice. The cavitational activities in venturi are dependent on
the shape of the throat (circular, elliptical, and rectangular) and diver­
gent sections (Fig. 4) [51,52]. The density and magnitude of cavitational
activities relate to the collapse pressure and life span (residence time) of
a cavity in a low-pressure region. Concerns of early collapse cavity
(orifice) overcome by providing the divergent section in venturi
[54–56]. The divergent section prevents early cavity collapse and useful
for immediate pressure recovery. The Flow-area of a divergent section
has a relation with the direction of flow. It helps increase the bubble size
and results in stable cavitational activities [55–57]. Many studies are
investigated optimizing the shape of venturi and concluded that venturi
is preferred over an orifice in energy recovery and formation of stable
cavitational activities [35,50–52,59,60].
The throat and a divergent section of the venturi are important
M. Yadav et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097

Fig. 4. Various configuration of venturi geometry.

sections for controlling the cavitational effects. At the throat, cavity

inception occurs, and the ratio of diameter of throat to perimeter affects
the cavitational activity [51,52]. Any cross-sectional area of the throat
with larger perimeter increased cavitational activities. Rectangular,
elliptical shapes venturi have a larger perimeter compare to circular
venturi. These shapes are preferred for enhancing cavitational effects
and thus microbial inactivation rates [53–60].
At the throat, minimum pressure is occurred and depends on throat
opening. Cavity generation starts from the throat section. The cavity size
is related to the throat opening area [51–53]. Selection of opening area
is crucial for getting desired cavitational effects of higher collapse
pressure/shock waves for rupturing the microbes’ cell wall [58–63].
Opening/area of the throat correlated with the throat height ratio to the
throat diameter or length (γ). The residence time of the cavity increases
with a decrease in γ or increase in the throat length. With an increase in
the throat’s length, the cavity residence time rises and reaches the
maximum size before entering the divergent section [54–56]. The
divergent section decides the intensity of collapse for getting the desir­
able effects. Design of divergent section depends on the shape/angle of
divergence and helps for recovery of pressure. Too large and small
Fig. 5. Schematic of Vortex diode (where D: diode diameter, H: diode height,
divergence angles are not helpful. Small divergence angles behave like DT: tangential port diameter, lA: axial nozzle length, DAE, DA, DAo: axial port
an orifice, and pressure cannot be recovered [53,63]. Cavitational in­ diameters at entrance center and exit).
tensity decreased with a larger divergence angle. Hence, a half diver­
gence angle between 5.5− 6.5 helps get desired cavitational effects [35, forwarding direction of flow. In reverse flow, higher pressure is exerted
49–52]. on the periphery of the cylindrical (diode) chamber due to strong
The cavitational intensity in orifice/venturi is dependent on kinetic swirling flow generation at the chamber center. The pressure is
energy associated with liquid. There is a considerable energy loss in the decreasing along the exit path from the axial port. Cavitation occurred in
orifice/venturi due to local pressure development in the constriction the vortex diode when pressure associate with fluid along the exit path
area [14,42]. Frequent clogging (sludge, semi-solids) in the constriction from the axial port drops below the fluid vapor pressure. Cavities
area and erosion of the constriction area solid wall are significant dis­ emitting from the axial port enter high-pressure regions and explode
advantages associated with orifice/venturi and require periodic [40,66]. The vortex diode cavitational intensity depends on the cylin­
shut-down maintenance [64,65]. Most of the studies reported on the drical chamber geometry or the flow patterns in the diode.
application of orifice and venturi for microbial inactivation. Standard Factors responsible for axial flow geometry are inlet flow rates, the
parameters for analysis were a number of holes, the plate thickness, the pressure drop in reverse and forward flow configuration, and the cy­
throat geometry, and diffuser angle [35–38,40]. The available data in lindrical chamber’s geometric parameters such as chamber diameter
the literature lacks a standard protocol for commercializing technology and height [62–64]. Diodicity (ratio of pressure drops in reverse to
for microbial inactivation using orifice and venturi geometry. forward flow configuration) and aspect ratio of a chamber (ratio of
diameter to height) are critical design parameters of a diode chamber
3.1.2. Vortex diode [67]. Cavitational efficiency is maximum for diodicity value for four and
Vortex diode is advantageous over venturi and orifice in the gener­ equal chamber diameter and height. However, these conditions are valid
ation of cavitation and pressure recovery [40,61,62]. Flow in the vortex at relatively low flow rates [64].
diode enters in the tangential direction and exits in an axial direction. A Studies on vortex diode are limited to understanding the flow
cylinder disc shape chamber is used to connect the flow in two directions behavior in various geometry diode chambers such as axial, tangential,
(Fig. 5). Based on the direction of flow, there are two possibilities of and cylindrical. [64–68]. Pandare and Ranade (2015) did operational
flow, i.e., forward and reverse. For example, flow from axial and exit parameters such as per pass yield, cavitational yield, and flow behavior.
from the tangential direction is forward flow [61,62]. There is a sig­ Some of the interesting facts from this study were a) per pass
nificant pressure drop that occurred in reverse flow compared to the

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M. Yadav et al.
degradation factor (φ) is sensitive to initial bubble radius and turbulent
frequency, b) scale-up aspects of the cavitational reactor is inversely
proportional to turbulence frequency, c) the downstream exit pressure
increase (beneficial of higher cavitational yield) with initial bubble
radius of a cavity. Vortex diode geometry has the potential for com­
mercial application [61,66]. More efforts are needed for the commer­
cialization of vortex diode technology.
3.1.3. Liquid whistle reactor
This type of in-line homogenizing device (modified orifice) generates
high pressure and cavitational activities. Cavitational activity generated
from this reactor is known as jet-edge tone [20,49]. It consists of an
orifice (lip shape) and blade arrangement (Fig. 6). The distance between
the blade and orifice can be adjusted, and the backpressure valve con­
nected at the end of the mixing chamber for utilization/recovery of
pressure. A high-pressure liquid jet generated from orifice constriction is
projected over the adjustable blade. The blade helps develop liquid shed
vortices perpendicular to the original flow direction [69]. Oscillation
created from geometry is like acoustic sound interaction with a liquid
medium, which results in the formation of cavitational activities. The
major shortcoming of this reactor are a) inadequate control over the
cavitational activities, b) geometry of reactor or cavitational chamber
fixed without having any flexibility, c) controlling factor for cavitational
intensity is the distance between the orifice and blade, and this is con­
trolling factor only for this type of reactor [70,71].
Dynaflow Inc, USA have developed few geometries for various
chemical processing application. Some studies reported on the appli­
cation of Dynaflow products for microbial inactivation. The geometrical
device raised the local velocity associated with fluid and shear jet near/
exit a nozzle to develop the vortices between the fluid entry and the
surrounding liquid. The rotational flow in the DynaSwirl nozzle de­
velops low-pressure at the vortex core center. The helicoidal shape of
cavitation is created after breaking of vortex near the orifice surface. The
modified nozzle has a significant advantage, such as high cavitation
number at low jet speed, producing helical cavitation, vortical cavities,
and sizeable cavitational surface area. Stratajet another product of this
company, is used for generating passive acoustic resonance, which re­
sults from flow interaction with a nozzle. The advantage of this geom­
etry is no moving part [72]. HyCator, India, developed non-moving parts
geometry for treatment ballast water and lake water purification [73].
3.1.4. Swirling jet loop
Cavitation intensity increased with an increase in upstream pressure
and resulted in an increasing number of cavitational events with the
more intense collapse of cavities. Microbial inactivation increased with
an increase in cavitational intensity at the constriction area. [15,20].
Fig. 6. Schematic of a liquid whistle reactor.
7
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
However, the higher cavitational intensity may result in a very high inlet
pressure, known as super-cavitation. Thus, the net cavitational effect
diminishes at very high cavitational intensity. Another drawback with
very cavitational intensities is the release of enormous energy, affecting
the net generation of cavities. Other issues with orifice/venturi are
continuous erosion, vibration, and noise due to cavitating conditions
[42–47,49]. Swirling jet loop geometry addresses some of these issues.
Various forms of geometries of swirling jet loop cavitating devices are
available, and some of the designs are patented by companies like
Econovation, Germany. This device is used for commercial applications
by Officine Parisi SRL Italy [74,75].
The swirling jet loop rector is made of stainless steel (Fig. 7).
Constriction geometry generates multi-dimensional vortices of liquid,
and formed vortices/cavities never hit the cavitating device walls, and
considerable reduction in erosion achieved. Cavitational intensity pro­
duced from vortices is highly beneficial for microbial inactivation and
chemical processing application [74]. The cavitating chamber is a
multi-dimensional vortices generator consisting of three sections. The
first section is a pre-swirling chamber with six or more injection slots.
Liquid input first comes to this chamber. The Middle section is a double
cone chamber where main cavitational activities occur. The injection
port has an upstream diameter of 10 mm and a downstream diameter of
8 mm. Radial flow receiving at the pre-swirling chamber is divided into
six or multiple single vortices generating stream using the helical shape
of a jet [74,75]. Cavitating bubbles are generated in a double cone
chamber due to centrifugal force associated with vortices where the
pressure is less than the liquid vapor pressure. The pre-swirling chamber
was useful for liquid acceleration and uniform mixing before entering
the double cone chamber. Stream of liquid ejected from the pre-swirling
chamber to double chamber made the impact perpendicular to the liquid
stream, which resulted in bubble collapse due to sudden pressure rise. It
has been reported that the vortex production rate using a swirling jet
cavitating device is about 1000 pulses per second [74–76]. G. Mancuso
(2018) did the numerical investigation of swirling jet device using
three-dimensional fluid dynamic analysis. Flow behavior was studied at
maximum flow velocity and low flow pressure. They observed a) the
maximum pressure applied plays a significant role than inlet flow
pressure (2.0 bar), and b) generation rotational flow at the center at the
swirling jet device in input flow direction and double cone section exit.
Flow velocities and pressure changed with the geometry of the device
and input flow velocity. With increasing the inlet flow pressure, negative
flow pressure is observed at the downstream injection slot chamber and
results in vaporous bubble formation/cavitation. They also did the noise
analysis to identify air cavitation and cavitational intensity contribution
[75]. Experimental studies confirmed the effectiveness of swirling jet
cavitating devices. More analysis required for accurate measurement of
M. Yadav et al.
Fig. 7. Swirling Jet Loop Reactor.
flow velocity and pressure in the cavitation chamber lacks geometrical
complexities and turbulent conditions in the cavitation zone [74,75].
There are few applications of swirling jet cavitation reported in the open
literature. However, the application of microbial inactivation is not
observed to the best of our knowledge.
3.2. Rotating geometry
The constriction area is continuously spinning in a rotational type of
hydrodynamic cavitational reactor. Synergic effects of rotation and
pressure are beneficial for generating more cavitational activities than
the static type of geometry. High-speed homogenizer and rotor-stator
are common types of rotating type of hydrodynamic cavitational
reactor [14,42–47,49].
A high-pressure homogenizer is the most common rotating type
hydrodynamic cavitation reactor (Fig. 8). It has significant applications
in the food and dairy industries [29,77]. The high-pressure displacement
pump is pumping liquid through the continuously rotating throttling
device (constriction area). The throttling device is converting liquid
pressure into kinetic energy and subsequently reduces the liquid pres­
sure below vapor pressure and leads to cavitation. Cavities are created at
the critical tip speed of the rotating impeller attached with a throttling
device. The pressure required for this device is 50− 300 atm, and the
rotational speed of the impeller varied with applied power is
4000− 2000 rpm [78–80]. The limitations associated with high-pressure
homogenizer are a) no control on cavitational active volume and pres­
sure magnitude, and b) require massive quantum of energy for rotating
constriction geometry, and c) requirement of very high initial pressure
of the liquid [49,80]. The application of such a high energy-consuming
device has limited scope for microbial inactivation.
Schematic of rotor-stator assembly type hydrodynamic cavitational
Fig. 8. Rotor-stator assembly of the high-pressure homogenizer.
8
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
reactor has been shown in Fig. 9. The liquid is pumped from the storage
tank to the cavitating device through a heat exchanger. The heat
exchanger controls the temperature for liquid feeding to the cavitating
device. The gear pump is attached with the frequency drive to rotate the
constriction area. The rotor is usually a solid cylinder with indentations
on the surface. Indentations are arranged at equidistance from each
other. Very high velocity developed on the surface of the rotor enters
indentations. When the liquid comes out from the indentation surface,
low pressure or vacuum is created near the indentation surface. With an
increase in the liquid’s surface velocity, pressure on/near-surface of
indentation goes down or equal to the vapor pressure and results in
cavities formation.
The cavities generation’s performance depends on the number of
indentations, diameter, and depth of indentations [81–84]. Most of the
work reported 10− 14 mm diameter, 18− 24 mm depth, and 200–400
indentations rotor assembly. The reactor’s efficiency depends on the gap
between the rotor and stator (0.75–2.0 cm), the volume of the reactor,
and rotor speed [69,85–88]
Understanding the cavitational activity in the rotor-stator is a
complicated process. Very few studies are highlighted on the same.
Recently, H. Kim et al. (2019) did a numerical and experimental
investigation on understanding cavitational intensity/activity in rotor-
stator assembly. The study analyzed the performance of 32 in­
dentations rotor surface and bubble formation and growth visualized by
a high-speed camera. Some of the observations of this study were i)
cavitational intensity is inversely proportional to the upstream pressure
at the constant flow rate, ii) liquid density continuously decreasing, iii)
heat transfer required for bubble formation decrease with decrease in
energy dissipation from bubble collapse, iv) radial velocity has little
impact of cavitational activity and v) equidistant indentation arrange­
ment along the circumferential surface of the rotor is highly beneficial of
M. Yadav et al.
Fig. 9. Rotor-stator assembly for rotational cavitational reactor.
enhancing tangential velocity and cavitational activities [85,86]. How­
ever, this study lacks information about the mechanistic understanding
of cavitation activity, and findings are limited to information about
cavitational numbers and temperature. Another interesting study on
modeling the shear rate and pressure in rotor-stator assembly with the
validation of potassium decomposition is reported. The rotor perfor­
mance with 204 equidistance indentation of 12 mm diameter, 20 mm
depth, and 10 mm gap between stator and rotor analyzed. Navier-stokes
equation with no external force considered for an understanding of
pressure and shear stress. Pressure and shear field are directly related to
rotation speed, and the behavior of this field different at a low and high
rotational speed. Maximum pressure is achieved for a speed level be­
tween 20,000–30,000 rpm. The number of vortices formation observed
at a lower speed of rotations. Theoretical observations were validated
with experimental findings [83]. Most of the studies on rotor-stator are
reported on the chemical processing application, especially for waste­
water assembly. Theoretical studies with experiment validation are
lacking. There is a need for more investigations on developing the
geometrical correlation between the number, shape, diameter, depth of
indentation, and the gap between the rotor and stator. A very recent
study confirms that microbial inactivation achieved in 6 s with mini­
mum energy utilization. So, the rotor-stator type of assembly has more
potential in terms of the commercialization of technology.
Analysis of various geometries based on 99 % killing of microbes
present in water observed that energy requirement and associated cost
of operation is highly dependent on the selection of geometry (Fig. 2).
Cavitational activities produce in fixed and rotating geometries are
sufficient for rapid microbial inactivation. However, cavitation is
considered as one of the energy-intensive options and a significant
concern for commercial technology. Vortex diode and rotor-stator as­
sembly have a higher potential for microbial inactivation at lower cost
and energy.
3.3. Design configuration
Design consideration for fixed and rotational geometry is dependent
on the shape and opening of the constriction area for cavitational ac­
tivities and operational parameters. Crucial design aspects of each ge­
ometry for microbial disinfection presented below:
a) Orifice: Efficacy of orifice plate is dependent on total flow area (α)
and cross-sectional area of pipe (β). Microbial disinfection rate using
9
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
orifice meter is increased with a number of holes and shape with higher
perimeter [54,55]. The shape of opening plays a significant role in
enhancing the rate of microbial disinfection. A circle has the most
considerable area at the fixed perimeter, whereas a fixed area circle has
the smallest perimeter than other shapes such as triangle, square, and
other polygons [60,61]. However, selecting the shape of orifice openings
depends on operational issues such as maintenance and cleaning. It
addressed these issues, orifice with a chosen circular opening. Most
literature findings confirmed that α > 2 and β in the range of 0.3− 0.4 are
preferred for higher microbial disinfection [58,59].
b) Venturi: Throat openings and divergent sections are essential as­
pects of the design of venturi. The intensity of cavitational activity is
related to the opening of the throat and depends on the ratio of throat
height to throat diameter/length (γ). The cavitational intensity required
for microbial disinfection increased with decreased γ or increased throat
diameter or length [35–38]. To increase in diameter or length is not
preferred, which may result in permanent pressure loss. γ is dependent
on the shape of the venturi. Most available literature confirms that γ
between 1:1− 1:3 is optimum for achieving cavitational events and
avoiding pressure loss [48–50]. Elliptical shape venturi is recommended
for microbial disinfection. A divergent angle between 5.5− 6.5 gives the
desirable results for achieving the maximum microbial disinfection [52,
52].
c) Swirling Jet/Vortex Diode: The performance of vortex diode/
swirling jet reactor is dependent on a) ratio of pressure drop in reverse to
forward flow configuration known as diodicity, and b) ratio of diameter
to height, i.e., aspect ratio. Most numerical and experimental analyses
confirmed that an aspect ratio between 4–6 is preferred for enhancing
cavitational activity at minimal loss of energy [64–68]. Diodicity
increased with chamber diameter and depended on the scale of opera­
tion and chamber diameter (25–150 mm). The maximum cavitational
efficiency can be achieved for a diodicity value up to 4. [66,67]. Fig. 2
indicates huge energy loss using conventional fixed geometries such as
orifice, venturi, and nozzle. Energy loss can be minimized by 50 % using
modified advanced/novel fixed geometry of vortex diode. However,
significant shortfalls associated with fixed geometry are inefficient
flexibility over the operational process parameters [113,114]. These
shortcomings can be addressed using a rotational type of geometries.
d) Rotating geometry: Rotor-stator type reactor has several advan­
tages over the conventional homogenizer. It consumes almost 70–80 %
less energy compared to homogenizers [114]. Several parameter
M. Yadav et al.
parameters need to contribute to the efficiency of the reactor, such as the
shape of the stator/cavitational generation unit (CGU). The cavitational
effect generated in CGU is two types, namely interacting (rotor and
stator) and non-interacting (rotor) [115,116]. Synergy produce from
rotor and stator is preferred for getting higher cavitational intensity. The
height to diameter ratio (β) of CGU between 0.2 to 0.6 helps achieve the
higher microbial disinfection efficiency [81–84]. The hemispherical
shape is giving the higher efficiency compare to cylindrical or cone type
of geometry. The cavitational efficiency achieved in hemispherical
shape assembly (3.305 × 10− 8 m2/N) much higher compare to
cone-cylindrical (2.113 × 10− 8 m2/N) [115]. The diameter of CGU is
directly related to the active cavitational efficiency of the reactor, and
8− 20 mm diameter preferred for enhancing maximum microbial
disinfection [86,87]. The interaction distance between the rotor and
stator affects the performance of the cavitational reactor. Narrow
interaction distance is preferred for achieving maximum efficiency, and
the reported minimum distance is 1 mm [83,82–84]. The performance of
rotor-stator assembly is susceptible to the height of the CGU chamber.
An excessive height of 1 mm decreases cavitational efficiency from
4.440 to 2.386 × 10− 8 m2/N [115]. More understanding/studies are
required on same. The amount of energy consumption and operation
cost depends on the inclination angle of indentations on the rotor. Too
and low/negative inclination angle affects the performance of CGU.
Inclination angle 8− 12◦ is mostly preferred for the microbial disinfec­
tion process [114,115]. Performance of rotational and fixed geometry is
susceptible to operational parameters such as cavitational number,
liquid jet viscosity, liquid vapor pressure, etc. A detailed analysis of
operating parameters has been presented in the next section.
4. Status of a hydrodynamic cavitational reactor for microbial
disinfection
4.1. Treatment of Bacteria
Study on removal E. Coli (Escherichia coli) is the most common choice
among the researchers [31,32,34,89]. The summary of research work on
the treatment of E. Coli. using hydrodynamic cavitation is presented in
Table 1. E.Coli. removal performance depends on device geometry,
operational parameters, and concentration of hydroxyl radical produc­
ing additives/catalyst such as hydrogen peroxide (Kalumuck et al.,
2003; Wang et al., 2015b; Gaikwad and Ranade 2016; Liu et al., 2016).
E.coli. is gram-negative rod-shaped bacteria found in animals and the
human gastrointestinal tract. Some of the pathogenic strains are
dangerous to humans and animals. Enterohemorrhagic is a pathogenic
strain of E. Coli. that causes hemorrhagic colitis and life-threatening to
the human syndrome. Drinking of E. Coli. contaminated water leads to
diarrhea. There are many bacterial infections associated with E.Coli.
[78].
Gashchinand and Viten’ko (2008) did the experiments using a
wedge-type three-blade impeller with sharp front edges and blunt rear
edges attached with an electric motor for free rotation in an aqueous
field. Performance is based on rotational frequency, Reynolds number,
vacuum on the blade, and electrical energy dissipation per volume in the
reactor. Cavitational activities were linearly increasing with an increase
in the impeller speed and 99 % E. Coli removed in 12− 14 m in. E. Coli’s
inactivation rate depends on inducing gas concentration. It increases
with oxidation producing radical gasses such as oxygen. Least inacti­
vation was reported for carbon dioxide [87,88]. Performance of blade
type cavitating device increased with a synergy of cavitation and hy­
droxyl radical producing reagent such as hydrogen peroxide and silver
ion. The combined effect of cavitation and silver ion reduced 99 %
E. Coli. in 10 min compared to 70 min for silver ion without cavitation.
The addition of hydrogen reduced the time required to 11 min compared
to 450 min for hydrogen peroxide alone [88]. Filho (2015) did the
inactivation experiment on synthetic E. Coli. (Filho et al., 2015).
There are few studies reported on the treatment of natural/ under
10
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
groundwater. Work on treatment under groundwater was performed on
a 2 mm nozzle fitted in a 12.00 mm pipe with a convergence angle of
132◦ as a cavitating device and cavitation number of 0.14 maintained by
adjusting the processing conditions. Inactivation of E.Coli. was moni­
tored for pressure variation from 12.0, 10.0, and 8.0 MPa and constant
temperature of 30 ± 1 ◦ C. Maximum inactivation of E. Coli. was 99.89 %
at 10.0 MPa pressure in 900 s, and complete inactivation obtained in
1800s. A similar trend was observed for the inactivation of E. Coli.
present in natural water at 8.0 MPa [35].
An orifice is the most common choice for creating cavitating condi­
tions. E. Coli. investigation using orifice plate with multiple configura­
tions such as a) single hole with 5 mm diameter, b) six holes with 2 mm
diameter, and c) 25 holes with 1 mm diameter, and three venturi meters
of cross-sectional areas 4 × 10− 5 m2, 2 × 10− 5 m2, and 1 × 10− 5 m2 with
a converging angle of 10◦ reported. All configurations have the same
overall free cross-sectional area of 2 × 10− 5 m2. The rate of inactivation
of E. Coli. was found to be maximum for venturi meter with the least
cross-sectional area and least for single hole orifice plate. The perfor­
mance of the venturi meter was better than all geometries of an orifice.
The inactivation rate for orifice was increased with a decrease in hole
size area and an increase in the number of holes. The synergy between
the physical and chemical effects of cavitation was beneficial for
improving process efficiency [36]. Burzio et al. (2020) did the dimen­
sional analysis of cavitating reactor geometry (orifice plate). The per­
formance parameters were concentration of pathogen, water properties
such as kinematic viscosity, density, surface tension, and the reactor’s
operational parameters such as downstream velocity, downstream
pressure, and absolute water-vapor pressure. Based on the outcome of
dimensional analysis cavitation using the orifice plate with the opening
of 2.5 mm and 4 holes, experiments were performed for varying cavi­
tation numbers viz. 0.2, 0.4, and 0.65. The rate of inactivation was
increased with cavitation numbers from 0.2 to 0.65. They proposed an
empirical equation for cavitational geometry design. This empirical
equation did not address turbulent flow behavior complexities under
cavitating conditions [58].
More investigations are needed to understand the device flow
behavior to maximize cavitation effects for microbial inactivation. The
synergy of hydrodynamic cavitation with other advanced oxidation
processes such as intense electric field discharge helps intensify the
process on a multifold basis. The study results on combined effects of
hydrodynamic cavitation with electric field discharge shown that com­
plete elimination of initial E. Coli. concentration of 106 CFU/mL was
obtained in 5 s. Total oxidizing radical concentration reaches 10 ppm.
The rate of hydroxyl radical and reactive oxidative species formation
was useful for enhancing the inactivation rate of E. Coli. [68].
As discussed earlier, the vortex diode is an excellent option to
recover pressure and energy. E. Coli. inactivation from water using
vortex diode observed that with an increase in inlet pressure from 100 to
140 kPa, the extent of disinfection increased from 2log10 to 3log10. They
reported that higher inlet pressure was useful to shift the non-cavitating
zone to the cavitating zone. and enhance the extent of disinfection of
E. Coli. [40]. Comparative performance analysis of vortex diode and
orifice for inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus and E. Coli. mixture re­
ported that vortex diode removed 99 % E. Coli. and 60 % Staphylococcus
aureus in 60 min at a pressure of 0.5 bar. The same performance was
observed by orifice at 10 bar pressure [61]. Performance of cavitation
increases with the combined effect of hydroxyl radical. Mane et al.
(2020) studied the effect of natural oils on the inactivation of E. Coli. and
staphylococcus aureus. Experiments were performed using three types of
cavitational reactors viz a) reactor with vortex diode of 66 cm chamber
diameter, b) reactor with a single hole of an orifice plate, and c) acoustic
cavitation at frequency 40 kHz and 500 W power. Clove, eucalyptus,
castor, and natural cinnamon oils were used. Findings of work observed
that 0.1 % concentration of clove and eucalyptus was beneficial for
enhancing the inactivation rates. Vortex diode requires the least energy
compared to the orifice and acoustic cavitation. Maximum inactivation
M. Yadav et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097

of 74 % achieved for 15 min run at 1 bar pressure [66]. Table 3

Studies were reported on the commercial cavitating geometries such Microbial disruption using hydrodynamic cavitation.
as STRATO JET and DYNASWIRL generating ring-shaped geometries. A Microbes/ Geometric details of Result and Remarks Refs.
swirling cavitating jet produces using these geometries. It was beneficial pathogens cavitation generation
for reducing the concentration of E. Coli. from 107 to 109 CFU/mL with unit
reproducibility of five order magnitude (5log10) [37]. Treatment of E. Coli. Conical Nozzle:132◦ Natural water [35]
gram-negative (B. Subtilis.) and gram-positive microbes using DYNAS­ Orifice diameter: 2.00 disinfection: 99.89 % in
WIRL and STRATO JET treatment observed that gram-negative species mm, Pipe diameter 900 s and complete
12.70 mm, Pressure: 10 disinfection in 1800s
with thinner cell walls disintegrate quickly compare to a thick-walled MPa
gram-positive microbe. DYNASWIRL geometry was found to be more Flowrate: 8 L/min,
efficient in killing microbes. The killing rate of gram-negative E. Coli. 7.3log10 CFU/mL,
was independent nozzle geometry and operating pressure. The killing disinfection: 99.9% in
Rotor speed: 2700, 16 min
rate of gram-positive B. subtilis was more efficient at operating pressure
3000, 3300, and 3600 Flowrate:11 L/min,
2 bar with a cavitation number of 0.5. DYNASWIRL geometry was 100 rpm, Gauge pressure: 8.30log10CFU/mL,
times efficient compared to the acoustic cavitational reactor [72]. S. B. E. coli [89]
0.0,0.5, 0.7, 1.0, and 1.5 disinfection: 100% in 14
Doltade et al. (2017) used the commercial Hycator cavitating device to bar, Flow rates: 8, 11, 14 m in
treat Rankala lake water of Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India. It was oper­ L/min Flowrate:14 L/min,
8.30log10CFU/mL,
ated at 3 bar pressure, 100 m3/h, 8 h/day, and 3 weeks of operation. disinfection: 100% in 14
This is the first kind of work on the treatment of contaminated lake m in
water. Results obtained from this work were impressive. The microbial Rotor and cutting mill,
concentration was reduced from 105 to 102 CFU/mL. Chemical oxygen E. Coli
load speed 9000− 23000 75 % reduction in E-coil
[31]
min− 1 and area1 × 10-5 in 3 min.
demand was decreased from 110 to 30 ppm, whereas biological oxygen
m2
demand reduced from 40 to 0 ppm. One interesting observation from the Orifice: single hole 5 Orifice with 25 holes
study was increased birds’ movement towards clean and clear lake water mm dia, 6 holes 2 mm reduces normalized
after treatment [73]. dia, 25 holes 1 mm dia concentration from 0.8
Rotating geometry devices have several advantages over fixing ge­ to 0.4 in 120 min,
whereas venturi with
ometry cavitational devices, requiring lesser energy than the static de­ E. Coli Venturi c/s (gorge) 4 × [36]
gorge area 1 × 10− 5 m2
vice, and delivering more output. Table 3 highlighted the advantages 10− 5 m2, 2 × 10− 5 m2
reduces normalize
and 1 × 10-5 m2 and
and disadvantages of the same. A rotating cavitational device consists of concentration from 1 to
divergence angle10◦
a high-speed rotating disk, usually driven by an electrical motor. A high 0.2 for 120 min
treatment.
rate of shear force from a rotating device on a liquid layer is responsible
5 log10 E. Coli reduction
for the inactivation of E. Coli. and observed nearly 75 % inactivation of Commercial cavitating
in 20− 40 min, 109 CFU/
E. Coli. in 3 min. The shortcomings reported were the management of E. Coli device Dynajets and [37]
mL to 105 CFU/mL
Stratojet
uniform cavitational conditions and sensitivity to properties of input reduction in 120 min.
water conditions [31]. Another exciting work was performed on E. Coli. Vortex diode, 100 kPa: 2 log reduction
Experiment run 1 h,
They used cone-shaped indentations of 10 mm diameter and 4.5 mm E. Coli [40]
Inlet pressures 100 and 140 kPa: 3 log reduction
depth on a rotating cavitational device’s rotor surface. Resonance was 140 kPa.
avoided by keeping various indentations on a separate row. Enough A three-blade impeller
distance was maintained between the covers and rotor to maximize the E. Coli
of a wedge-type profile 99 % disinfection
[87]
with a sharp front and achieved in 12− 14 m in
cavitation effects with minimum vibration and noise.
blunt rear edges
The reactor performance was analyzed based on the rotating speed of For time required for 99
2700, 3000, 3300, and 3600 rpm, the pressure of 0, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.5 bar, % E-coli removal
and flow rate of 8, 11, 14 L/min. Nearly 100 % inactivation of E. Coli. - Silver ion alone: 55 m
was observed for an 11 l/min flow rate. 48.5 MJ/h heat was generated in
Dynamic and static type
- Silver ion with
with 82.18 % thermal efficiency and $32.02/m3 of treatment cost [6]. hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic
Complete elimination of E. Coli. and E. faecalis was obtained in less than E. Coli cavitational reactor and
cavitation: 14 m in
[88]
effect of H2O2, silver
10 min for an initial concentration range of 5 × 102–1.2 × 106 CFU/mL - Hydrogen peroxide
ions.
using rotor and starter device. The comparative performance of various alone: 55 m in
- Hydrogen peroxide
geometries such as orifice, venturi, valve, high-speed homogenizer, and
with hydrodynamic
ultrasonic bath was analyzed. The rotor-stator performance efficiency cavitation: 14 m in
was much higher than other cavitating devices [81]. Work has been E. Coli Commercial Hycator
reported on a liquid whistle reactor. The synergy of cavitation and ozone Cavitating reactor, E-coli concentration
useful for the inactivation of E. Coli. and reduced E. Coli. concentration Pressure 3 bar, reduced from 105 CFU/ [73]
Rankala Lake
Volumetric flow rate mL to 102 CFU/mL
from 106 to 108 CFU/mL. Liquid whistle reactor consists of an orifice of
100m3 /hr
area 7.74 × 10− 7 m2 and blade with 0.0268 m length, 0.0222 m of Complete removal of
width, and 0.0015 m of thickness. The adjustable distance was main­ E-Coli (blast water HyCator BWT reactor initial E-coli
[98]
tained between the orifice and blade with discharge pressure at 2000 sample) systems concentration of 300
psi. The synergy of hydrodynamic cavitation and ozone has shown the CFU/100 mL
Complete elimination of
maximum microbial inactivation of 73 %. However, a considerable Hydrodynamic E-Coli of order 106 CFU/
amount of energy loss is occurred using a liquid whistle reactor and may E-Coli cavitation reactor with mL in 5 s for low [68]
not be preferred for large-scale operations [69]. venturi concentration of total
Enterobacteriaceae virus is survived for a longer duration in water, oxidant of 0.3 ppm.
The initial concentration
and it is a significant threat to human health (hydroponic systems) and Orifice hole area 1.96 ×
E-Coli of E-Coli 102− 104 CFU/ [58]
causes infection even at low concentrations. Bacteriophage MS2 virus 10− 5 m2, cavitation
mL. Bacterial reduction
was treated using small-scale (3 mL) hydrodynamic cavitation consist­ (continued on next page)
ing of a single orifice/venturi diameter of 2 mm and maximum operating

11
M. Yadav et al. Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097

Table 3 (continued ) Table 3 (continued )

Microbes/ Geometric details of Result and Remarks Refs. Microbes/ Geometric details of Result and Remarks Refs.
pathogens cavitation generation pathogens cavitation generation
unit unit

number with rate decrease with an s, velocity at

dimensional analysis increase in cavitation constriction 5.52 m/s
number from 0.2 to 0.6 shown 80% killing of
Vortex diode: 99 % E- zooplankton.
coli and 60 % Seawater, Dadar Circular venturi, slit Circular Venturi: 50 % [97]
Vortex diode (66 mm Staphylococcus aureus Mumbai venturi and orifice, disinfection at 5 bar; Slit
Staphylococcus
chamber diameter) and in 60 min at 0.5 bar Capacity: 15 L, Pump: Venturi: 50 %
aureus and E- [61]
orifice (3 mm single pressure: 1.1 kW, Venturi: hole disinfection at 3 bar
Coli
hole), Capacity: 1 m3/h Orifice: the same diameter 2 mm, Slit
removal observed at 10 Venturi: Width 3.7,
bar pressure Height 0.92 and length
Initial concentration: 5 0.92 mm
× 102–1.2 × 106 CFU/ Petroleum Multi-hole orifice plate E-coli removal rate [38]
mL. Rotor dia: 110− 155 wastewater 49 holes of 1 mm dia of 98.16, 99.53 and 99.99
E. coli and E. Complete disinfection
mm, Contraction ratio: [88] orifice plate area 38.47 % for time 60, 90 and
faecalis observed in 10 min.
4.56− 5.0, Rotor vanes: mm2 120 min.
58− 80, Stator vanes: 70 % disinfection at 0.45
Multiple-hole orifice
8− 16 MPa
plates, 33 holes 1 mm
Liquid whistle reactor, 60 % disinfection at 0.40
75 % disinfection Borewell Water dia, 33 holes 2 mm dia, [90]
Combine effect of MPa
E-Coli occurred in 3 h of [69] 20 holes 2 mm dia, 17
hydrodynamic 55 % disinfection at 0.35
treatment holes 3 mm dia
cavitation and O3 MPa
After 15 min of an 33 holes orifice with 1
experimental run Borewell water mm dia., treatment 23.2 % microbes killed
Vortex diode (66 mm Vortex diode: pH 4, (coliform and capacity 80 L, power in 15 min at pressure [94]
chamber diameter) and pressure: 1 bar, rate of bacteria) rating 5.5 kW, treatment 5.17 bar.
orifice plate (3 mm disinfection: 70 %. At time 1− 2 h
E-Coli,
single hole). Combine some conditions, Orifice plates: 33 holes 1 32 % disinfection and 35
Staphylococcus [66]
effect of cavitation and disinfection for Natural borewell mm dia, 33 holes 2 mm % chloroform removal
aureus [39]
natural oils such as orifice:32 %. water dia, 20 holes 2 mm dia, for orifice plate 33 holes
eucalyptus and clove of Disinfection increase to 17 holes 3 mm dia 2 mm dia
concentration 0.1 % 74 % with addition 0.1 Killing microbes
Square hole orifice
% natural oil for vortex increase with a decrease
plate, orifice number: 9,
diode in cavitational number,
16, 25, and 64. Initial
High pressure (100 Raw water sample size of opening holes on [95]
99 % E-coli inactivation concentration:
E-Coli Mpa) jet cavitational [35] orifice plate, 100 %
in 900 s 2.98− 4.77 × 104 CFU/
reactor killing in 20 min
mL
Removal rate: O3: observed
Varying orifice hole area 62.3%, Hydrodynamic Venturi, Throat length
Cyanobacteria Killing rate with a
153.9− 1962.5 m2, cavitation, and O3: 78.8. to radius ratio: 10, 30,
(raw water [57] decrease in cavitation
Ozone concentration: 3 Optimum hole area: 60 and 100. Initial
sample) number, thus throat
mL/hr 16− 18 mm, treatment Raw water of colony count 5.82–7.95
length to radius ratio. [96]
time: 110 min Shengali river × 105 CFU/mL, and
Complete removal E-coli
99 % removal initial concentration of
and colony count obtain
Rotating hydrodynamic cyanobacteria, single- E-coli: 0.36− 1.85 × 104
20 min.
Cyanobacteria cavitation device, H2O2 pass in 6 s, it is faster [92] CFU/mL
dose: 45–100 μM, than a conventional
cavitational reactor
Maximum
High pressure (150 bar) cyanobacteria removal
jet cavitational reactor, 66 % in 48 h of
Cyanobacteria [91]
H2O2 concentrations: operation and a
33, 66, and 99 μmol/L marginal increase to 70 pressure of 5 bar. The inactivation rate of Bacteriophage MS2 increased
% in 72 h. with the number of passes. 99.9 % inactivation obtained in 524 passes.
StratoJet® 8-orifice, 5.2
K. pneumonia- 99.999 %
This work has helped treat human viruses such as Norovirus, Hepatitis A
bar virus, and other plant viruses [34].
DynaSwirl® 0.127 P. aeruginosa-3-log10
Gram-negative and Blue-green algae is a type of cyanobacteria grown in fresh, brackish,
orifice, 2.1 bar with P. syringae- 6-log10 [32]
positive bacteria or seawater, incredibly nutrient-rich and still water. The toxin released
power density 8.84 and
1.12 and efficiency 9.84 B. subtilis- 99.99 % from cyanobacteria has harmful effects on humans and animals [57].
× 10− 4 and 1.23 × 10-2 Contaminated Cyanobacteria water has many disorder effects on human
Orifice with 0.2 mm
416 passes reduced to organs such as the liver (hepatotoxins) and nervous system (Microcystis,
Bacteriophage diameter, 416, 524 and
MS2 (norovirus 1040 number of passes
7.8log10 reduced to
[34] Oscillatoria) [91]. Some of the species of cyanobacteria affect kidney
4.6log10 PFU ml− 1 after functions. Many cyanobacteria species formed a high concentration
surrogate) Initial concentration:
524 passes.
8.8log10 PFU ml− 1 scum on high water bodies [92]. A small molecule of these scum on
Venturi meter water bodies is harmful to humans, especially children, and animals.
95 % removal of
Zooplankton, Hydrodynamic
pathogen and bacteria Effects of scum include stomach upsets, irritations of the skin, neuro­
phytoplankton, cavitation is several [63]
for pressure 1.5 bar and logical and liver damage [93]. Hydrodynamic cavitation can remove
and bacteria order efficient compare
cavitation number 0.37
to acoustic cavitation cyanobacteria from the water body reserves. We found the three articles
Sea Water
Orifice plate and valves, Orifice plate with 80 % in the literature on cyanobacterium treatment using hydrodynamic
centrifugal pump 7.5 hp, opening, pressure 3.2 [33]
zooplankton cavitation.
Pipe diameter 26 mm. kg/cm2, flowrate 1.3 L/
The synergy of hydrodynamic cavitation with a minor hydrogen

12
M. Yadav et al.
peroxide concentration helped treat cyanobacterial contaminated
water. High-pressure jets were utilized for the creation of cavitating
conditions. A liquid pressure stream at 150 bar pressure was passed
through the nozzle of a smaller 7 mm diameter opening. The jets
emerging out from the nozzle produced dense clouds of violently
collapsing cavities. Nozzle opening was housed in 40 mm diameter of
the pipe. It creates a cavitating condition for cyanobacteria inactivation
with a cavitation number of 0.07.
The process efficiency was monitored in terms of cyanobacteria
growth, inhibition rate, and photosynthesis response. The addition of
100 mmol hydrogen peroxide resulted in 66 % cyanobacterial removal
in continuous mode treatment (48 h). 72 h analysis showed a marginal
effect on lowering the concentration of cyanobacteria. The advantage of
this study was reduced to release organic compounds from cell rupture.
However, complete elimination of contaminated cells was not achieved
[57]. Experiments were performed using ozonation and hydrodynamic
cavitation synergy. A single orifice plate with a varying opening from 14
to 50 mm was investigated, and a constant ozone flow rate of 0.8 m3/h
was maintained for all runs. The maximum chlorophyll removal rate was
62.3 and 78.8 % using ozone and combined effects of hydrodynamic
cavitation (orifice diameter 18 mm, i.e., 13 % opening) and ozone,
respectively. Ozone utilization efficiency was increased from
64.5–94.8%, with a marginal decrease in energy requirement from 8.89
to 8.25 kWh/m3 for combined effects [91].
Energy efficiency, number of passes, and more extended processing
time requirements are significant concerns associated with the fixed
geometry hydrodynamic cavitation reactor. A study reported the effect
on trace level concentration of hydrogen peroxide (45–100 μM) to
eliminate 99 % cyanobacteria in 6 s present in Brno reservoir the Czech
Republic. The apparatus consists of a rotating disc of 160 mm diameter,
86 mm thickness, 162 holes of 12 mm diameter, and 20 mm depth
drilled on the disc’s perimeter. All experiments were performed using a
volume of 250 L, at 4000− 5000 rpm speed, 105–265 kPa pressure, and
0.3 l/s flowrates. The rotating device was 1000 times efficient than the
orifice type cavitational device, and the processing time was reduced
from 200 min to 6 s [92].
4.2. Disinfection of natural/contaminated water
Inactivation of microbial concentration of ground/surface water is
essential to understand the effects of cavitation on natural water. Jyoti
and Pandit (2001) did one of the pioneering work on water disinfection
of natural borewell water using various cavitating devices such as ul­
trasonic horn (frequency: 22 kHz, power: 240 W), high-speed homoge­
nizer, a high-pressure homogenizer, and hydrodynamic cavitation
reactor consisting of an orifice plate with 33 holes of 1 mm diameter and
working pressure of 1.72, 3.44 and 5.72 bar. A rotor-stator assembly was
a high-speed homogenizer with a power consumption of 105 W and a
generator consisting of 13 blades. The rotor has 9 blades 6 mm apart
with a varying rotational speed of 1000− 12000 rpm and a 0.5 mm gap
between the outer rotor diameter and inner diameter. The pressure
homogenizer machine is consisting of a spiked ball with a pressed valve-
seat design. The maximum operating pressure was 689 bar. The reported
initial concentration of bacterial population in borewell water varied
from 1000 to 7500 CFU/mL with the varying seasons from January to
December. They reported a percentage of disinfection ranging from 11
to 92 %. The least disinfection was observed for hydrodynamic cavita­
tion and maximum for high-speed homogenizer. Results were analyzed
based on energy consumption for disinfection. It has been observed that
maximum energy is required for ultrasonic horn and a minimum for
hydrodynamic cavitation. Detailed energy and disinfection investigation
confirmed that the disinfection rate marginally lower for hydrodynamic
cavitation. It has the potential to replace conventional techniques such
as chlorination [94].
A study on orifice plate configuration reported maximum inactiva­
tion of 67.2 % for the orifice plate with 33 holes and 2 mm in diameter.
13
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
The combined effects of sodium hypochlorite with hydrodynamic cavi­
tation enhanced the microbe’s inactivation by 32 %. It reduced the
chloroform requirement by 39 %. The synergy of sodium hypochlorite
and cavitation lowered the concentration of natural organic matter at
lower input processing conditions and dosing of chemicals [49]. Work
on the removal rate of E. Coli. from petroleum wastewater increased
with processing time. The conductivity of water played a significant role
in the inactivation of microbial concentration. Two water samples
having conductivities 723.0 μs/cm and 1268.0 μs/cm and E. Coli. den­
sity 1.6 × 105 MPN/100 mL. reported more than 99 % E. Coli. removal in
30 min for high conductivity sample and low conductivity sample
required 90 min to achieve the same reduction. These experiments were
performed on multiple orifice plate geometry of 49 holes of 1 mm
diameter with orifice plate area 38.47 mm2 [38].
Dong and Zhao (2018) work on killing microbes present in the
Shengli River, China, and microbial concentration in the river was 3.76
× 10− 4 CFU/mL. The microbes removal rate was increased with a
decrease in cavitation number and size of the orifice square hole open­
ing. Almost 100 % killing of microbes was obtained for 20 min [95].
Another work on the microbial treatment of Shengali river China re­
ported on venturi with varying throat to radius ratio from 10 to 100 and
total microbial count 5.82–7.95 × 105 with 0.36− 1.85 × 105 CFU/mL
E. Coli. count. The reduction of microbes increased with a decrease in
cavitation number and throat length to radius ratio. Complete elimina­
tion of microbes was observed in 20 min [96]. Natural water is con­
sisting of different concentrations of various microbes and natural
organic matter. More investigations are needed on the treatment of
natural water using hydrodynamic cavitation.
4.3. Ballast water treatment
Treatment ballast water has a significant role in cargo shipping. The
loaded ship with cargo did not need the ballast water. Cargo itself bal­
ances the ship’s stability. An Off-loaded ship needs the water to balance
the ship and the amount of ballast water usually taken on shipboard. The
quantity of water taken on board depends on the ship’s safety, weather
conditions, load on the ship, and the route. Uptake and discharge
location of ballast water are diverse, and water quality at uptake and
discharge locations varies [97,98]. Discharge of ballast water from ships
may affect the ecosystem of discharge location due to various conditions
of viruses, bacteria, dinoflagellates, zooplankton. The international
convention for the control and management of ships ballast water and
sediments, ballast water requirement in cargo ship is 1500− 5000 m3,
and uptake must be disinfected before taking on shipboard [33]. After
2012, hydrodynamic cavitation is one of the potential techniques for
ballast water treatment. Cvetković M. et al. (2015) reviewed the tech­
nologies for ballast water treatment and discussed the possible appli­
cation of hydrodynamic cavitation. Few studies were reported in the
open literature on ballast treatment using hydrodynamic cavitation
[63].
The study was performed on fully opened, 40 % open (3 turns
closed), and 20 % available (4 turns closed) compared with single hole
orifice of a separate area of 75, 50, and 25 % openings. Valve in pipeline
plays a significant role in disinfection of water. The rate of killing of
microbes was measured, and observed that the minimum percentage of
killing was 28 % for a fully opened valve and a maximum of 79 % for a
single orifice with 25 % opening. Theoretical analysis was done to un­
derstand the mechanism of killing microbes using cavitation. The extent
of killing is directly related to cavitational intensity produced from the
turbulent energy dissipation from the rapid oscillation of molecules.
Other parameters that contribute to killing are the reactor geometry and
cell strength [34].
Slit type of venturi enhanced energy efficiency of hydrodynamic
cavitation reactor. The performance analysis of various venturi types
observed that 50 % of microbial disinfection requires 5 bar pressure for
circular venturi, 3 bar pressure for slit venturi, and 40 % energy saving.
M. Yadav et al.
The rate of inactivation was increased by 2.5 times with the addition of 5
ppm of sodium hypochlorite. Coupling of thermal effect with hydrody­
namic cavitation enhances the disinfection rate by 4 times at 60 ℃
compare to thermal treatment at 60 ℃ alone [29]. Application of
Hycator reactor for the treatment of Ballast was performed. This work
reported the detailed analysis of ions, microbial species, and other
qualitative parameters of ballast water treatment and compared the
results with ballast water management systems (BWMS). BWMS
required the sodium hypochlorite concentration in the range of 6− 12
mg/L. The combined effect of sodium hypochlorite and cavitation
reduced sodium hypochlorite requirement to 3 mg/L. The concentration
of released chemicals and other chemicals compared to the standards of
BWMS. Toxicity analysis observed that there were no harmful effects of
chemicals released after ballast water treatment. The sodium hypo­
chlorite concentration was much smaller than BWMS [98]. Ballast water
concentration varies with location, so more investigations are required
on hydrodynamic cavitation of various locations to understand and
develop mature technology for ballast water treatment.
4.4. Disinfection in shallow water handpump
Most rural and semi-urban populations of underdeveloped, devel­
oping, and non-developed countries depend on surface and groundwater
as a principal source of drinking. India’s rural population is dependent
on groundwater as a principal source of bathing, washing, irrigation,
and other activities. It is the principal source of drinking water, and
there is no proper treatment adopted for the treatment of water before
drinking [89,99–101]. There are many studies available on waterborne
diseases. Groundwater is lifted from underground sources using a water
pump (predominantly centrifugal pump) and handpump. Due to the
scarcity of electricity, poor rural people depend on a handpump for
uplifting groundwater to the surface. Water uplifted from the handpump
has less microbial contamination than surface water. This technique is
adopted in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific region [101,102]. The microbial
quality of water uplifted from handpump is better than surface water but
not acceptable in limits of the water quality index of WHO and other
water quality indexing bodies. Many case studies reported a significant
concentration of fecal indicator bacteria, fecal coliforms, and E.Coli.
commonly found in water received from handpump [99–101]. The
major contributing factors associated with microbial contamination are
infiltration of water containing livestock of faces due to human negli­
gence/intervention, attachment of microbes to parts/surface of hand­
pump, biofilm formation on the internal surface, and contamination due
to periodic priming requirement [99,103]. These activities also result in
corrosion and wearing of internal parts of the handpump. Iron is a
commonly used material for handpump structure manufacturing due to
its low cost compared to stainless steel. Many countries cannot afford to
use stainless steel handpump for a massive issue. Nowadays, galvanized
material used to have lesser corrosion issues compared to iron material.
Microbial concentration in handpump can reduce using chlorination
shockwaves and modification in existing design [100,104,105].
Ferguson et al.(2011) used flushing experiments to remove microbial
contamination from handpumps. A flushing approach was utilized for
the removal of microbes using sterile water. Daily flushing of handpump
was used to remove the concentration of total coliforms and observed
constant microbial discharge of 103 MPN/100 mL. They kept a declined
E. Coli. removal rate after 29 days of flushing and took 125 days for
spiked hand pump flushing. Maximum E. Coli. concentration is attached
with elastomeric material of handpump. Shock chlorination of hand­
pump does not yield any beneficial effects for the removal of E. Coli. This
study indicates that handpump microbial removal is a real challenge,
and the flushing experiment required more time to get the desired re­
sults [99]. Work on handpump water treatment is lacking. Hence more
focus is needed to address this issue.
To address the microbial contamination issues in a handpump, un­
derstanding the handpump’s detailed mechanism is essential. Shallow
14
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
water well, rotor and diaphragm pump are types of water handpump.
India Mark – II is the most accepted design for water handpump. It is
used for lifting the water for a depth of more than 20 m, found in western
and south India, where groundwater depth is significantly more pro­
found. Shallow water handpump [106] is found in Northern India and
Bangladesh, where ground depth is 6− 12 m (Fig. 10). Lift and suction
are essential parameters for fluid pumping. Suction is the distance be­
tween the liquid surface to the center of pump, whereas the lift is the
vertical distance between the pump central to the delivery end. Depth of
water suction is restricted by atmospheric pressure and operating depth.
Standard operating depth should not greater than 7 m [105,107–110].
Discharge/lifting of water from the handpump is related to operator
capacity to lift water suction weight to the delivery section. The working
principle of a handpump is the same as the positive displacement pump.
Negative pressure developed by handpump has a significant potential
for lifting water from lower depth to surface [100,107]. Handpump
assembly consists of a cast cylindrical iron body with two caps and an
operating plunger to produce fluid drag. The lower part of the plunger is
attached with the follower and check valve (spacer-upper) assembly.
Check valve moves in a cylindrical body and allows the motion of water.
The displacement of water is related to the plunger motion in downward
and return direction [100,109,111]. During the downward movement,
the lower check valve is open. At this position, water flows from surface
depth to the cylindrical portion. In return, stokes (handle moves up­
ward), check valve close, and water forced to come out from cylindrical
portion through the opening part of a cylindrical body. Wearing and
pitting on check valves are commonly observed due to the continuous
cavitational activities [112]. Hydrodynamic cavitating conditions can
be developed in the handpump for getting desired microbial
inactivation.
Cavitation in handpump depends on three major components a)
check valve opening, b) forward pressure, and c) backpressure. The
back-pressure generation in the handpump is the crucial factor for mi­
crobial inactivation. Backpressure generated in the handpump is
responsible for cavities formation and growth. More back-pressure,
smaller size cavities may form, and these cavities’ bursting again
needs more backpressure [105,109,110]. The net result in cavitation
intensity is less than the desired intensity required for microbial
inactivation.
The bubble expansion rate reduces with increased backpressure, and
the desired initial bubble expansion (twice) is not achieved. It may result
in an early collapse of the bubble due to backpressure and collapse
probably in the bulk of liquid than on the handpump cylindrical wall
surface [100,110]. Bubble collapsed in bulk are symmetric and not
beneficial for the inactivation of microbes. The higher expansion and
lifespan of the bubble can be achieved using low pressure. The bubble
travels to a cylindrical wall surface and collapses asymmetrically. The
chemical and physical effects require for microbial inactivation can be
reached at a lower pressure (below 3 atm). Cavitational activities in
handpump are balanced by chemical and physical effects due to the
generation of significant pressure drop during upward and return
strokes. Cavitation is directly related to the opening of the valve and the
generation of vapor cavities. It increased with the low opening of valve.
The higher opening of valve results in lesser cavity formation due to low
velocity and high partial pressure, and the intensity of cavities is lower
due to gaseous cavities formation [112]. The hydrostatic pressure of
liquid increased with the valve opening and affected cavitation activity,
which results in a lower microbial disinfection rate. Lower opening fa­
vors vaporous cavitational growth and results in the following enlisted
effects [111].
a) Buoyancy force associated with liquid is acting on cavities, pulls
cavities towards the water surface, and cancels the effect.
b) The cavitation effect may diminish due to the formation of bubble
clusters/clouds. Cluster/cloud increase with number bubble forma­
tion and interaction among the bubble.
M. Yadav et al.
Fig. 10. Shallow water handpump assembly.
c) Bursting cavities may occur in bulk of liquid before applying/
generating backpressure (downward stroke of piston/yoke). It may
be due to overgrowth of cavities and results in less intensive cav­
itational effects. These effects may not be beneficial for microbial
inactivation.
d) The lower opening of the check valve results in very high velocities,
which decreases the number of cavities formation.
The higher cavitational intensity of microbial inactivation depends
on the check valve opening. The goal of opening the check valve and
applied back pressure should help for substantial growth of cavities and
transient/asymmetric collapse cavities. These conditions are beneficial
for a high shock wave and micro-jets formation, thus enhancing mi­
crobial inactivation in handpump [100–112].
Pandit and his group did the pioneering work in this field, and ex­
periments were performed on India Mark – II handpump. The design of
the handpump was obtained by numerical simulation on ANSYS and
FLUENT. This analysis predicted the specific geometrical modification
in the check valve. It indicates the maximum cavitational activities in
the handpump for microbial inactivation. By using the modified geom­
etry, initial pilot-scale experiments were conducted using borewell
water and observed the disinfection rate of 89–91 %. It was marginally
lower compared to the theoretical efficiency of 100 %. Using the check
valve’s optimum geometry at various village locations in Maharashtra,
India, the field trial observed 90 % microbial killing. However, some
optimized check valve geometry of Mark-II handpump may not be
applicable all over India. There is a need for substantial efforts to convert
hydrodynamic cavitational handpump. It is a valuable tool for microbial
disinfection [112]. Shallow water handpump is used in most parts of the
world. More studies are required for enhancing the microbial disinfec­
tion effects of this pump.
4.5. Effect of operational parameters on disinfection
The performance of hydrodynamic cavitated water disinfection is
susceptible to operating parameters. Optimized parameters help
improve the reactor’s performance and operational energy/cost for
operation [20,79]. Hydrodynamic cavitated microbial disinfection is
dependent on the following parameters:
15
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
4.5.1. Cavitational number
Cavitation is the phenomena of cavity inception, growth, and adia­
batic collapse. The intensity of cavitational activity is higher when
cavities enter low-pressure regions where the maximum cavity size is
attended. Cavitational effect/intensity produced is related to internal
pressure and cavitational number. It helps to understand the degree/
intensity of cavitational produce and given by the following equation:
Pv − P1
Cv = 1 2 ρv2
/
0
Where P2 is downstream recovered pressure, Pv vapor pressure of a
liquid, v is throat velocity. Under ideal operating conditional, the Cv
should be less than or equal to 1 for cavitational activity. Cv greater than
1 indicates that the higher concentration of dissolved gases presents in
an aqueous medium which acts as nuclei for promoting cavitational
activity. Lower Cv (less than 1) favors the higher cavitational activity. It
is resulting in the coalescence with each other from cavity cloud. Many
studies confirm that a cavitational number is between 0.15 to 0.3 for
highly useful microbial disinfection [32–37]. Understanding the role of
Cv in microbial disinfection is to minimize the energy/pressure losses in
a cavitational reactor. Most studies focus on inlet pressure in entering
the cavitational reactor.
The increase inlet pressure increases downstream pressure, and the
overall effect results in a permanent pressure drop across the cavita­
tional generation unit [114,115]. The requirement of power unit mass
will be increased. At a given pressure drop, the intensity of cavity
cluster/collapse cavitational intensity increased with inlet pressure. It
indicates that energy dissipation and turbulence intensity increased with
inlet pressure and higher pressure drop across the cavitational genera­
tion unit [79]. Many simulation literature confirms that Cv decreased
with an increase in inlet pressure. Lower Cv indicates an increase in
cavity generation and collapsing per unit time [29,82,83]. The intensity
of cavitational activity is directly proportional to the number Cv. Lower
Cv favors the cavitational activity. The higher inlet pressure never tends
to increase in Cv. The higher inlet pressure greater than 4 bar may not
result in higher Cv [115]. At higher operating pressure, the collapse
intensity of the cavity generation becomes more violent and results in a
high-pressure inlet under collapsing cavity conditions.
The water molecule dissociation or Cv formation enhances with
M. Yadav et al.
higher chemical and physical effect, contributing to the microbial
disinfection. Under the high inlet pressure condition, the known super
cavitating condition decreases microbial disinfection. The undiscrimi­
nating growth of bubble formation took place at the downstream
constriction [1,20]. The optimum inlet pressure condition may help
enhance cavitational activities. It depends on the shape of the cavita­
tional generation unit. The elliptical venturi gives a higher performance
compared to other shapes of venturi [95–97]. In the rotational geome­
try, it depends on the rotor and stator assembly [81–86]. Rotational
geometry results in higher microbial disinfection performance at lower
pressure drop compared to fixed geometry.
4.5.2. Temperature
Liquid temperature plays a significant role in the production of
cavitational intensity/microbial disinfection. It affects various fluid
properties such as viscosity, vapor pressure, surface tension, and con­
centration of dissolved gases and affects the performance of the cav­
itational reactor [1,20,79]. Cavitational intensity increase with an initial
rise in temperature up to 50–70 ℃, further increase in temperature has a
negative effect. The higher temperature may result in excessive forma­
tion of gaseous bubbles and lower the cavitational effects. The bulk
temperature of liquid increases during the continuous operation and
results in excessive heat formation [113–115]. The temperature rises
from 10 to 50 ℃ observed in the hydrodynamic cavitational reactor in a
single pass. Hence most studies neglect the effect of temperature effect
on microbial disinfection [45–51]. The heating effect in a reactor is
produced from 80 to 90% of electrical energy into thermal energy. The
temperature rise is much higher compared to the conventional heating
unit. The temperature increment rate is 80–85 times more than con­
ventional heating [65–70]. Hydrodynamic cavitational is finding more
interest for microbial disinfection in food industries. The microbial
disinfection performance is susceptible to operational temperature. The
high temperature/heat dissipation rate during microbial disinfection
may not be helpful, or the formation of high temperature may not be
ignored [79]. Waste heat recovery/cooling device required in a hydro­
dynamic cavitational reactor to improve process performance. A more
numerical and practical analysis is needed to develop correlating the
performance of microbial disinfection with temperature effect.
4.5.3. Additive/Oxidants
The microbial removal efficiency increases with cavitational in­
tensity. [23–27]. It can be enhanced using certain additives/oxidants or
combined effect of advanced oxidation process (O3) with hydrodynamic
cavitation. The synergy produced from the combined effect of hydro­
dynamic cavitation with oxidizing producing radicals is beneficial for
enhancing the concentration of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (O H).
•
Many findings confirm that synergy of hydrodynamic cavitation with
H2O2, Fenton, and O3 enhanced the rate of microbial dis­
infection/pollutant degradation present in water by 5− 6 times compare
to individual effect of a process [44–48,112]. The addition effect of H2O2
and O3 with hydrodynamic cavitation is most used for microbial disin­
fection, as it produced lesser/negligible toxic compounds compare to
other oxidizing promoting radicals. H2O2 is easily dissociated in an
aqueous medium to form hydroxyl radicals and has the oxidation po­
tential of 1.78 V. Most microbial disinfection studies confirm that O3
performs better H2O2. It has higher oxidation of 2.07 V compare to H2O2
[1]. Under the extreme temperature and pressure condition of hydro­
dynamic cavitation, the O3 molecule decomposes into the strong oxidant
O radical, which further reacts with an aqueous medium to form O H
• •
radicals [114]. The microbial disinfection is increased with the con­
centration of oxidants/additives up to the optimum concentration. The
excessive concentration of oxidant normally decreased the active
oxidation potential of hydroxyl radicals.
The microbial disinfection using a synergy of hydrodynamic cavita­
tion depends on the location of the injection oxidant to the cavitation
generation unit [45–51]. It is located at an upstream or downstream
16
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
section of the orifice plate in an orifice, whereas in venturi may locate at
converging, throat, and diverging [51–54,93–97]. It is injecting the
oxidants at the throat section results in higher desirable microbial
disinfection. The extreme temperature and pressure condition inside the
bubble generated at the throat section and injecting oxidant at this
location results in higher radical or higher violent extreme (hot spot)
requirements for microbial disinfection [95–98]. At the bubble
collapsing stage, the 1200− 1500 K interface temperature and injected
oxidant are readily dissociated at this condition [22–25]. Combined
synergy further helpful in enhancing the concentration of oxidant
radical formation. However, more numerical analysis is required to
understand the effect of the location and size of injecting port on various
rotational and non-rotational geometries of the hydrodynamic cavita­
tional reactor.
4.5.4. Rotational speed
Rotational speed plays a significant role in enhancing cavitational
intensity. Mostly in rotational type hydrodynamic cavitational reactor.
The higher rotational speed helps increase the tangential velocity
(product of rotational speed and radius). It may be generated from the
interaction of water with irregular boundaries of the cavitational gen­
eration unit. These conditions are beneficial for increasing turbulence
intensity and lower the static pressure [81–84]. The energy loss can be
avoided by increasing the speed of the cavitational generation unit up to
critical speed [84–88]. The higher rotational speed may result in adverse
effects such as noise, vibration, drag, and increased electrical energy
demand. It is recommended to maintain the speed in the effective cav­
itational region of the reactor and be established based on critical value.
The balance should be made between the heat generation and electricity
consumption to get the optimum critical speed of rotation [114–116].
The hydrodynamic cavitational reactor should be operated below the
critical speed. It helps avoid the rotating cavitational choking condition,
enhances cavitational efficiency, and optimizes operational cost. More
numerical and experimental investigations are required to opti­
mize/minimize the energy requirement of the rotational type hydro­
dynamic cavitational reactor.
Other factors contribute to microbial disinfection efficiency, namely
physicochemical properties of liquid and treatment time. It affects the
nucleation process and the initial size of nuclei. The effect of physico­
chemical properties of the fluid can be analyzed using the process pa­
rameters such as collapse pressure and maximum size of cavity
formation using the numerical analysis of bubble dynamics equation
[20,79]. However, a more interesting study is required to correlate the
numerical analysis with the experiment results. It can establish the
correlation for better design of hydrodynamic cavitational reactor for
microbial disinfection.
5. Future scope and recommendation
This study reports that the present status of water disinfection using
hydrodynamic cavitation. Cavitational effects such as high shear stress/
high pressure, shock wave, microjet velocities, and pressure impulse
produced from collapsing cavities are highly responsible for microbial
disinfection. Further microbial disinfection/inactivation efficiency is
dependent on the amount of energy release, the intensity of shock wave
during bubble collapse. The net energy released from collapsing cavities
of liquid jet and shock wave is nearly the same. Cavity collapse via
asymmetric and symmetric ways produced beneficial effects for micro­
bial inactivation. The quantum of energy released depends on selecting a
constriction area/geometry (cavitational zone). It is inversely propor­
tional to the opening constriction area of geometry. Fixed and rotating
are the types of hydrodynamic cavitational geometries/generation units.
Some of the recommendations on the application of hydrodynamic
cavitation for water disinfection and especially for the selection of
cavitational geometry is as follows:
M. Yadav et al.
a The types of fixed geometries are High-pressure jets, orifice, and
venturi. These geometries are highly beneficial for producing cav­
itational desire intensity with substantial energy losses and required
very high initial pressure in the range of 100− 150 bar.
b The orifice has better control over the recovery of energy loss, and
multiple holes with smaller diameter openings have better control
over the cavitational activities. However, maintenance of orifice
geometry is a significant concern. Venturi design overcomes many
shortfalls associated with an orifice, and a high-pressure jet produces
uniform cavitational activities. Very high erosion, wearing of inter­
nal parts of venturi, and clogging are significant concerns. Some
modified orifice geometry is known as liquid whistle avoid shedding
of fluid vortices produce from the perpendicular direction of flow
and enhance the cavitational efficiency. However, this geometry has
lesser flexibility, and cavitational intensity depends only on the
distance between orifice opening and blade. Modified designs of
venturi and multiple holes orifice may be helpful in microbial
disinfection for smaller capacity volume.
c Novel types of fixed geometries such as vortex diode and swirling jet
loop control have many advantages: less pressure and energy loss,
minor issues of operation and maintenance, avoid super-cavitation,
and lesser erosion and wearing of internal parts of geometry. Ease
for scaling the process is a significant advantage of this type of ge­
ometry. Vortex diode and swirling jet loop reactor have been used at
a commercial scale. However, more efforts are required for under­
standing the pressure and flow distribution correlation with cavita­
tional intensity. Dimensional analysis of geometries is needed for the
scale-up process.
d The performance of rotating geometries was higher compare to fixed
geometry hydrodynamic cavitational reactors. In rotating type ge­
ometry, a synergy of rotation and pressure results in higher cavita­
tional activity, and the number of passes and processing time require
less compare to fixed geometry. However, there is no control over
overactive cavitational volume. It requires a massive quantum of
energy and thus increases operational costs. More efforts are needed
on rotating type hydrodynamic cavitation reactor to optimize the
cost of operation.
e The hydrodynamic cavitational reactor was found to be useful for
microbially contaminated water. Rotating type of geometry elimi­
nates microbial count in 6 s with the single-pass operation. Novel
fixed geometry such as vortex diode eliminates 99 % initial microbial
concentration with fewer passes and energy consumption. More in­
vestigations are required to develop mature technologies based on
these geometries.
f Modified water handpump based on the principle of hydrodynamic
cavitation is highly beneficial for reducing the microbial count.
Cavitation in the handpump depends on check valve opening, for­
ward pressure, and back pressure. Backpressure plays a significant
role in enhancing desired cavitational activity for microbial inacti­
vation. The opening of a check valve is a crucial parameter for
enhancing microbial inactivation. The optimized geometry/opening
of the check valve can reduce up to 90 % initial microbial concen­
tration. More investigation is required on understanding flow, pres­
sure balance in a handpump, and geometrical construction and
regrowth of microbes. The effect of cavitational activity on the
removal of natural organic matter needs to be studied.
6. Conclusion
There is a growing concern worldwide on the development of sus­
tainable water disinfection technologies. World health organization re­
ported that more than 30–35 % of the population is not getting the
disinfected water. Existing chlorine-based technologies for water disin­
fection has many limitations. The application of existing technology for
the rural population is not proving a sustainable solution. Hydrody­
namic cavitation for water infection is gaining interest due to the
17
Journal of Water Process Engineering 41 (2021) 102097
spectacular effects of cavitation. It has been successfully practiced for
ballast water treatment and many chemical processing applications.
More efforts are required for the commercialization of hydrodynamic
cavitation-based technologies for water disinfection. More in­
vestigations are needed to design novel geometries. The design should
address the recovery of pressure and energy, minimum wearing and
erosion of internal parts, and lesser operational and maintenance issues.
The rotational-type hydrodynamic cavitational reactor has a higher
potential for microbial disinfection. More investigations are needed on
engineering design aspects of this reactor to reduce the energy and
operational cost of operation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
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