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2 TA225 BLOCK 1 INVESTIGATING SOUND CHAPTER 4 SOUND AND SPACE 2
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1.1
TA225 Block 1 Investigating sound
Chapter 4
Sound and Space
CONTENTS
Aims of Chapter 4 4
1 Introduction 5
2 Reflection and diffraction 8
2.1 Specular reflection 8
2.2 Diffuse reflection 10
2.3 Paths of reflection 11
2.4 Diffraction 13
3 Reverberation 15
3.1 Early reflections 15
3.2 Multiple reflections 16
4 Reverberation time 19
4.1 Defining reverberation time 19
4.2 Measuring reverberation time 20
4.3 Calculating reverberation time 22
5 Critical distance 24
6 Auditorium design 26
Summary of Chapter 4 36
Answers to self-assessment activities 36
Learning outcomes 36
Acknowledgements 36
AIMS OF CHAPTER 4
■ To explain how the amplitude of a sound pressure wave changes
with distance in an open environment.
■ To explain the two main ways in which sound can be reflected, and
to discuss the conditions under which each form of reflection
occurs.
■ To describe the phenomenon of sound diffraction, and to discuss
the conditions under which it occurs.
■ To explain reverberant sound and some of its properties.
■ To discuss the importance of reverberation time, and the factors
which affect it.
■ To discuss how reverberation time can be measured practically and
calculated theoretically.
■ To explain critical distance and to discuss its relation to near-field
processes in a recording context.
■ To introduce some of the concerns and techniques of acoustic
design of auditoria.
■ To extend the use of decibels from Chapter 1.
1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we shall be looking at some of the ways in which the
environment affects the way we hear sound and music. We shall be
investigating acoustic effects, principally reverberation.
In many places I shall need to represent diagrammatically the way
sound travels, particularly in enclosed spaces, and so it is worth
spending a little time examining what this type of diagram represents.
We know from Chapter 1 that a sound source produces a pressure
wave, consisting of alternating regions of high and low pressure. This
pressure wave travels away from the sound source at the speed of
sound. In Figure 1, there is a point source. Around this I have put
three concentric rings, indicating regions of high pressure. The arrows
indicate that they are expanding away from the source. Between the
regions of high pressure, there are regions of low pressure, which are
not shown.
A
source
regions of
high pressure
Figure 1 Concentric regions of high

pressure radiating from a sound source
ACTIVITY 1 (REVISION) ......................................................................

What is the significance of the distance between two adjacent ‘rings’ of
high pressure? ■
In practice, point sources of sound hardly exist. A small loudspeaker

is a close approximation to one, but an orchestra or large band is a
very distributed source, with different parts producing different
sounds. Even a fairly localised source, such as a single performer, is
not really a point source at close range. For instance, the sound of an
acoustic guitar is different near different parts of the instrument – at
the soundhole, at the bridge (where the strings are attached to the front
of the instrument), at the neck, and so on, and similar variations are
found with most instruments. However, at a distance of a few metres
from the instrument, these variations in sound become merged and the
instrument is close to acting like a point source. Acousticians
sometimes refer to the sound close to a source as the near field
field.
Within the near field, the source does not act as a point source.
However, beyond a certain distance, the source may behave much like
a point source and this part of the sound field is referred to as the far
field
field. (The terms ‘near field’ and ‘far field’ are used somewhat
differently in the recording industry, as we shall see in Section 6.)
If the point sound-source in Figure 1 were truly radiating in all

directions, the sound would exist in three-dimensional space, and not
just the two dimensions represented in Figure 1. The regions of high
pressure in Figure 1 should therefore be thought of as expanding
spherical shells rather than expanding circles, and Figure 1 can be
thought of as a slice through a set of nested spherical shells.
Very often, diagrams such as Figure 2 are used to show sound
radiating from a source. Here the concentric circles have been omitted,
leaving just the radial lines showing the direction of travel of the
pressure wave. This is the type of diagram that I shall use often in this
chapter.
A
C
source
D
Figure 2 Radial lines showing the

direction of travel of the pressure wave
When looking at a diagram such as this, it is as well to recollect that

the arrowed lines simply indicate directions of travel of pressure
waves. If the lines emanate from one point, the source is being treated
as a point source. The fact that the radial lines end abruptly a short
distance from the source is not meant to indicate that the sound
abruptly vanishes at these points. Similarly, the fact that point C lies
between two lines does not indicate that no sound is reaching C.
One immediately apparent feature of Figure 2 is that the lines are not
evenly distributed around the source. Does this indicate that the
sound radiates unevenly? In this chapter the density of the lines is not
meant to indicate the evenness or otherwise of the sound radiation
around a source, although it could be used in that way. However, the
divergence of the lines in Figure 2 certainly is indicative of one
universally observed feature of sound, namely that it gets quieter the
further you go from the source. This phenomenon has nothing to do
with the absorption of sound energy by the air, although there will be
some of this, but arises because the sound energy from the source is
distributed over a larger volume of space as it is radiated away from
the source. For every doubling of distance from the source, the
amplitude of the pressure wave is halved. This relationship is a
consequence of the inverse-square law which describes how energy is
distributed as it radiates uniformly away from a source. Box 1 ‘The
inverse square law and amplitude change’ explains this law and
shows how the way in which amplitude changes with distance can be
derived from it.
Box 1The inverse square law and amplitude change

In Figure 3(a), a point source is radiating sound uniformly in all directions.
However, we need only consider part of the radiation – that encompassed by the
four arrows pointing away to the right. As the sound radiates, it passes through
two imaginary squares with areas A1 and A2. Square 2 is twice as far from the
source as Square 1. As the squares are purely imaginary, they do not obstruct the sound.
square 2, area A2
square 1, area A1
source
d d
(a)
A2
A1
(b) square 1 square 2
Figure 3 Sound from a point source passes through

imaginary squares with areas A1 and A2
Between the four arrowed lines there is a pressure wave which is conveying sound
energy away from the source. When the sound reaches Square 1, this energy is
distributed over an area A1. In a given length of time, say a second, a certain amount
of energy flows through Square 1. A short time later, when the sound has reached
Square 2, the same amount of energy is now distributed over a larger area, A2.
Colloquially we could say that the energy is spread more thinly. In more scientific
parlance, the sound energy per unit of area decreases. If we could see the amplitude
of the pressure wave, we would find it had become smaller. We can detect its change
of amplitude aurally by noticing that it gets quieter. But by how much does it get
quieter? To answer this question, notice that each side of Square 2 is twice the length
of the corresponding side of Square 1 (Figure 3b). Consequently the area A2 is four
times the area A1. Thus doubling the distance from the sound source reduces amount
of sound energy that passes through a given area (in a given length of time) to a
quarter of its former value. This is the inverse-square law. Tripling the distance from
the source would reduce the rate of energy flow through a given area to a ninth.
The inverse square law of energy flow rate provides a way to predict how the amplitude
of a pressure wave changes with distance. Here is what we wish to calculate:
amplitude at Square 2
amplitude at Square 1
Now, the rate of energy flow is actually proportional to the square of the amplitude.
If you are familiar with electrical phenomena you can think of this as analogous to
the way power (that is, energy flow rate) varies as the square of voltage or current.
Thus,
(amplitude at Square 2) 2 energy flow rate at Square 2 1
= =
(amplitude at Square 1) 2
energy flow rate at Square 1 4
Hence, because the square root of 1/4 is 1/2,

amplitude at Square 2 1
=
amplitude at Square 1 2
Thus doubling the distance from the source has halved the amplitude. This is an
important characteristic of ‘far field’ sound.
ACTIVITY 2 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

Table 1 (reproduced from Table 1 Amplitude ratios for
Chapter 1) shows the decibel selected decibel values
values corresponding to a
selection of amplitude ratios. Decibels Amplitude ratio
Using this table, find the change –12 0.25:1
of sound pressure level in decibels –6 0.5:1
corresponding to a doubling of 0 1:1
distance from a point source. ■ 6 2:1
12 4:1
18 8:1
20 10:1
24 16:1
30 32:1
36 64:1
40 100:1
60 1000:1

In an open field, the sound pressure level created by a single point
source at a distance of 10 m is 40 dB. What will be the sound pressure
level at the following distances?
(a) 20 m
(b) 40 m ■
2 REFLECTION AND DIFFRACTION

2.1 Specular reflection
Any obstacle or object within the environment of a sound is
potentially a reflector of sound, though the extent to which the
obstacle actually reflects sound depends on various factors such as
the object’s composition and coating. In addition, certain rather
surprising and intangible factors can lead to reflection. For
instance, sound travelling down a narrow tube with an opening at
the end is partially reflected back up the tube when it reaches the
opening. This phenomenon is usually of more interest to the maker
of wind instruments (as you will see in Block 2) than to the
designer of concert halls.
When reflection takes place, the relative size of the reflecting
surface and the wavelength of the reflected sound has a bearing on
the way the sound is reflected. Provided the reflecting surface is
big, by which I mean that its linear dimensions are about four times
greater than the wavelength of the sound striking it, sound
reflection takes the form shown in Figure 4, where the arrowed

lines represent the direction of travel of the sound wave.
reflecting surface
equal angles
incoming sound reflected sound
Figure 4 Specular reflection from a plane surface
The angle of the incoming sound direction (the angle of incidence) is

equal to the angle of the direction of the reflected sound (the angle of
reflection). This type of mirror-like reflection is known as specular
reflection
reflection.
The angles of incidence and reflection are not usually measured
relative to the surface itself but relative to an imaginary line at right
angles to it called a normal
normal. This makes it rather easier to define the
angles of incoming and reflected sound if the reflecting surface is
curved, as in Figure 5.
equal angles
normal
Figure 5 Specular reflection at a curved (non-planar) surface
A feature of specular reflection is that it can lead to the creation of a

sound image, just as an ordinary optical mirror can produce a visual
image. We encounter this quite often when we hear sound outdoors if
there are large buildings nearby. In Figure 6, person A is walking up
the street between two tall buildings towards an open space where a
band is playing. No direct sound can reach A from the band because
building 1 obstructs it, but building 2 reflects the sound towards A.
The location of the band will appear to be on the right, beyond
building 2. In other words, there is a sound image of the band which
appears to be the source of the sound.
band sound image
of band
building 1 building 2
A’s direction of travel

Figure 6 Creation of a sound image by reflection
As A walks up the street, the sound image stays in the same place.
However, as soon as A clears the top-right corner of building 1, there is a
direct path for sound from the band. A has the disconcerting experience
of hearing the source of the sound apparently jump instantaneously from
the right-hand side of the street to the left. Anyone who has ever tried to
trace loud music outdoors in a town has probably had a similar
experience. Notice in Figure 6 that the image of the band is as far behind
the reflecting wall as the real band is in front of it. This is a property of
flat reflecting surfaces. With curved reflecting surfaces it is not true.
2.2 Diffuse reflection

If the reflecting surface is small (less than about four times the
wavelength of the incoming sound), a different sort of reflection takes
place. Here the reflected sound energy is distributed across a band of
directions. Accordingly, this type of reflection is known as scattering
or diffuse reflection (Figure 7). Unlike specular reflection, diffuse
reflection does not create a sound image.
scattered
reflections
incoming sound
Figure 7 Scattering (diffuse reflection)
The reasons for these different types of reflection are too complex to
explore here. Suffice to say that they are not only found with sound.
Light behaves in a similar way, but the wavelength of light is so short
that even microscopic surface irregularities are apt to cause scattering,
and a high degree of polish is needed to achieve a surface that gives
the specular reflection that we associate with a mirror.
One consequence of these two sorts of reflection is that we are often
much more aware of high-frequency sound reflection than we are of
low-frequency sound reflection. Objects and architectural features a
few metres in size may act as effective reflectors of sound having a
wavelength of about a metre or less, which corresponds to sounds
above approximately F4 (about 350 Hz). Much lower-frequency
sounds, having wavelengths of a few or several metres, would be
scattered rather than reflected in the way shown in Figure 4.

A flat stone object is about 1.5 m by 1.5 m. For what frequencies
approximately will it act as a specular reflector? Take the speed of
sound to be 340 metres per second. ■
I must stress that the transition from specular to diffuse reflection does
not happen suddenly when the wavelength of the sound exceeds four
times the linear dimensions of the reflecting surface. The transition is
quite gradual, and the criterion of ‘four times the linear dimensions of
the reflector’ is only approximate.
No surface reflects sound perfectly; all surfaces absorb some of the

sound energy that strikes them. Hard, rigid, flat surfaces, such as
marble or smooth concrete, tend to be much more reflective to
sound than soft, porous and highly uneven surfaces. Nor do
reflecting surfaces treat all frequencies identically. A surface that is
highly reflective to sound at one frequency might be less so at
another frequency.
Acoustic researchers sometimes need to make measurements in an
environment where there is no reflected sound, and for this purpose
an anechoic chamber is used (see Figure 8). The walls are specially
designed to minimise sound reflection.
Figure 8 Anechoic chamber with test rig

Before the advent of sophisticated electronic sound processing
systems, many recording studios had an echo chamber. What would be
the general architectural features of an echo chamber? ■
2.3 Paths of reflection

Assuming the conditions for specular reflection are met, then Figure 9
could represent the two ways for sound to travel from a source to a
listener.
listener
source
Figure 9 Sound can reach a listener directly and by reflection at R

Sound can travel directly from source to the listener. The single plane
reflecting surface in Figure 9 shows an alternative route, involving a
single reflection. Because the route via the reflecting surface is longer
than the direct route, the reflected sound reaches the listener later
than the direct sound, so the listener hears the sound twice, first
directly and then later as an echo.

Sounds need to be separated in time by about 0.05 s (or more) for a
listener to be able to resolve them into two separate sounds. For the
arrangement of source, listener and reflecting surface in Figure 10,
what is the minimum distance d from listener to reflector if the
listener is to be able to distinguish direct sound from the source from a
reflection produced by the reflecting surface? (Take the speed of sound
to be 340 metres per second, and assume that specular reflection
occurs at the reflector.) ■
reflecting surface
d
listener source
Figure 10 For Activity 6
In Figure 9, all the reflecting surface receives sound from the source.
However, there is only one place on the surface which reflects the
sound to the listener. If the source or listener move, then another point
on the surface provides the reflection, but there remains only a single
reflecting path between source and listener. The situation is rather
different if the reflecting surface is curved. Under these conditions
there can be more than one reflecting path, as in Figure 11.
R2
listener
R1
Figure 11 Multiple reflections

from a curved surface source
Figure 12 The Royal Albert Hall, London
The ability of curved surfaces

to provide more than one
reflecting path from a source Figure 13 The Hollywood Bowl. The large spheres
to a listener can be a bane or a are to combat acoustic problems
blessing. In the Royal Albert
Hall in London (Figure 12), the elliptical shape of the auditorium has
been a contributory fact to the building’s problematic acoustics. At the
open-air Hollywood Bowl in the USA (Figure 13), however, a large
curved shell behind and over the stage is used to augment the sound
reaching the audience.
2.4 Diffraction
Diffraction refers to the bending of sound (or any other wave
phenomenon) round objects and round corners. Whether sound bends
to any significant degree round an object depends on the relative sizes
of the wavelength of the sound and the object.
If an object is large in relation to the wavelength of the sound (that is,
if the linear dimensions of the object exceed the wavelength of the
sound by several times), then the bending is almost negligible and the
object can cast a well defined sound shadow on the side away from the
source of sound, as in Figure 14. In Figure 14 we can think of the
object as a rigid, massive construction such as a brick wall. A listener
travelling along the line AB, on the side of the object away from the
source, would experience a distinct drop in sound level when passing
behind the object.
A
sound
‘shadow’
B
Figure 14 Creation of a sound shadow
ACTIVITY 7 (EXPLORATORY) ................................................................

Why is it necessary to specify that the object in Figure 14 be massive
and rigid? Suppose the object were flexible and able to vibrate. Would
it cast a sound shadow?
Comment
If the obstruction in Figure 14 were able to vibrate, the pressure wave
arriving from one side could drive it into vibration, causing another
pressure wave to be created on the other side of the object, away from
the source. It would not then create a shadow. ■
If the object is small in relation to the wavelength, typically of the

order of two-thirds of the wavelength or less, there is significant
diffraction of sound around the object, as in Figure 15.
A
B
Figure 15 Sound diffraction
Now a listener travelling along AB may hardly notice a diminution of

sound on passing behind the object, especially if the object is small in
relation to the wavelength. The smaller the object relative to the
wavelength, the more pronounced is the diffraction.
Diffraction accounts for the frequently observed phenomenon that bass
sounds are usually the first to be heard when you approach music
from outside a building or via twisting corridors. The low frequencies
are diffracted around the corners, whereas the high frequencies are
blocked. Another consequence of diffraction is the difficulty of
focusing low-frequency sound into a well defined beam of sound, for
example by the use of a curved reflector. Consequently it is often quite
hard to tell what direction low-frequency sound is emanating from,
whereas the direction of higher-frequency sound can be determined
fairly easily.

(a) Is an object around which sound of a certain frequency is
diffracted likely to be a specular reflector or a diffuse reflector?
(b) The pitch A4 has a frequency of 440 Hz. Approximately what is
the maximum size of an object around which this sound will be
diffracted? Take the speed of sound to be 340 metres per second. ■
3 REVERBERATION
3.1 Early reflection
To investigate the contribution of reflected sound to the experience of
listening, consider a single instantaneous sound, such as a drumstroke,
happening within a completely closed room in which there is also a
listener at some distance from the sound source (Figure 16). We shall
assume that the dimensions of all surfaces in the room meet the criterion
of being at least four times bigger than the wavelength of the sounds
we are considering (in other words, they are not diffusive reflectors).
The shortest distance from the
sound source to the listener is the
length of the straight line joining
them. Thus the first sound to reach
tap! the listener will be sound that has
travelled directly along the straight
line joining the listener to the
source. This is called the direct
sound
sound. This part of the listening
experience is no different from
what would happen if the listener
Figure 16 Sound source and the sound source were
capable of producing a single percussive sound outdoors in the middle of a field.
The sound travels outwards from the drum in all directions, striking
every part of every surface. Thus the next auditory event as far as the
listener is concerned is the arrival of the first sound to have undergone
a single reflection on its way to the listener. From the earlier
discussion, there can only be one of these per reflecting surface,
although if the surfaces were curved rather than plane then there
might be more than one.

With the arrangement of source, listener and wall as shown in Figure 17,
how long after the arrival of the direct sound does the listener hear the
reflected sound? Take the speed of sound to be 340 metres per second.
(You may need to know that if all three internal angles of a triangle are
the same, then the sides are all the same length.) ■
source
60˚
4.25
metres 30˚
60˚
listener
Figure 17 Arrangement of source,

listener and wall for Activity 9
The answer to Activity 9, incidentally, suggests that we nearly always

hear the starting transient of a sound unmixed with reflected sound,
because the starting transient typically lasts for a few thousandths of a
second.
Because there are six reflecting surfaces (four walls, ceiling and floor),
there are six singly-reflected sounds. Following these singly reflected
sounds (or possibly mixed with them) will be sounds which have been
reflected more than once, but still relatively few times. All these
sounds, which have had one or a few reflections, are known as early
reflections
reflections.

Give two reasons why the sound intensity of an early reflection will be
less than that of the direct sound. ■
Because the energy associated with the direct sound and the early
reflections is subject to the inverse-square law, their amplitudes
change as the listener moves around the room. This is what would
be expected, but it is a different state of affairs from what happens
next.
3.2 Multiple reflections

A distinctive feature of the early reflections is that they are discrete
acoustic events, owing to the fact that there are relatively few of them.
With sounds that have undergone many reflections, however, the
situation becomes rather different.
Figure 18 shows a route from source to listener in which there are
three reflections. For this pair of surfaces, this route from source to
listener is almost unique: the only other three-reflection route is the
mirror image, in which the sound travels first to the lower wall.
source listener
Figure 18 Three reflections
If the first port of call for a sound at the upper wall were any other
point than that shown, the sound could not reach the listener after just
three reflections. It might, however, reach the listener after some other
number of reflections, maybe four reflections (Figure 19).
source listener
Figure 19 Four reflections

A slightly different point on the upper wall as the location of the first
reflection might give a five-reflection trajectory (Figure 20).
source listener
Figure 20 Five reflections
Clearly, then, each pair of facing walls can support a potentially

limitless number of routes from source to listener, each involving a
different number of reflections. Nor do the sounds stop when they
reach the listener. In many cases they will diffract around the
listener and undergo further reflections, possibly reaching the
listener again later. There are other routes too, involving snooker-
ball reflections, as in Figure 21. Inevitably the longer routes will
produce weaker sounds because there is further to travel to the
listener and because there is always some absorption at each
reflection.
source
Figure 21 ‘Snooker-ball’ reflection
If we could take into account all possible routes for reflected

sounds, we would find that after the early reflections the listener
would hear a virtually continuous sound as innumerable reflected
sounds arrived in close succession, arriving successively by slightly
longer routes. The sound gradually decreases in intensity as it is
absorbed by the surfaces. This phenomenon of continuous,
multiply reflected sound is known as reverberation
reverberation.
ACTIVITY 11 (LISTENING) .....................................................................

In the audio track associated with this activity you can hear a few
short extracts of reverberant sound. ■
The onset of reverberation is always after the arrival of the first of

the early reflections. However, it is possible for the onset of
reverberation to happen before all the early reflections have
reached the listener. Indeed the distinction between the latter part
of the early reflections and the onset of reverberation is not clear
cut. Figure 22 summarises the sequence of events as far as the
listener is concerned.
amplitude
direct
sound early
reflections
reverberation
time
drum tap
Figure 22 A single sound is followed by early reflections and reverberations
In a room with very sound-absorbent properties, for instance a lot of

soft furnishings etc., it is possible for all the reflections to die away so
quickly that there is never a significant amount of reverberant sound.
However, in all purpose-built performance spaces, reverberation is a
significant feature of the building’s acoustic character. Reverberation
is typically considered to require in the region of at least twenty
reflections.

A concert hall measures 51 m from the front of the stage to the back
wall. For a listener sitting half way between the stage and the back
wall, what is the time interval between the direct sound and the first
sound reflected by the back wall? Take the speed of sound to be 340
metres per second. ■
Reverberant sound has some curious properties. As it consists of

sound travelling in all directions, it is, theoretically at any rate,
evenly distributed throughout the room. In no part of the room is
the reverberation louder than anywhere else. This means that the
reverberant sound energy, unlike that of direct sound and the early
reflections, is not subject to the inverse-square law. In practice, there
is unlikely to be a completely uniform distribution of reverberant sound
throughout a room, particularly if, for instance, there is a large projecting
balcony (as in many large concert halls) or if the room is L-shaped. For
the purposes of simple theoretical models, however, such as I am using in
this chapter, an assumption of uniform distribution has to be made,
otherwise the analysis becomes too complex. I should stress, therefore,
that the mathematical equations you will meet later in this chapter are
only approximations to what is often, in reality, extremely complex.
Before we attempt any mathematical analysis of reverberant sound,
however, we should ask whether reverberation is desirable. For the
performance of music, the answer is usually ‘yes’. A complete absence
of reverberation can be quite disturbing for both a performer and a
listener. Reverberation helps to blend sounds when there is more than
one source, and adds richness. However, there is no ideal amount of
reverberation for all types of sound. What works well for speech works
less well for music, and what works well for chamber music works
less well for choral, orchestral or band music. In addition, rock
performers and their sound engineers often prefer an acoustic with
minimal natural reverberation so that a controlled amount of
electronic reverberation can be used.
4 REVERBERATION TIME
4.1 Defining reverberation time
So far, we have been considering only a single instantaneous sound, a
drumstroke, as being the sound source in connection with reverberant
sound. In thinking about the properties of reverberation it is helpful to
consider a source producing a continuous note. After the commencement
of the note, the level of reverberation will gradually rise, in the way shown
by the rising curve in Figure 23. For the moment, ignore ‘60dB’ on
Figure 23. (Note that Figure 23 represents only the reverberant part of the
sound, not the direct sound. In practice these may not be easily separable.)
sound pressure level
reverberation
time
steady state Rss
60 dB
time
Figure 23 Reverberation time is the time for the
sound pressure level to fall by 60 dB
There will be some level of reverberant sound at which the rate of input of
sound energy from the player will exactly equal the rate of sound
energy being absorbed within the room. When this is reached, the level
of reverberant sound will stop increasing. The level of reverberant sound
now corresponds to the ‘steady state’ level shown in the graph. With a
greater sound input (for instance, two instruments playing) the steady-
state level will be higher, but there will still be a steady state.
If the instrumentalist stops playing after the steady state has been
reached, there will be a more or less gradual decay in the level of
reverberant sound. By definition, the reverberation time is taken to be
the time for the sound pressure level of the reverberant sound to fall by
60 dB from its steady-state value (Figure 23). Thus, if the sound starts at a
steady-state a level of 90 dB, the reverberation time is the time taken for
the sound pressure level to drop to 30 dB. This will (generally) be the same
length of time as it takes the sound to drop from 80 dB to 20 dB.

Given that each halving of sound pressure level in a particular
environment takes the same time, how many halvings of sound
pressure level does a fall of 60 dB correspond to? ■
The reverberation time is of interest because it tells us something

about the acoustic behaviour of a performing space. If a performer
plays an identical note in rooms A and B, and the reverberation time in
A is longer than it is in B, it is also true that the steady-state level of
reverberation (Rss in Figure 23) in A will be higher than B.
Reverberation time is thus not just a measure of how long it takes
reverberation to die away; it is also an indication of how much

reverberation a particular room adds to sounds made within the room.
Typical reverberation times range from ten seconds or more for a
cathedral, down to a fraction of a second for a small room with a lot of
sound-absorbent material. No single reverberation time suits all
performance contexts. Table 2 shows some typical reverberation times
and the kinds of performance they are most suited for. These figures are
not exact, and authorities vary in their judgement of what reverberation
time is appropriate for a particular kind of music. In addition, listeners
tend to prefer reverberation times to be somewhat longer in larger spaces.
Thus, a reverberation time of one second might be judged appropriate
for chamber music in a particular room, but the same reverberation
time in a significantly bigger room might be felt to be too short.
Table 2 Reverberation times and types of music
Use Reverberation time (seconds)

speech 0.4–1
chamber music 1–1.4
organ music 1.4–10 (approx.)
orchestral music, classical
and modern periods approx. 1.6
orchestral music,
romantic period approx. 2.1

The audio track associated with this activity has a number of sound
clips of speech and music with different reverberation times. Notice
how the speech becomes incomprehensible at a reverberation time of a
few seconds. ■
Buildings with a relatively long reverberation time are often described

as having a lively acoustic, or sometime a ‘wet’ acoustic. Shorter
reverberation times are often characterised as ‘dry’ or, in extreme
cases, ‘dead’.
4.2 Measuring reverberation time

Measuring reverberation time is not a simple matter. Exact results
depend on making a recording of a decaying reverberant sound, and
measuring the sound level on the recording to find how long it takes
for the sound to drop by the requisite amount. Results obtained in an
empty auditorium can be very misleading, because the presence of an
audience significantly affects the reverberation time. (However, in
modern auditoria the upholstery is often chosen to be approximately
as absorbent to sound as a person sitting in the seat would be, so as to
minimise the acoustic difference between a full hall and an empty one.)

Would the presence of an audience increase or decrease the
reverberation time?
Comment
An audience would increase the amount of sound absorption, because
the clothes they wear absorb sound and because skin and hair are not
good reflectors of sound. Hence the reverberation time would be
reduced by an audience. ■
When measuring the reverberation time of an auditorium, it is often

necessary to take into account the ambient sound level of the building.
Typically the ambient sound level in an empty auditorium is of the
order of 20 dB, so in order for an experimenter to measure accurately
the time taken for the sound pressure level to drop by 60 dB, the
starting sound pressure level needs to be at least 80 dB.

When measuring a 60 dB drop in sound pressure level, why must an
experimenter ensure that the starting sound pressure level is at least
80 dB if the pressure level of the ambient sound is 20 dB?
Comment
If the starting value is less than 80 dB, the final part of the decaying sound
will be swamped by ambient sound. For instance, if the sound pressure
level at the start of a trial is 70 dB, the sound will be swamped by
ambient before it has dropped by the requisite 60 dB to 10 dB. ■
Actually, it is possible to deduce the reverberation time from a smaller

drop in sound pressure level than the 60 dB specified in the definition.
For example, the time taken for the sound pressure level to fall by 30 dB
is half the time that would be taken for a 60 dB drop. Hence, the
reverberation time can easily be extrapolated from the time taken for a 30
dB drop in sound pressure level. Even so, establishing the reverberation
time in this way still requires the use of sophisticated equipment, and
acousticians often need an estimate of reverberation time on occasions
when they do not have the requisite equipment to hand. The next activity
introduces a simple, approximate method that can often be used.

In an auditorium with an ambient pressure level of 20 dB, there is an
initial sound pressure level of 74 dB.
(a) By how many decibels will the sound pressure level of the initial
sound have dropped by the time it becomes inaudible?
(b) Given that each halving of sound pressure level corresponds to a
drop of 6 dB in sound pressure level, how many halvings of sound
pressure level will there have been by the time the sound becomes
inaudible?
(c) Hence, what will be the percentage inaccuracy if the time for
the sound to fall into inaudibility is used as a measure of
reverberation time? ■
An inaccuracy of ten per cent, as calculated in the last activity, is not

necessarily excessive, given the inexact nature of much acoustical
data. Accordingly, an approximate measure of reverberation time can
often be made by simply timing how long it takes for a hand clap (say)
to become inaudible.
4.3 Calculating reverberation time

Various factors have a quantifiable effect on reverberation time, which
means that, to an approximate degree, reverberation time can be
calculated from the size and finish of a building. Three factors
principally determine the reverberation time:
1 The volume of the room.

2 The surface area of the room.
3 The walls’ absorptive properties.
These three factors are related in the so-called ‘Sabine formula’. This
is the simplest version of the formula:
0.16V
T=
Sα
where T is the reverberation time, V is the volume of the room, S is the
total surface area of the walls, ceiling and floor and α is the absorption
coefficient for the walls, ceiling and floor, assumed for the moment to
be equally absorbent. (The value of the absorption coefficient is
determined experimentally and takes values between 0 and 1. A
perfect reflector has an absorption coefficient α of 0; a perfect absorber
has an absorption coefficient α of 1.)
If V is measured in cubic metres and S in square metres, T will be in
seconds. Although there are more accurate formulae than Sabine’s, his
is reasonably accurate provided α is not more than about 0.3, that is,
provided the enclosure is not too absorbent.

If the linings of the walls of an auditorium are replaced by linings that
are twice as sound absorbent, what happens to the reverberation time? ■
Values of α are not easy to Table 3 Absorption coefficients at 500 Hz

determine consistently
and are liable to vary Surface Absorption coefficient
α at 500 Hz
depending on how they
were derived. In addition, Plaster on brick 0.01
for common building and Marble or glazed tile 0.01
furnishing materials the Concrete (unpainted) 0.01
value of α varies with Heavy plate glass window 0.04
frequency, which means Wooden floor 0.09
that several calculations at Plaster on lath 0.1
various frequencies will be
Plywood on studs 0.1
needed if the acoustic
Heavy carpet on concrete 0.16
properties of a room are to
be seriously analysed. Glass window 0.18
Table 3 gives some values Heavy carpet on felt 0.4
of α for common building Acoustic tile 0.55
materials and finishes. Heavy curtains 0.57
Audience* 0.84
Glass wool behind
perforated hardboard 0.85
*Each occupied audience place is regarded as
having an area of about 0.67 m2.

The two rooms in Figure 24 have the same volume of 512 m3. Both are
finished with plywood mounted on studs. How do their reverberation
times compare? ■
8m
4m 32 m
8m
8m 4m
(a) (b)
Figure 24 Two rooms for Activity 19
The last activity was unrealistic in numerous ways. For instance, it is

unlikely that any real auditorium would have the same finish for all
six walls, and the absorption coefficient of the finish used here is in
any case highly frequency-dependent, being much greater at low
frequencies. Also, the shapes and dimensions of the rooms are rather
improbable for real auditoria; and last, but certainly not least, any
realistic assessment of the reverberation time of an auditorium must
take account of the acoustic effect of the audience. However, the activity
does show that the cubic shape has the longest reverberation time for a
given volume. This is because, all other things being equal, the greater the
surface area the greater the absorption and the shorter the reverberation
time. For a given volume, a cube has the least surface area.
Sabine’s formula can be made more realistic by allowing for a mixture
of surface finishes. If there is an area S1 of material with absorption
coefficient α1, and an area S2 of material with absorption coefficient α2,
etc., then
0.16V
T=
S1α 1 + S2 α2 + S3 α3 + ...
The ‘Sα’ terms in the denominator of this formula have units of area
(m2), because all the ‘S’ terms are areas, and the absorption coefficients
α have no units. Each ‘Sα’ term in fact represents the area of perfectly
absorbing material that would have the same sound absorption as the
area of the material in question. For instance, from Table 3 we can
calculate that 100 square metres of plaster on brick (α = 0.01)
contributes an ‘Sα’ term of:
Sα = 100 m2 × 0.01 = 1 m2
Thus 100 m2 of this particular surface has the same sound absorption
as 1 m2 of perfectly absorbent material. A square metre of perfectly
absorbent surface is sometimes described as having a sound
absorbency of 1 metric Sabin
Sabin.
The audience contributes an ‘Sα’ term to the above formula. It is
calculated as follows. From the note in Table 3, each occupied
audience place is reckoned to have an effective area of 0.67 m2, with
(again from Table 3) an absorption coefficient of 0.84. Thus an

audience of 500 people contributes an ‘Sα’ term to the denominator of:
500 × 0.67 m2 × 0.84 = 281.4 m2
The upholstery of seats in modern auditoria is generally designed to
have the same sound absorbency as occupied seats. Thus, in this
example, there should be little significant acoustic difference between
an audience of 250 and an audience of 500 in an auditorium with
seating for 500 people.

(a) Calculate the volume of the room shown in Figure 25.
(b) Hence calculate the reverberation time of the room, using the fact
that all four walls and the ceiling are plaster on lath, and the floor
is heavy carpet on felt.
(c) What does the reverberation time become if there is an audience
of 500? (Assume that the presence of the audience does not
significantly reduce the area of other reflecting surfaces in the
building.)
(d) Briefly discuss the suitability of this room as an auditorium. ■
10 m
15 m
20 m
Figure 25 Room dimensions for Activity 20
As Activity 20 shows, the presence of an audience can drastically alter

the reverberation time. This justifies the assumption in part (c) of
Activity 20 that the presence of the audience does not significantly
reduce the area of other reflecting surfaces. This assumption is
unrealistic, but the presence of the audience has such a significant
effect in this calculation that reducing the area of the other reflecting
surfaces by a realistic amount makes a fairly small change to the answer.
5 CRITICAL DISTANCE
In a reverberant room, the sound heard is generally a mixture of direct
sound, which reaches the listener without undergoing any reflections,
and reverberant sound. If the listener stands very close to the source,
the direct sound will be louder than the reverberant sound. Further
away, the reverberant sound could be louder. It is thus possible to
define a critical distance from the sound source for particular rooms.
At distances less than the critical distance, the direct sound is the
loudest sound arriving at a listener or microphone; at distances greater
than the critical distance, the reverberant sound dominates. (Critical
distance is also sometimes called room radius

radius.) In a concert hall, the
critical distance might typically be of the order of 3 to 5 metres or
more. In domestic-sized rooms the critical distance can be much
shorter, of the order of a metre or less. Thus in a domestic setting,
electronically reproduced sound can consist mostly of reverberant
sound at the listener – except when the listener is very close to a
loudspeaker. Also, when recording sound or music in a domestic
environment, even a moderately close microphone may be picking up
a sound that is mainly reverberant rather than direct.
In commercial recording contexts, the producer and recording
engineer often wish to hear the music they are recording free of any
reverberation that might be added by the control room in which they
are monitoring the sound. One possibility would be to play the sound
back in an anechoic chamber, which this is rather impractical, or to
use headphones. A common procedure, however, is to play the sound
through loudspeakers, and to sit well within the critical distance. This
is known as near-field monitoring
monitoring, and in this type of monitoring the
direct sound from the loudspeaker swamps the reverberant sound
from the control room. (The term ‘near field’ here means something
different from its meaning in Section 1, where I introduced it in
connection with point sources and non-point sources of sound.)
Figure 26 shows the control room of a small recording studio, with
two near-field monitoring loudspeakers just behind the mixing desk.
The amount of reverberant sound in a control room can be
minimised by having non-parallel, diffusely reflecting walls to
direct reverberation away from the monitoring area (Figure 27).
Similarly, when recording performers, producers and engineers have
the option of placing their microphones within the critical distance
near-field recording
(near-field recording), at about the critical distance, or beyond the
far
far--field recording
critical distance (far recording), depending on the relative amounts
of direct and reverberant sound that are wanted. (Once again, the terms
‘near field’ and ‘far field’ are being used differently here from their use
in Section 1.) Microphones placed well beyond the critical distance will
capture the reverberation of the performance space, but may lose clarity
and detail. Very often, recordings or broadcasts of classical or choral
music will use a judicious mixture of distant microphones (sometimes
described as ambient microphones) and closer microphones.
near-field
monitoring
loudspeakers
Figure 26 Studio control room, showing Figure 27 Control room of the former Swanyard
near-field monitoring loudspeakers recording studio, London
In popular-music contexts, other factors tend to dictate microphone

placement. Principal among these is the need to isolate each
instrument (or each part of an instrument in the case of a drum kit)
from the others so that the instrument can be processed or edited
independently of the other instruments. This entails the use of
multitrack recording, where each instrument has its own track on the
recording medium, and close microphone placement, in order to
minimise the ‘spillage’ of sound from one instrument’s microphone to
another. Inevitably such close microphone placement results in a
sound that is virtually free of reverberant sound. This may be
remedied by adding artificial reverberation, but for some acoustic
instruments natural reverberation is generally an essential
characteristic of the sound. Special recording arrangements may have
to be used in order to capture an instrument’s natural reverberant
sound and yet to ensure acoustic isolation of the instrument from
other instruments. For instance, a drum kit may be recorded in a
separate, acoustically isolated, recording space, and the performer
equipped with headphones to hear what the rest of the band is playing.

For a particular recording it has been decided that a microphone will
be placed where the sound pressure level of the direct sound is 12 dB
below of that of the reverberant sound. The critical distance is 2 metres.
(a) Is the microphone within or beyond the critical distance?
(b) How far must the microphone be placed from the source?
(c) Why would a microphone be placed at such a distance? ■
6 AUDITORIUM DESIGN
In the space of this short section, I can mention only a few brief factors
relating to the business of auditorium design.
In the past, auditorium design was largely unscientific. Nevertheless,
many acoustically fine auditoria were constructed (and some very
poor ones). During more recent times, when science has been brought
to bear on the design of auditoria, the results have sometimes been
very successful, though not always so. Where the results have been
unsuccessful, it has not always been the fault of acousticians. Modern
auditoria are now expected to be able to cope with a wide variety of types
of performance, which may not be possible without compromise.
Indeed, some modern auditoria have been designed to have a variable
acoustic, in which the amount of reverberation can be controlled by
moving walls, opening or closing cavities, and so on. The Symphony
Hall in Birmingham (Figure 28) is an example.
The calculations of reverberation time earlier in this chapter may have
given the impression that acoustic characteristics of buildings can be
calculated precisely. In practice nearly all such calculations involve a
lot of uncertainty, and even though architects and acousticians use
much more sophisticated calculations than we have used in this
chapter, their results are usually only approximate.
Figure 28 Symphony Hall, Birmingham
Ideally, an auditorium should have a fairly uniform acoustic wherever

a listener is positioned, and the sound should be free of extraneous
distortions introduced by the auditorium itself, such as undue emphasis
to certain frequencies or disturbing echoes. To help achieve these
ends, during the design phase acousticians and architects use models,
which may be computer models or scale models, made, as far as possible,
from the same materials that will be used in the actual building.
Through the use of a scale model, the acoustic effect of the full-sized
building can be simulated. This is done by playing a test recording of
music into the model, and re-recording the sound picked up in various
parts of the model using small microphones. A speeded-up test
recording is used because the nature of reflections, and the extent of
diffractions, depends on the relative size of the architectural features of
the auditorium and the wavelength of the sound. Using a speeded-up
recording brings the wavelength of the sound down to the same scale
as that of the model. To hear the effects of the auditorium, the re-recorded
sound must then be slowed down by a corresponding amount.

A scale model is made of a building intended to be 100 m long. The
model is 5 metres long.
(a) By how much must a test recording be speeded up?
(b) Would microphones and loudspeakers designed for the frequency
range of normal human hearing be suitable for playing and re-
recording the test recording? If not, what special requirements
must be satisfied by these microphones and loudspeakers? ■
Some acoustic features of the finished building, however, cannot be

adequately simulated by a model. For instance, textiles, for use in
curtains and possibly for surface finishes, can be problematic because
their acoustic behaviour at the simulation frequency can differ from
their behaviour at the intended frequency. Models, therefore, are not

an entirely reliable guide to the behaviour of the finished building.
Much of the work of acousticians consists not so much of designing
new buildings as of trying to fix acoustic problems with existing
buildings. Often this involves trying to alter the reverberation time, or
trying to alter early reflections in some way. For instance, one factor
that some acoustic engineers consider to be of particular importance to
the psychological comfort of listeners is the delay between the arrival
of the direct sound and the arrival of the first early reflection. It has
been claimed that if this delay is too great, the listener feels isolated,
as though listening in a large space a long way from the performer
(which may in fact be the case). To maintain a sense of intimacy, a
delay of no more that 20 ms is recommended.

If the delay between the arrival of the direct sound and the first early
reflection is 20 ms, how much extra distance has the early reflection
travelled? Take the speed of sound to be 340 metres per second. ■
The distance calculated in Activity 23 is not large. Designing a

building to give such a prompt early reflection may not be compatible
with achieving a suitably long reverberation time, which may require
the building to have a relatively large volume with relatively distant
reflecting surfaces.
One ‘fix’ that has occasionally been fitted in large auditoria to speed
the arrival of the first early reflection is a series of reflecting panels
suspended horizontally over the performing space and projecting
partly over the audience. If the panels are low enough they can
significantly reduce the time taken by the first early reflection. Spaces
between the panels also allow sound to travel above the panels,
making the whole volume of the building available for reverberation.
Another problem that may need attention is a troublesome echo. An
echo (sometimes called a slap echo
echo) is distinct from reverberation
because it stands out from reverberation, often emphasising a
particular frequency. Curved reflecting surfaces can give rise to
echoes, as can pairs of flat, parallel surfaces that reflect well. The
latter configuration is also particularly prone to flutter echo
echo, which is
a rapidly repeating echo.

In the audio track for this activity you can hear the effect of multiple
echoes on a speech extract, and a double echo on a piece of music. ■
In the Royal Albert Hall in London, acoustic problems were caused by

a distinct echo and an excessively long reverberation time. Various
forms of damping were introduced to counteract the echo, and ‘flying
saucers’ (convex dishes about a metre or two in diameter) were
suspended from the ceiling during the 1960s to reduce the
reverberation time (Figure 29).
Many of the world’s most acoustically praised auditoria were built in
the nineteenth century using a basically shoe-box-style design. One
Figure 29 Interior of the Royal Albert Hall, London, showing ‘flying saucers’ suspended from the ceiling
problem with such a design is the relatively poor visibility many

audience members have of the stage. In the twentieth century new
building materials and techniques enabled wider auditoria to be
constructed with projecting, fan-like performing spaces, giving more of
the audience a better view of the performers. The Royal Festival Hall
in London is one example. Unfortunately many such buildings have
been plagued with poor acoustics. At the Royal Festival Hall an
assisted resonance system comprising an elaborate system of
microphones, filters and hidden loudspeakers was fitted a few years
after the building was opened to increase the reverberation time to an
acceptable level. It was used for 30 years until the late 1990s.
Although the result may have been acceptable for the audience, some
performers reported that they were unable to hear what else was
happening on the stage. As this example and many others demonstrate,
the design of satisfactory performing venues remains a difficult and
complex matter, despite advances in technology.

What would be the acoustic effect of making the changes described
below to the interior of a building, and suggest why an acoustic
engineer might recommend them. (You may need to consult Table 3.)
(a) Hanging heavy curtains in front of an uncoated concrete wall.
(b) Removing a plaster-on-lath surface and replacing it with plaster
applied directly to the underlying brick.
(c) Lowering the ceiling. ■
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4
Point sources of sound distribute sound In a space bounded by specular reflective
uniformly. In the sound field produced by surfaces, a direct sound is followed by a
a point source, every doubling of distance series of early reflections. Early reflections
from the source brings a halving of undergo few reflections on their way from
amplitude of the pressure wave (a 6 dB source to listener. (Section 3.1)
reduction of sound pressure level).
(Section 1)
Reverberation is continuous sound
consisting of multiply reflected sound
Real sources of sound are not point sources. following successively longer routes to the
However, beyond a certain distance, the listener. Reverberant sound is theoretically
sound field of a real source may resemble evenly distributed throughout the acoustic
that produced by a point source, and the environment of the sound, and the energy
source can then be regarded as an flow associated with it does not follow the
approximation to a point source. (Section 1) inverse square law. (Section 3.2)
The part of the sound field close to a non-
point source is sometimes referred to as a Reverberation time is the time for the sound
near field. The amplitude here does not pressure level of a decaying sound to fall
change in the way associated with the by 60 dB from its steady-state value.
inverse square law of energy flow rate. (The (Section 4.1)
terms ‘near field’ and ‘far field’ also have
other meanings in relation to recording and Reverberation time may be extrapolated
the monitoring of sound recordings.) The from the time taken for a smaller drop in
region beyond the near field, where the sound pressure level than 60 dB. An
sound source can be approximated to a approximate value can be found by
point source, is referred to as the far field. measuring the time taken for a loud sound
(Section 1) to decay into inaudibility. (Section 4.2)
Specular reflection is mirror-like reflection.
It produces an image of a sound source. Approximate reverberation time can be
Specular reflection occurs at a surface calculated using the Sabine formula,
whose linear dimensions are about four 0.16V
times larger than the wavelength of the T=
sound. (Section 2.1)
S1α 1 + S2 α2 + S3 α3 + ...
where V is the volume of the room of the
In specular reflection, angles of incidence room, S1, S2, S3, etc are the surface areas of
and reflection are equal. Angles of its reflecting surfaces, and α1, α2, α3 etc. are
incidence and reflection are usually the corresponding absorption coefficients
measured relative to the normal, which is of its surfaces. (Section 4.3)
an imaginary line perpendicular to the
reflecting surface. (Section 2.1)
A perfectly absorbent surface would have
an absorption coefficient α of 1. A
Diffuse reflection (scattering) occurs when
perfectly reflecting surface would have an
the reflecting surface is smaller than about
absorption coefficient α of 0. Absorption
four times the wavelength of the sound.
coefficients usually change with frequency.
(Section 2.2)
(Section 4.3)
Diffraction is the bending of sound around
an object. It occurs when the linear Critical distance is the distance from the
dimensions of an object are less than about source at which the direct sound pressure
two-thirds of the wavelength of the sound. level is equal to the reverberant sound
(Section 2.4) pressure level. (Section 5)
At listening distances within the critical troublesome echoes, emphases and other
distance, direct sound exceeds reverberant distortions. (Section 6)
sound. At listening distances beyond the
critical distance, reverberant sound exceeds Complex theoretical calculations are used
the direct sound. (Section 5) in the design of a modern auditorium.
Additionally, the acoustic character of a
Near field monitoring is done within the building may be simulated using a scale
critical distance, at such a range that the model or a computer model. (Section 6)
direct sound swamps the reverberant
sound. (Section 5) A scale model for acoustic simulation uses
the same materials as the full-sized
The acoustic design of auditoria is aimed building. The simulation is achieved by
at producing a uniform acoustic, with an playing speeded-up recordings and
appropriate reverberation time (or with a monitoring the results. (Section 6)
variable reverberation time), and without
ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

Activity 1
The distance between two adjacent regions of high pressure is the
wavelength.
Activity 2
Table 1 shows that an amplitude ratio of 0.5:1 (or 1:2) corresponds to –
6 dB. Thus the sound pressure level will drop by 6 dB with every
doubling of distance from the source.
Activity 3
(a) At 20 m from the source, the distance from the source has
doubled, so the sound pressure level will drop by 6 dB. Thus the
sound pressure level will be 34 dB.
(b) A further doubling takes us from 20 m to 40 m, so the sound
pressure level will drop by a further 6 dB to 28 dB.
Activity 4
The longest wavelength for which this object is a specular reflector is
around 1.5 m ÷ 4 = 0.375 m. A sound with this wavelength has a
frequency of (340 ÷ 0.375) Hz, which is about 907 Hz. So, in round
numbers, frequencies of around 900 Hz and upwards will have
specular reflection by this object. In terms of pitch, that means pitches
from around A5 (880 Hz) and upwards.
Activity 5
An echo chamber needs to have highly reflective surfaces, which means
having, hard, flat, polished walls (as in an old-fashioned bathroom).
Activity 6
The reflected sound needs to take at least 0.05 s longer than the
direct sound to be perceived as an echo. In that time, the sound travels
(340 × 0.05) m, or 17 m. So the reflecting surface needs to be at least
half this distance from the source, which is 8.5 m.
Activity 8
(a) Objects around which sound diffracts significantly are small in
relation to the wavelength of the sound (less than about two-thirds
of the wavelength). Objects as small as this are likely to be diffuse
reflectors, being well below the transition from specular reflection
to diffuse reflection (the transition is around four times the
wavelength of the sound).
(b) A sound with a frequency of 440 Hz has a wavelength of
(340 ÷ 440) m = 0.77 m (approximately). Objects of about two-thirds
(0.67) of this size or smaller will cause diffraction. Thus the
maximum size is around (0.77 × 0.67) m, or approximately 0.5 m.
Activity 9
At the reflecting surface, the angles of incidence and reflection are the
same (30 degrees to the normal), so every angle of the triangle in
Figure 17 is 60 degrees. Hence all the sides are 4.25 metres. Thus the
reflected sound travels twice as far as the direct sound.
The direct sound takes (4.25 ÷ 340) seconds = 0.0125 seconds. The
reflected sound takes twice as long, hence it will arrive 0.0125 seconds
after the direct sound.
Activity 10
The early reflections travel by a longer route to the listener than the
direct sound does. Therefore their amplitudes will be smaller than that
of the direct sound. Additionally, no surface reflects sound perfectly,
so the early reflections will suffer some losses during reflection.
Activity 12
The sound that undergoes reflection at the back wall travels an
additional (51 ÷ 2) m, or 25.5 m, from the listener to reach the back
wall, and then a further 25.5 m to return to the listener. It therefore
travels 51 m further than the direct sound. At 340 metres per second,
the reflected sound will take (51 ÷ 340) s, or 0.15 s. This is the time
interval between the direct sound and the reflected sound.
Activity 13
Each halving of sound pressure level is a drop of 6 dB, so a drop of 60
dB corresponds to ten halvings of sound pressure level.
Activity 17
(a) The sound becomes inaudible when it drops to 20 dB, because
this is the level of ambient sound in the auditorium. Thus, the
sound will have become inaudible when it has dropped by
(74 – 20) dB = 54 dB.
(b) Each halving of amplitude corresponds to a 6 dB drop in sound
pressure level, so a drop of 54 dB corresponds to nine halvings.
(c) Reverberation time is the time taken for a sound level to fall by
60 dB, which is ten halvings of amplitude, so a reverberation time
based on nine halvings will be nine-tenths of the true value. The
inaccuracy will be 10%.
Activity 18
Doubling the sound absorbency of the walls corresponds to doubling
the coefficient α in Sabine’s formula. This coefficient appears in the
denominator of the formula, so doubling it has the effect of halving the
reverberation time. (Doubling a fraction’s denominator always halves
the fraction, for instance 1/8 is half of 1/4.)
Activity 19
For room (a) each surface has an area of 64 m2.
Hence the total surface area is 6 × 64 m2 = 384 m2.
For (b) each of the four long surfaces has an area of 128 m2 and the two
end walls have an area of 16 m2. The total area is
(4 × 128 m2) + (2 × 16 m2) = 544 m2
So for room (a) the reverberation time is
0.16×512
T= s = 2.1s
384×0.1
For room (b) the reverberation time is
0.16 × 512
T= s = 1.5 s
544 × 0.1
Activity 20
(a) The volume is simply 10 m × 15 m × 20 m = 3000 m3.
(b) We shall use this version of the Sabine formula to calculate the
reverberation time. 0.16V
T=
S1α 1 + S2 α2 + S3 α3 + ...
The volume V was calculated in part (a). To calculate the
denominator, we need the total wall area, S1. There are two walls
measuring 10 m × 15 m, and two measuring 10 m × 20m. Hence the
total wall area is:
S1 = [2 × (10 m × 15 m)] + [2 × (10 m × 20m)]
= 300 m2 + 400 m2
= 700 m2
The ceiling and the floor have the same area as each other,
15 m × 20 m = 300 m2.
The absorption coefficient of the walls and ceiling is 0.1 and the
floor’s is 0.4. Thus the Sabine formula becomes:
0.16×3000
T= s
(700×0.1) + (300×0.1) + (300×0.4)
480
= s
70 + 30 + 120
480
= s
220
= 2.2 s (approximately)
(c) From the text before Activity 20 we know that an audience of 500
contributes an ‘Sα’ term of about 280 m2 to the denominator of
Sabine’s formula. Thus the reverberation time becomes:
480
T= s
220 + 280
480
= s
500
= 0.96 s, or 1 s (approximately)
(d) A reverberation time of about 1 s would make this building suitable

for chamber music or speech, but not really suitable for orchestral
music. (See Table 2.)
Activity 21
(a) The direct sound is significantly quieter than the reverberant
sound, so the microphone is beyond the critical distance.
(b) At the critical distance, the amplitudes of the direct and reverberant
sound are the same. If the microphone is placed at twice the critical
distance (4 m), the amplitude of the direct sound will be halved, but
the amplitude of the reverberant sound remains unchanged. Hence
the sound pressure level of the direct sound will be 6 dB below that
of the reverberant sound. A further doubling of the distance from the
source brings a further 6 dB reduction in the direct sound to 12 dB
below the reverberant sound. Thus the microphone must be

placed 8 m from the source.
(c) A microphone at this distance from the source could be used to
pick up reverberation or ‘ambience’ to be mixed with the signal
from another, more closely positioned microphone.
Activity 22
(a) The linear dimensions of the model are 1/20th of the finished
dimensions. The wavelengths of the test sounds must be
correspondingly 1/20 of their actual wavelength. From the
equation v = fλ, it follows that the frequency must be increased
20-fold, which means playing the recording twenty times faster
than its normal speed.
(b) The nominal frequency range of human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Assuming the test recordings will cover most of this frequency
range, the speeded-up test recordings will contain frequencies in
the range 400 Hz to 400 kHz. This range extends well into the
ultrasonic range (that is, above the upper limit of human hearing).
Microphones and loudspeakers designed to cover just the
frequency range of human hearing will be inadequate. They would
need to be able to cope with frequencies in the range 400 Hz to
400 kHz.
Activity 23
The extra distance travelled is [(20 × 10–3) × 340] m = 6.8 m.
Activity 25
(a) Hanging heavy curtains in front of an uncoated concrete wall has
the effect of introducing extra sound absorption. An acoustic
engineer might recommend this either to remove an echo or to
reduce reverberation time.
(b) Removing a plaster-on-lath surface and replacing it with plaster
applied directly to the underlying brick has the effect of reducing
sound absorption. An acoustic engineer might recommend this as
a way of increasing reverberation time.
(c) Lowering the ceiling might shorten the reflecting path to the
listener, thereby making the early reflections arrive sooner and
increasing the ‘intimacy’ of the room (if it is to be used as an
auditorium). However, lowering the ceiling also changes the
volume and surface area of the room, which will affect the
reverberation time.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
1 Explain correctly the meaning of the emboldened terms in the main
text and to use them correctly in context.
2 Perform simple calculations of the amplitude change associated
with the inverse-square law of energy flow rate, given a table of
amplitude ratios and decibels. (Activities 2, 3 and 13)
3 Explain the difference between specular reflection and diffuse
reflection, and to perform simple calculations relating to the transition
between these two modes of reflection. (Activities 4, 5 and 8)
4 Explain the conditions under which sound diffraction occurs, and be
able to perform simple calculations relating to diffraction. (Activity 8)
5 Describe the factors that affect the amplitude of reflected sound.
(Activity 10)
6 Perform simple calculations involving sound reflection, and angles
of incidence and reflection. (Activities 6, 9, 12 and 23)
7 Perform simple calculations relating to reverberation time and changes
of sound pressure level with time. (Activities 17, 18, 19 and 20)
8 Identify the main factors that affect reverberation time, and to discuss
their effects. (Activities 18, 19 and 25)
9 Perform simple calculations relating to reverberation time, given the
appropriate formula and appropriate data. (Activities 19 and 20)
10 Assess the suitability of a particular performance space for various
types of performance, given data on typical reverberation times.
(Activity 20)
11 Perform simple calculations relating to critical distance. (Activity 21)
12 Discuss in simple terms some of the factors affecting microphone
placement or monitoring distance in relation to reverberant sound
and direct sound. (Activity 21)
13 Discuss the use of speeded-up test recordings in acoustic models of
buildings and perform simple calculations relating to them. (Activity 22)
14 Discuss the use of models in acoustic design, and some of the
techniques which have been devised to reduce acoustic problems in
existing auditoria. (Activities 22 and 25)
Acknowledgements
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for
permission to reproduce material within this chapter:
Figures 12 and 29: Courtesy of the Royal Albert Hall
Figure 13: David Crausby/Alamy Images
Figure 26: Courtesy of Allan Jones
Figure 27: Swanyard Recording Studios, used with permission
Figure 28: Jonathan Berg/www.bplphoto.co.uk
Every effort has been made to contact copyright owners. If any have been inadvertently overlooked
the publishers will be happy to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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WXIIPWXVMRKW2]PSRWXVMRKWEWYWIHSRGPEWWMGEPKYMXEVWEVIMRIJJIGXMZI
[MXLXLMWX]TISJTMGOYT
pole pieces
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PSST ■
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MRXSIPIGXVMGEPIRIVK]8LIXIVQMWKIRIVEPP]SRP]YWIHJSVHIZMGIWXLEX
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(OHFWUHWDQGFDSDFLWRUPLFURSKRQHV
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charges produced on
polarised insulating film conducting plates
conducting conducting + – + –
back plate diaphragm + – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
+ – + –
sound + – + –
+ – + –
electrical + – + –
connections + – + –
+ – + –
charges on
insulating film
(a) (b) (c)
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WKHUHDUHHTXDOQXPEHUVRISRVLWLYHDQGQHJDWLYH – + – +
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+ –
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backplate + – diaphragm
HIZIPSTQIRX JVSQ ER
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resistor sound
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battery + –
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(a) (b)
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conducting plates
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TMI^SIPIGXVMGQEXIVMEPW
TMI^SIPIGXVMGQEXIVMEPWHIZIPSTER material
IPIGXVMG GLEVKI [LIR XLI] EVI

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XLIFEWMGGSRWXVYGXMSRSJETVEGXMGEP connecting leads
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RIIHFIQEHIJSVMX
loudspeaker
microphone
input
signal
output
signal
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Vin
(a) input signal (loudspeaker)

Vout
(b) output signal (microphone)
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+20
normalised transfer
function (decibels)
+10
0
–10
–20
–30
10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 k 50 k
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output (load)
voltage
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alternating
source
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:out:in[MXLEZEPYISJ
Vout
Vin
signal in ×1000 signal out

60 dB
amplifier
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%/2&. ,19(67,*$7,1*6281' &+$37(5 6281'&$3785($1'5(&5($7,21
90 dB 90
80 dB 80
70 dB 70
gain
60 dB 60
50 dB 50
40 dB 40
30 dB 30
10 Hz 100 Hz 1000 Hz 10 000 Hz 100 000 Hz
frequency
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SYXTYXMQTIHERGI
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EQTPMJMIVMRXIVQWSJWSYVGIWPSEHWERHMQTIHERGIW8LIEQTPMJMIVMR
*MKYVIMWIRZMWEKIHEWFIMRKJIH[MXLEWMKREPJVSQEQMGVSTLSRI
ERHEWWIRHMRKXLISYXTYXWMKREPXSEPSYHWTIEOIVEPXLSYKLRSXEPP
EQTPMJMIVWEVIYWIH[MXLXLIWIMRTYXERHSYXTYXHIZMGIW%QTPMJMIVW
[LMGLHVMZIEPSYHWTIEOIVSVSXLIVTS[IVGSRWYQMRKHIZMGIEW
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TS[IVEQTPMJMIVW
EVIORS[REWTS[IVEQTPMJMIVW
TS[IVEQTPMJMIVW
INPUT SIDE OUTPUT SIDE

internal impedance input impedance output impedance
ideal ideal
alternating alternating
source source
loudspeaker
microphone or amplifier
other transducer
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EQTPMXYHIXLISYXTYXWMKREPGERXEOIMWZSPXWWII*MKYVI
+ d.c. supply
50 volts
100 volts
maximum
output signal
–
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V2
P= , or V = P × R
R
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V = 30×16 volts ≈ 22 volts
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22 volts
≈ 32 volts
0.7
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+ =
(a) signal (b) noise (c) noisy signal
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,S[IZIVTYXXMRKXLIWIGSRGITXWSJDFMKRIWWSRXSEWIGYVIQEXLIQEXMGEP
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[EZIJSVQXLIVIMWRSWMQTPI[E]XSHIJMRILS[FMKMXMW%WJSVWMKREP
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8LIERW[IVXYVRWSYXXSFIXSXLMROSJXLI[EZIWMRXIVQWSJXLI
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IPIGXVMGEPWMKREPGSRRIGXIHEGVSWWXLIIRHWSJEVIWMWXSV[SYPHGEYWI
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GEWIW[SYPHFIXMR]FYXMX[SYPHRIZIVXLIPIWWI\MWXERHJSVQER]
X]TIWSJWMKREPERHRSMWIMXGERFIGEPGYPEXIH8LIVEXIEX[LMGLLIEXMW
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average signal power
signal-to-noise ratio =
average noise power
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r
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147 TA225 BLOCK 1 INVESTIGATING SOUND INDEX 147
INDEX
Notes 1 This index covers Block 1, Chapters 4, 5 and 6 only.
2 Where terms are referenced in two or more places, the page number is only given in one place,
cross references are given for the other entries.
3 Page numbers in bold refer to places where the term appears emboldened in the main text.
4 The index does not cover the aims, chapter summaries, answers to self-assessment activities or
learning outcomes.
α see absorption coefficient Bach, Johann Sebastian 66

A-to-D converter see analogue-to-digital band-pass filter 51
converter bandwidth 51
absolute pitch (positive pitch, perfect critical see critical bandwidth
pitch) 69 of a digital signal 136
absorption coefficient 22 of an amplifier see frequency response of
table of typical values 22 an amplifier
acousmatic music 53 53, 59 see also bit rate and bandwidth
acoustic ear reflex see middle ear reflex Bartók, Béla 74
acoustic guitar 5 basilar membrane 46, 48
acoustics bass drum 77
dead see dead acoustics beating 50, 53, 54
dry see dry acoustics binary numbers 128, 139
wet see wet acoustics adding see adding binary numbers
adding binary numbers 129 negative see negative binary numbers
alias (low-frequency alias) 123 table of denary equivalents 128
ambient microphone 25 two’s complement see two’s complement
ambient sound level (in an auditorium) 21 binary numbers
ambiguity (of sounds) 62 bit 129
amplification see gain least significant see least significant bit
most significant see most significant bit
amplifier 113
bit depth 127, 132
bandwidth see frequency response of an
amplifier bit rate 135
electric guitar see guitar amplifier and bandwidth 135
frequency response see frequency byte 132
response of an amplifier
power output 116
power see power amplifier
power supply 116 capacitor (condenser) 98
analogue (transmission and recording of capacitor microphone 98 98, 104, 106, 107,
sound) 121 116
analogue – persistence of 138 cartilage 43
analogue-to-digital converter 122 categorical perception
analytical listening 42 of pitch 69
anechoic chamber 11, 100 CD see audio compact disc
anti-aliasing filter 124 charge
anvil (ear bone) see incus electrical see electrical charge
apparent motion (of sounds) 62 electrostatic see electrostatic charge
asynchronous transmission 134 clock jitter see sampling clock jitter
audio CD see audio compact disc cochlea 43, 46 46, 47
audio compact disc (audio CD) modelling 47
maximum duration 132 cochlear nerve 43, 46
number of quantisation levels 127, 132, compact disc see audio compact disc
139 compression 56
sampling rate 124, 135 MP3 see MP3
auditorium acoustics 26 concha (ear) 43
auditorium design concrete music see musique concrète
use of a scale model see scale model in condenser microphone see capacitor
auditorium design microphone
auditory canal (external) 43 condenser see capacitor
consonance (in music) 70, 75 ear 43

and mathematics 71 cochlea see cochlea
and psychophysics 71 cochlear nerve see cochlear nerve
in music history 72 helicotrema see helicotrema (ear)
converter inner see inner ear
analogue-to-digital see analogue-to- ligaments 43
digital converter middle ear reflex see middle ear reflex
digital-to-analogue see digital-to- middle see middle ear
analogue converter muscles 43, 45, 58
critical bandwidth 50 ossicles 44
critical distance 24 outer see outer ear
critical listening 42 oval window see oval window (ear)
round window see round window (ear)
current reflection 107
semicircular canals 46
cut-off frequency 51, 114
114, 120 stapes footplate see stapes footplate (ear)
cut-off rate 114, 120 vestibular nerve see vestibular nerve (ear)
cymbals 77 vestibule 46
eardrum (tympanic membrane) 43, 44
early reflection (of sound) 1616, 18, 28
echo 28
D-to-A converter see analogue-to-digital flutter see flutter echo
converter see also slap echo
damping – in a loudspeaker 111 electret microphone 96, 104, 106, 107, 116
decade (frequency range) 103 typical specification 108
decibel electric motor effect 95
as a measure of amplifier gain 113 electrical charge 97
table of equivalent amplitude and power electrical polarisation 97
ratios 119
electrical resistance see resistance
delay (electrical)
between direct sound and early
electromagnetic induction 93
reflection 28
electronic capture (of sound) 91
denary numbers 128
electrostatic charge 97
diffraction (of sound) 13 13, 110
electrostatic induction 97
diffuse reflection (of sound) 10
transition to specular reflection see electrostatic loudspeaker 111
reflection of sound electrostatic polarisation 97
diffusion (in acousmatic music) 53 error
see also diffusion score quantisation see quantisation error
diffusion score 53 external impedance see load
digital-to-analogue converter 122
digital domain 121 far field (of distributed sound source) 5
digital sound signal far field recording 25
dynamic range see dynamic range and field
quantisation far see far field
effects of bandwidth on see bandwidth of near see near field
a digital signal fifth (musical interval)
effects of noise on see noise effects on a diminished see diminished fifth
digital signal filter 51
mixing see mixing digital sound signals anti-aliasing see anti-aliasing filter
recording see recording digital sound band-pass see band-pass filter
signals effect due to loading 106
diminished fifth 72 72, 74 high-pass see high-pass filter
direct sound 9, 12, 15 15, 28 low-pass see low-pass filter
dissonance (in music) 70, 73 notch see notch filter
distortion flutter echo 28
in microphones and loudspeakers 101 Fourier analysis 51
drive unit (loudspeaker) 111 of non-periodic sounds 123
drum fourth (musical interval) see perfect fourth
bass see bass drum frequency
dry acoustics 20 cut-off see cut-off frequency
dynamic microphone 92 frequency response
dynamic range of a microphone 100 100, 102, 109
and quantisation 137 of an amplifier 113, 114114, 120
frequency spectrum 51
fused tone 50
gain 113 loudness

guitar separation of melodies by see separation
acoustic see acoustic guitar of melodies by loudness
guitar amplifier 115 loudspeaker 91, 109
guitar pick-up 95, 107 cone overshoot 110
damping see damping in a loudspeaker
distortion see distortion in microphones
H (German pitch name) 72 and loudspeakers
hammer (ear bone) see malleus electrostatic see electrostatic loudspeaker
harmony 73 piezo-electric see piezo-electric
triadic see triadic harmony loudspeaker
hearing 40, 41 low-frequency alias see alias
helicotrema (ear) 48 low-pass filter 51, 122, 124
Helmholtz, H. von 71, 75
high-pass filter 51
Hindemith, Paul 74 m.s.b. see most significant bit
Hollywood Bowl 13 magnet 93
human ear see ear magnetic field 93
magnetic material 93
ideal source 105 magnetic pole 93
image (of sound) see sound image malleus (ear bone) 43, 44
impedance maskee 55
external see load masker 55
input see input impedance masking (of one sound by another) 54
internal see internal impedance melodies
output see output impedance interleaved see separation of melodies
impedance coupling 45 metric Sabine 23
in the ear 45 microphone 91
incus (ear bone) 43, 44 ambient see ambient microphone
induction capacitor/condenser see capacitor
electromagnetic see electromagnetic microphone
induction classification by impedance 107
electrostatic see electrical polarisation directional characteristics 99
inner ear 4343, 46 distortion see distortion in microphones
input impedance 115 and loudspeakers
interleaved melodies see separation of dynamic see dynamic microphone
melodies electret see electret microphone
internal impedance 104 frequency response see frequency
inverse square law 7 response of a microphone
moving-coil see moving-coil microphone
omni-directional see omni-directional
jitter microphone
sampling clock see sampling clock jitter piezo-electric see piezo-electric
just noticeable difference (JND) 58 microphone
ribbon see ribbon microphone
kettle drums see timpani unidirectional see unidirectional
Korte’s third law 63 microphone
microphone placement 26
l.s.b. see least significant bit middle ear 43
least significant bit 129 middle ear reflex 45
line spectrum 61 mixing
digital sound signals 137
listening 40, 41, 55, 57
analytical see analytical listening modes of listening 41 41, 42
and interpreting music 42 modulation
critical see critical listening pulse code see pulse code modulation
modes see modes of listening monitoring
reduced see reduced listening near-field see near-field monitoring
listening score 61 most significant bit 129
load (electrical) 105 motor effect see electric motor effect
loading 109 moving-coil microphone 92, 104, 107
of a voltage source 105 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 77
lobe (ear) 43 MP3 (sound format) 56
logarithmic scale 103 multiple reflection of sound 12, 16
music place theory (of auditory perception) 49

acousmatic see acousmatic music point source 5
concrete see musique concrète polarisation
consonance in history see consonance in electrical see magnetic pole
music history of electrostatic charge see electrostatic
musique concrète (concrete music) 78 polarisation
of magnetic fields see magnetic pole
near field (of distributed sound source) 5 pole (magnetic) see magnetic pole
near-field monitoring 25 positive pitch see absolute pitch
near-field recording 25 power
negative binary numbers 129 output (of a power amplifier) see
neural impulses (between ear and brain) 43 amplifier power output
no load voltage 105 related to voltage and impedance 117
noise power amplifier 115
effects on a digital signal 136, 139 power output see amplifier power output
white see white noise power supply see amplifier power supply
normal (angle) 9 power supply
normalisation for a power amplifier see amplifier power
of a transfer function 104 supply
notation (musical) pre-echo (on vinyl disks) 139
automatic 56 preamplifier 106, 109
notch filter 51 microphone 116
pressure wave 5
ohm (unit of resistance) 105 protocol 134
Ohm’s law 105 psychoacoustics 52 52, 58
omni-directional microphone 99, 108 psychophysics 52
organum 72 and consonance see consonance and
psychophysics
outer ear 43
pulse code modulation (PCM) 133 133, 139
output impedance 115
oval window (ear) 43, 44, 46, 48
overshoot (of a loudspeaker cone) see quantisation (quantised) 125
125, 139
loudspeaker cone overshoot band 126
effect on dynamic range see dynamic
Palestrina, G. P. da 73 range and quantisation
parallel transmission 134
134, 139 error (quantising error) 126
126, 139
interval 125
Parmegiani, Bernard 61
level 125
partial masking 55 noise 139
see also masking (of one sound by
another)
pascal 108 recording
PCM see pulse code modulation digital sound signals 137
perception far-field see far-field recording
of music/sound 42, 58 near-field see near-field recording
perfect (musical interval) 74 reduced listening 79, 82
perfect fourth 74 reflection (of sound) 8
perfect pitch see absolute pitch diffuse see diffuse reflection of sound
performance (of acousmatic music) 53 early see early reflection of sound
from a curved surface 12
phase difference 102
multiple see multiple reflection of sound
phonemes 68 paths of 11
phonophotography 59 specular see specular reflection of sound
piezo-electric transition between specular and
effect 99 diffuse 11
material 99 reflection (of current) see current reflection
loudspeaker 112 Reissner’s membrane 46
microphone 99, 106, 107
Renaissance period 39, 72
pinna (ear) 43, 58
resistance (electrical) 105
pitch see also Ohm’s law, ohm
absolute see absolute pitch
resistor (electrical component) 105 105, 118
categorical perception of see categorical
perception of pitch resolution (of a musical chord) 73
perfect/positive see absolute pitch resolution (of a digital sound signal) 132132,
separation of melodies by see separation 127
of melodies by pitch resonance
pitch illusions 66 electronically assisted 29
reverberation 15, 17 sound level

reverberation time 19 ambient see ambient sound level in an
calculation of 22 auditorium
effect of an audience on 20 sound pressure level (SPL) 108
measurement 20 soundscape 40
typical times for different types of source (electrical)
music 20 ideal see ideal source
ribbon microphone 99 99, 107 voltage see voltage source
right angle see normal (angle) source-cause (of sound) 41
Risset scale 68 associations 79
Risset, Claude 68 speaker see loudspeaker
roll-off 51, 102
102, 124 spectral analysis 61
rate see cut-off rate spectrogram 61
see also cut-off frequency spectrum
room radius 24 frequency see frequency spectrum
see also critical distance line see line spectrum
round window (ear) 43, 46 specular reflection (of sound) 9
Royal Albert Hall (London) 13, 28 transition to diffuse reflection see
Royal Festival Hall (London) 29 reflection of sound
speech recognition 56
SPL see sound pressure level
S/N ratio see signal-to-noise ratio stapedius muscle see ear muscles
Sabine stapes (ear bone) 43, 44
metric see metric Sabine stapes footplate (ear) 44
Sabine formula 22 stirrup (ear bone) see stapes
samples 122 Stravinsky, Igor 77
sampling 121 stream segregation see streaming
sampling clock jitter 125 streaming (stream segregation) 64
sampling rate 123
sampling rule see sampling theorem THD see total harmonic distortion
sampling theorem (sampling rule) 123 123, third (musical interval) 74
139 timbre
scala tympani 46 separation of melodies by see separation
scala vestibuli 46 of melodies by timbre
scale timpani (kettle drums) 77
Risset see Risset scale Tippett, Michael 139
scale model (in auditorium design) 27 tonal roughness 52
scattering (of sound) 10 tone (fused) see fused tone
see also diffuse reflection of sound total harmonic distortion (THD) 108, 120
Schaeffer, Pierre 78, 80 transducer 96 96, 109
Schoenberg, Arnold 74 transfer function 102
score normalisation see normalisation of a
diffusion see diffusion score transfer function
listening see listening score transmission
Seashore, Carl 59 asynchronous see asynchronous
sensor tympani see ear muscles transmission
separation of melodies 64 parallel see parallel transmission
by loudness 65 serial see serial transmission
by pitch 64 via universal serial bus see universal
by timbre 65 serial bus
serial transmission 134134, 139 triadic harmony 73
Shepard tone 64 triangle (percussion instrument) 77
Shepard, Roger 67 tritone paradox 67
signal processing 92 two’s complement (binary numbers) 130 130,
as computation 137, 139 139
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio) 108, 118 tympanic membrane see eardrum
slap echo 28
Smalley, Dennis 80 unconscious inference (of sounds) 63
sound understanding (when listening to
direct see direct sound music) 42
electronic capture of see electronic unidirectional microphone 99
capture of sound universal serial bus (USB) 134
sound image 9 USB see universal serial bus
Varèse, Edgar 77 watt (measure of electrical power) 117

vestibular nerve (ear) 46 weighted combinations (of numbers) 128
vibrato 60 weighting (of numbers) 128
Villa-Lobos, Heitor 81 wet acoustics 20
violin white noise 117
sounds produced by 54 Wishart, Trevor 82
voltage word (binary) 132
no load see no load voltage word length (binary) 132
voltage source 105
Acknowledgement
Cover images: © 1997 Photodisc, Inc., and Ingram Publishing

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The Open University

TA225 Block 1 Investigating sound

Figure 1 Concentric regions of high

ACTIVITY 1 (REVISION) ......................................................................

In practice, point sources of sound hardly exist. A small loudspeaker

If the point sound-source in Figure 1 were truly radiating in all

Figure 2 Radial lines showing the

When looking at a diagram such as this, it is as well to recollect that

Box 1The inverse square law and amplitude change

(b) square 1 square 2

Figure 3 Sound from a point source passes through

Hence, because the square root of 1/4 is 1/2,

ACTIVITY 2 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

ACTIVITY 3 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

2 REFLECTION AND DIFFRACTION

reflection takes the form shown in Figure 4, where the arrowed

incoming sound reflected sound

Figure 4 Specular reflection from a plane surface

The angle of the incoming sound direction (the angle of incidence) is

Figure 5 Specular reflection at a curved (non-planar) surface

A feature of specular reflection is that it can lead to the creation of a

A’s direction of travel

2.2 Diffuse reflection

Figure 7 Scattering (diffuse reflection)

ACTIVITY 4 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

No surface reflects sound perfectly; all surfaces absorb some of the

Figure 8 Anechoic chamber with test rig

ACTIVITY 5 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

2.3 Paths of reflection

Figure 9 Sound can reach a listener directly and by reflection at R

ACTIVITY 6 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

Figure 10 For Activity 6

Figure 11 Multiple reflections

Figure 12 The Royal Albert Hall, London

The ability of curved surfaces

ACTIVITY 7 (EXPLORATORY) ................................................................

If the object is small in relation to the wavelength, typically of the

Now a listener travelling along AB may hardly notice a diminution of

ACTIVITY 8 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

ACTIVITY 9 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

Figure 17 Arrangement of source,

The answer to Activity 9, incidentally, suggests that we nearly always

ACTIVITY 10 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

3.2 Multiple reflections

Figure 18 Three reflections

Figure 19 Four reflections

Figure 20 Five reflections

Clearly, then, each pair of facing walls can support a potentially

Figure 21 ‘Snooker-ball’ reflection

If we could take into account all possible routes for reflected

ACTIVITY 11 (LISTENING) .....................................................................

The onset of reverberation is always after the arrival of the first of

In a room with very sound-absorbent properties, for instance a lot of

ACTIVITY 12 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

Reverberant sound has some curious properties. As it consists of

steady state Rss

ACTIVITY 13 (SELF-ASSESSMENT) ...........................................................

The reverberation time is of interest because it tells us something

reverberation to die away; it is also an indication of how much

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