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H.2 Nonlinear Modeling of Band-Pass Power Amplifiers A43

In-phase yI(t)
nonlinearity

Input signal – Output signal

x(t) Σ y(t)
+

90° Quadrature
phase-shifting nonlinearity yQ(t)
filter

Figure H.5 Quadrature nonlinear model of a band-pass power amplifier driven by a

hybrid-modulated signal.

For the in-phase component of the power amplifier output we have

y 1  t  = g  a  t   cos    t   (H.6)

and for its quadrature component we have

y Q  t  = g  a  t   sin   t   (H.7)

Based on this second characterization of the power amplifier given in (H.7), we may
construct the quadrature nonlinear model of the amplifier, depicted in Figure H.5. With
the availability of such a model, the road is paved for Monte Carlo simulations to study the
nonlinear behavior of solid-state power amplifiers that are of the band-pass variety.2

Notes
1. A model described in (Saleh, 1981) is well-suited for studying the in-phase and quadrature
components of the output produced by a nonlinear power amplifier.
2. For detailed discussion of band-pass nonlinearity in power amplifiers, the reader is referred to the
book (Tranter et al. 2004).
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APPENDIX
I Monte Carlo Integration
In a generic sense, Monte Carlo simulation1 is an invaluable experimental tool for tackling
difficult problems that are mathematically intractable; but the tool is imprecise in that it
provides statistical estimates. Nevertheless, provided that the Monte Carlo simulation is
conducted properly, valuable insight into a problem of interest is obtained, which would
be difficult otherwise.
In this appendix, we focus on Monte Carlo integration, which is a special form of
Monte Carlo simulation. Specifically, we address the difficult integration problem
encountered in Chapter 5 dealing with computation of the differential entropy h(Y), based
on the conditional probability density function of (5.102) in Chapter 5.
To elaborate, we may say:
Monte Carlo integration is a computational tool, which is used to integrate a
given function defined over a prescribed area of interest that is not easy to
sample in a random and uniform manner.
Let W denote the difficult area over which random sampling of the differential entropy
h(Y) is to be performed. To get around this difficulty, let V denote an area so configured
that it incudes the area W and is easy to randomly sample. Desirably, the selected area V
enclosed W as closely as possible for the simple reason that samples picked outside of W
are of no practical interest.
Suppose now we pick a total of N samples in the area V, randomly and uniformly. Then
according to Press, et al. (1998), the basic Monte Carlo integration theorem states that a
computed “estimate” of the integral defining the differential entropy h(Y) is given by
1
---
2
h  Y   V  <h   V   ----  <h  – <h> 
1 2 2
(I.1)
N 
where the average value (i.e., mean)
N
 h  yi 
1
<h  = ---- (I.2)
N
i=1

and the mean-square value

N
h
1 2
2
<h  = ----  yi  (I.3)
N
i=1

The yi in (I.2) and (I.3) is the ith sample of the random variable Y picked from the area V.
The “plus or minus” sign in the approximate formula of (I.1) should not be viewed as a
rigorous bound. Rather, it represents a “one standard-deviation error” that results from the
use of Monte Carlo integration.

A45
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A46 Appendix I Monte Carlo Integration

Clearly, the larger we make the number of samples N, the smaller this error will be,
resulting in a more accurate integration. However, this improvement is attained at the cost
of increased computational complexity.

Notes
1. Monte Carlo simulation derives its name from the city, Monte Carlo, Monaco, which is widely
known for its casino gambling: a “game of chance.”
The term “Monte Carlo” was introduced into the technical literature by von Neumann and Ulam
during World War II. Its adoption was intended as a codeword for the secret work that was going on
the time in Los Alamos, New Mexico, USA.
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APPENDIX
J Maximal-Length Sequences
Basically, maximal-length sequences, also referred to in the literature as m-sequences, are
linear cyclic codes, the generation of which is realized by using a linear feedback-shift
register (LFSR) as discussed in Chapter 10 on error-control coding; Figure J.1 is an
illustrative example of LFSR. However, from a practical perspective insofar as this book is
concerned, it is the pseudo-noise (PN) characteristic that befits their use in producing
spread-spectrum signals, an issue that was discussed in Section 9.13 of Chapter 9. In short,
a maximal-length sequence viewed as a “carrier” may be used to spread the spectrum of an
incoming message sequence in the transmitter and despread the received signal so as to
recover the original message signal at the receiver output.
It is therefore apropos that we begin the discussion of maximal-length sequences in this
appendix by discussion their basic properties, illustrated by the LFSR as the sequence
generator.

J.1 Properties of Maximal-Length Sequences

Maximal-length sequences1 have many of the properties possessed by a truly random

binary sequence. A random binary sequence is a sequence in which the presence of binary
symbol 1 or 0 is equally probable. Maximal-length sequences have the following
properties.

PROPERTY 1 Balance Property

In each period of a maximal-length sequence, the number of 1s is always one more than
the number of 0s.

PROPERTY 2 Run Property

Among the runs of 1s and of 0s in each period of a maximal-length sequence, one-half the
runs of each kind are of length one, one-fourth are of length two, one-eighth are of length
three, and so on as long as these fractions represent meaningful numbers of runs.

Modulo-2
adder

Flip-flop
Output
1 2 3
s0 s1 s2 s3 sequence

Clock

Figure J.1 Maximal-length sequence generator for m = 3, where

m is the number of flip-flops in the generator.

A47
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A48 Appendix J Maximal-Length Sequences

By a “run” we mean a subsequence of identical symbols (1s and 0s) within one period of
the sequence. The length of this subsequence is the length of the run. For a maximal-
length sequence generated by a linear feedback shift register (LFSR) of length m, the total
number of runs is (N + 1)2, where N = 2m – 1.

PROPERTY 3 Correlation Property

The autocorrelation function of a maximal-length sequence is periodic and binary valued.
As mentioned previously, the period of a maximum-length sequence is defined by
m
N = 2 –1 (J.1)
where m is the length of the LFSR. Let binary symbols 0 and 1 of the sequence be denoted
by the levels –1 and +1, respectively. Let c(t) denote the resulting waveform of the
maximal-length sequence, as illustrated in Figure J.2a for N = 7. Henceforth, the period of
the waveform c(t) is
T b = NT c (J.2)

where Tc is the duration assigned to binary symbol 1 or 0 in the maximal-length sequence.

Let c(t) denote the maximal-length sequence, the autocorrelation function of which is
defined by
T 2
1 b
R c    = ----- 
T b –T b  2
c  t c  t –   dt (J.3)

where the lag  lies in the interval (–Tb 2,Tb 2). Applying this formula to c(t), we get
N+1
 1 – -------------     Tc
 NT c
R c   =  (J.4)
 – ---
1
 N- , for the remainder of the period

This result is plotted in Figure J.2b for the case of m = 3 or N = 7.

From Fourier transform theory, covered in Chapter 2, we know that periodicity in the
time domain is transformed into uniform sampling in the frequency domain. This interplay
between the time and frequency domains is borne out by the power spectral density of the
maximal-length wave c(t). Specifically, taking the Fourier transform of (J.4), we get the
sampled spectrum

sinc  ----   f – ----------
1 1+N 2 n n
S c  f  = ------   f  + -------------
N
2
N
2   N  NT 
c
(J.5)

n = –
n0

which is plotted in Figure J.2c for m = 3 or N = 7. As N approaches infinity, Sc(f)

approaches a continuous function of frequency f.