metals
Article
Effect of Nickel Contents on Fatigue Crack Growth Rate and
Fracture Toughness for Nickel Alloy Steels
Jeong Yeol Park 1 , Byoung Koo Kim 1 , Dae Geun Nam 1 and Myung Hyun Kim 2, *






Citation: Park, J.Y.; Kim, B.K.; Nam,
D.G.; Kim, M.H. Effect of Nickel
Contents on Fatigue Crack Growth
Rate and Fracture Toughness for
Nickel Alloy Steels. Metals 2022, 12,
173. https://doi.org/10.3390/
met12020173
Academic Editor: Matteo Benedetti
Received: 21 December 2021
Accepted: 13 January 2022
Published: 18 January 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Metals 2022, 12, 173. https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020173
1 Energy Component & Material R&BD Group, Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Busan 46938, Korea;
jypaark@kitech.re.kr (J.Y.P.); bungkim@kitech.re.kr (B.K.K.); dgnam@kitech.re.kr (D.G.N.)
2 Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Korea
* Correspondence: kimm@pusan.ac.kr
Abstract: In terms of steel alloying elements, generally, nickel is used as an austenite stabilizing
element to increase the toughness of steel. The low temperature materials, such as nickel alloy steels
with a nickel content of 3.5% to 9%, stainless steel and Invar, show excellent toughness at low (173 K)
and cryogenic (108 K) temperatures. In particular, in the shipbuilding industry, it is mainly used
for liquefied ethane and Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carriers, and research on low-temperature
steels are attracting attention again as regulations on environmental issues are strengthened in recent
years. Therefore, in this study, fatigue and fracture performances of nickel alloy steel containing 9%
or less among nickel alloy steels are evaluated. Moreover, we assess the Fatigue Ductile to Brittle
Transition (FDBT) of nickel alloy steels based on crack tip opening displacement (CTOD). In order to
discuss the fatigue and fracture performances of nickel alloy steels, microstructure analysis carried
out. As a result, CTOD and Fatigue Crack Growth Rate (FCGR) of nickel alloy steels increases as
nickel contents increase. In addition, FDBT of 9% nickel alloy steel is the lowest compared to other
nickel alloy steels.
Keywords: nickel alloy steel; crack tip opening displacement (CTOD); fatigue crack growth rate
(FCGR); Fatigue Ductile to Brittle Transition (FDBT)
1. Introduction
Nickel is one of the most utilized and important major industrial metals. In terms of
steel alloying elements, nickel is used as an austenite stabilizing element to increase the
toughness of steel [1,2]. The low temperature materials, such as nickel alloy steels with a
nickel content of 3.5% to 9%, stainless steel and Invar, show excellent toughness at low (173
K) and cryogenic (108 K) temperatures.
As shown in Table 1, nickel alloy steels (from 3.5% to 9%) can be employed at various
temperatures depending on nickel content [3]. That is, in the shipbuilding industry, it is
mainly used for liquefied ethane and liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers. In addition, as
regulations on environmental issues have been strengthened in recent years, LNG demand
and the use of nickel steel have increased [4]. Accordingly, the studies for fatigue and
fracture performances of nickel alloy steel are steadily progressing [2,5–7].
Table 1. Various temperature application of nickel alloy steel (Data from: [3]).
Minimum Design
Chemical Composition Application
Temperature (K)
213 1.5% nickel alloy steel
Propane Gas
208 2.25% nickel alloy steel
183 3.5% nickel alloy steel
Ethane Gas
168 5% nickel alloy steel
108 9% nickel alloy steel Natural Gas
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/metals
 213 1.5% nickel alloy steel
Propane Gas
208 2.25% nickel alloy steel
183 3.5% nickel alloy steel
Ethane Gas
168 5% nickel alloy steel
Metals 2022, 12, 173 108 9% nickel alloy steel Natural Gas 2 of 15

1.1. Prior Work of Fatigue and Fracture Performances for Nickel Alloy Steels
1.1.Kim
PrioretWork
al. of Fatigue and the
investigated Fracture Performances
fatigue for Nickel
performances (S-NAlloy Steels
curves and FCGR) of 7%
nickel Kim
alloyetsteels [5]. This research
al. investigated the fatiguebegan with a comprehensive
performances (S-N curves and review
FCGR) of the fatigue
of 7% nickel
alloy steels [5].
performances of This
7% and research beganalloy
9% nickel withsteels
a comprehensive
that are widelyreviewused of for
the LNG
fatigue perfor-
storage
mances
tanks. Asof 7% andthe
a result, 9%fatigue
nickel alloy steels thatofare
performances 7%widely
nickelused
alloyfor LNG
steels arestorage
similartanks. As a
to those
ofresult, the fatigue
9% nickel performances
alloy steel. of 7% nickel
Yoo et al. assessed alloyand
fatigue steels are similar
fracture to thoseofof9%
performance 9%nickel
nickel
alloysteel
alloy steel. Yoo
[6]. In et al. of
case assessed
fatiguefatigue and fracture
crack growth performance
rate (FCGR), of 9%Cnickel
the value alloyas
increased steel
tem-[6].
In case of fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR), the value C increased as
perature decreased. Therefore, it was observed that fatigue crack initiation retarded as temperature decreased.
Therefore, it decreased.
temperature was observed that fatigue
Furuya et al. crack initiation
evaluated the retarded
fractureastoughness
temperature of decreased.
thermo-
Furuya et al.
mechanical evaluated
controlled the fracture
process (TMCP) toughness
treated 6% of thermo-mechanical
nickel alloy steel [7]. controlled process
It was demon-
(TMCP)
strated thattreated 6% nickel
the critical crackalloy steel [7].
tip opening It was demonstrated
displacement (CTOD) ofthatTMCP the 6%
critical crack
nickel tip
alloy
opening
steel displacement
was almost equivalent(CTOD)
to thatofofTMCP 6% nickel
9% nickel alloy alloy
steel. steel
Khodirwas et almost equivalent
al. investigated theto
that of 9% nickel
microstructures alloy
and steel. Khodir
mechanical et al. investigated
properties of weld metalsthe microstructures
of high strengthand mechanical
steels having
properties of weld metals of high strength steels having 3% to 9%
3% to 9% nickel contents [2]. As shown in Figure 1, the results showed that the fraction nickel contents [2]. As
shown in Figure 1, the results showed that the fraction of retained
of retained austenite and prior austenite grain size increase as nickel contents increase. austenite and prior
austenite grain size increase as nickel contents increase.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.The
Theeffects
effectsofofnickel
nickelcontents:
contents:(a)
(a)Amount
Amountofofretained
retainedaustenite;
austenite;(b)
(b)Prior
Prioraustenite
austenitegrain
grain
size. Reprinted with permission from ref. [2]. Copyright 2021 Elsevier.
size. Reprinted with permission from ref. [2]. Copyright 2021 Elsevier.

Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,thetheexisting
existingliteratures
literatureshave
havenotnotbeen
beenstudied
studiedononthe
theductile
ductiletotobrittle
brittle
transitiontemperature
transition temperature(DBTT)
(DBTT)in in terms
terms of
of fatigue and fracture.
fracture. Therefore,
Therefore,ititisisnecessary
necessaryto
toevaluate
evaluateresearch
researchabout
aboutDBTT
DBTT ofofnickel alloy
nickel steels,
alloy which
steels, is high
which toughness
is high toughness at cryogenic
at cryo-
temperature,
genic in terms
temperature, of fatigue
in terms and fracture.
of fatigue and fracture.

1.2.Fatigue
1.2. FatigueDuctile
DuctiletotoBrittle
BrittleTransition
Transition(FDBT)
(FDBT)Temperature
Temperature
Parisetetal.al.argued
Paris arguedthat
thatthe
thelog-log
log-logcurve da/dN—∆Kshowed
curveofofda/dN—ΔK showedthethecharacteristics
characteristicsofof
fatigue crack growth in metals. They found that log-log line in linear regioncan
fatigue crack growth in metals. They found that log-log line in linear region canappear
appearin
inthe
theform
formofofa apower
powerfunction,
function,and
andcan
canbebeexpressed
expressedasasfollows
follows[8]:
[8]:
da
= C∆K m (1)
dN

where, dN da
is fatigue crack growth rate, ∆K is stress intensity factor, C and m are materials
constants from the experiment.
Below the certain temperature, the slope of da/dN—∆K curve is steep. That is, the
acceleration of fatigue crack growth may be faster as of the certain temperature (ductile to
brittle). A ductile to brittle transition of fatigue has been called the Fatigue Ductile–Brittle
Transition (FDBT) [9]. To assess the FDBT temperature, Tobler et al. have plotted the K Ic
fracture toughness and the Paris law exponent (m) [10]. As shown in Figure 2, it shows that
the slope of the da/dN—∆K curve increases while the K Ic value decrease as of the FDBT
temperature.
 Below the certain temperature, the slope of da/dN—ΔK curve is steep. That is, the
acceleration of fatigue crack growth may be faster as of the certain temperature (ductile
to brittle). A ductile to brittle transition of fatigue has been called the Fatigue Ductile–
Brittle Transition (FDBT) [9]. To assess the FDBT temperature, Tobler et al. have plotted
Metals 2022, 12, 173
the 𝐾 fracture toughness and the Paris law exponent (m) [10]. As shown in Figure3 of2,15it
shows that the slope of the da/dN—ΔK curve increases while the 𝐾 value decrease as of
the FDBT temperature.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Relationship
Relationshipofofm–𝐾
m–K Icwith
withlow temperature
low forfor
temperature 9%9%
nickel alloy
nickel steelsteel
alloy Reprinted with with
Reprinted
permissionfrom
permission fromref.
ref.[9].
[9].Copyright
Copyright2021
2021Elsevier.
Elsevier.

1.3.
1.3. Fracture
Fracture Toughness
Toughness(K (𝐾Ic and
and CTOD)
CTOD)
Irwin
Irwin and Williams defined the
and Williams defined the polar
polar coordinate
coordinate systemsystem with
with the
the origin
origin at at the
the crack
crack
tip
tip for a through-thickness crack (Mode-I) in an infinite plate subjected to remote tensile
for a through-thickness crack (Mode-I) in an infinite plate subjected to remote tensile
stress
stressσ, σ,and
andexpressed
expressedthe thestress
stressfield
fieldasasfollows
follows.[11,12]:
[11,12]:
𝐾
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝜎 = K I 𝑓 𝜃 (2)
lim→σij = √ √2𝜋𝑟 f ij (θ ) (2)
r →0 2πrcoordinate. In addition, 𝑓 𝜃 is angular
where, 𝜎 is stress tensor, r and 𝜃 are the polar
stress function
where, σij is stress 𝐾 is 𝐾r =
andtensor, 𝜎√θ𝜋𝑎
and arethat
theexplains the intensity
polar coordinate. of stress singularity
In addition, at the
f ij (θ ) is angular
crack tip in Mode I. Irwin et al. √
expressed the plastic zone size of the crack tip in Mode-I
stress function and K I is K I = σ πa that explains the intensity of stress singularity at the
undertip
crack theinplane
Modestress condition
I. Irwin as follows.
et al. expressed the[13,14].
plastic zone size of the crack tip in Mode-I
under the plane stress condition as follows [13,14]. 1 𝐾
𝑟 = (3)
 𝜎 2
2𝜋
where, 𝜎 is the 0.2% offset yield stress. ry =
1 K I (3) estimates accurate results only for
Equation (3)
fully elastic materials. If two differently configured 2π σys and loaded cracks in an elastic mate-
rial have the same 𝐾 , then the stress field in Equation (2) and the plastic zone size in
where,
Equation σys is
(3)thegive
0.2%the offset yield
same stress. [15].
results Equation (3) estimates
Therefore, accurate
the stress results factor
intensity only for 𝐾 fully
is a
elastic materials. If two differently configured and loaded cracks in an elastic material have
unique measure value of the stress and strain at the elastic crack tip, and failure can be
the same K I , then the stress field in Equation (2) and the plastic zone size in Equation (3)
expected when 𝐾 reaches the critical value. In the elastic fracture criterion, 𝐾 is a mate-
give the same results [15]. Therefore, the stress intensity factor K I is a unique measure
value of the stress and strain at the elastic crack tip, and failure can be expected when K I
reaches the critical value. In the elastic fracture criterion, K Ic is a material parameter known
as fracture toughness that describes a material’s resistance to failure.
As mentioned above, K Ic are only valid if nonlinear material deformation is limited
to a small scale near the crack tip. Therefore, Wells proposed another important fracture
mechanics parameter, as called the CTOD in order to extend the elastic stress intensity
factor approach to elastic-plastic yield conditions [16]. Using Irwin’s estimate of the plastic
region size and the elastic displacement solution in the presence of a central crack in an
infinite plate, the CTOD was approximated as:

4 K2I
δ= (4)
π Eσys
Metals 2022, 12, 173 4 of 15

The failure criteria based on CTOD assume that failure occurs when the measured
CTOD is met or exceeds the critical δc . In addition, the displacement criterion in Equation (4)
is the same as the K criterion under the condition of linear elastic crack. Using the plane
stress strip yield model proposed by Dugdale for fully plastic materials, Goodier et al. and
Stone found a more accurate representation of the CTOD for a central cracked infinite plate
under tensile conditions [17–19].

8σys a
 
π σ
δ= lnsec (5)
πE 2 σys

When the applied stress is less than the yield stress, Equation (5) is expressed as fol-
lows:
K2I
δ= (6)
Eσys
Equation (6) is the same as Equation (4) in which the factor 4/π is omitted. The
discovery of Equation (5) has led to a wide range of applications using CTOD in elastic-
plastic fracture mechanics analysis since the 1960s.

1.4. Scope and Aim of This Paper

Nickel is widely used as an austenite stabilizing element in terms of alloying elements,
and nickel steel is well known for its excellent toughness in a cryogenic environment. In
addition, as the demand for LNG increases, interest in fatigue and fracture performances of
nickel alloy steel at low and cryogenic temperatures is increasing. The aim of this study is to
assess fatigue and fracture performances of nickel alloy steels with different nickel contents
both at room (298 K) and cryogenic temperatures. In order to discuss the fatigue and
fracture performances of nickel alloy steels, microstructure analysis carried out. Moreover,
we assess the Fatigue Ductile to Brittle Transition (FDBT) of nickel alloy steels.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
Before the summary of results for fatigue and fracture performances, the chemical
composition of nickel alloy steels is presented in Table 2. In this study, the materials used
in the critical CTOD and FCGR tests were 3.5Ni and 9Ni.

Table 2. Chemical composition of nickel alloy steels (wt. %) (Data from: [20–22]).

Material Naming C Mn Si P S Ni Cr Mo
3.5% Ni 3.5Ni 0.06 0.54 0.17 0.005 - 3.58 - -
5% Ni 5Ni 0.08 0.06 0.25 0.010 0.009 5.03 - 0.30
7% Ni 7Ni 0.04 0.78 0.06 0.002 0.004 7.13 0.46 0.09
9% Ni 9Ni 0.10 0.3–0.9 0.35 0.035 0.020 8.5–10 0.25 0.10

The mechanical properties of nickel alloy steels are summarized in Table 3. The
mechanical properties of 3.5Ni were obtained by this study and those of other nickel alloy
steels were extracted from the literature [20–22]. The variation of yield and tensile strengths
with respect to various nickel contents is shown in Figure 3. As the nickel content increases,
it shows a tendency to increase yield and tensile strengths.

Table 3. Mechanical properties of nickel alloy steels (Data from: [20–22]).

Material σYS (MPa) σTS (MPa)

3.5Ni 487.3 616.8
5Ni 507.0 678.0
7Ni 612.0 701.0
9Ni 670.7 724.9
 Table 3. Mechanical properties of nickel alloy steels (Data from: [20–22]).
Material 𝛔𝐘𝐒 (MPa) 𝛔𝐓𝐒 (MPa)
Material
3.5Ni 𝐘𝐒 (MPa)
𝛔487.3 𝐓𝐒 (MPa)
𝛔616.8
5Ni
3.5Ni 507.0
487.3 678.0
616.8
7Ni
5Ni 612.0
507.0 701.0
678.0
Metals 2022, 12, 173 9Ni 670.7 724.9 5 of 15
7Ni 612.0 701.0
9Ni 670.7 724.9

Figure 3. Variation of mechanical properties of nickel alloy steels.

Figure3.3.Variation
Figure Variationofofmechanical
mechanicalproperties
propertiesofofnickel
nickelalloy
alloysteels.
steels.
2.2. Test Condition
2.2. Test
2.2.The Condition
Testcritical
Condition
CTOD tests are performed according to BS 7448. The geometry of com-
The
pact tension critical
(CT)CTOD tests are
specimen performed according to BS 7448.specimens
The geometry
may of compact
The critical CTOD testsis are
given in Figure
performed 4. Alternative
according to BS 7448. The geometry have 2≤
of com-
tension
W/B (CT) specimen is given in Figure 4. Alternative specimens may have 2 ≤ W/B ≤4
pact≤ tension
4 but with(CT)no change is
specimen in given
other in
proportions [23]. The width,
Figure 4. Alternative W, is may
specimens 30 mm,
havethe2≤
but with
thickness, no
B, change
is 15 mm.in other proportions [23]. The width, W, is 30 mm, the thickness, B, is
W/B ≤ 4 but with no change in other proportions [23]. The width, W, is 30 mm, the
15 mm.
thickness, B, is 15 mm.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Specimen design of the critical CTOD test: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 9Ni (Unit: mm).
Figure 4. Specimen design of the critical CTOD test: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 9Ni (Unit: mm).
Figure 4. Specimen design of the critical CTOD test: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 9Ni (Unit: mm).
The geometry of the standard CT specimen is given in Figure 5. In case of CT spec-
imens, it is recommended that the thickness be within the range W/20 ≤ B ≤ W/4 due
to limitations such as specimen buckling and through-thickness crack-curvature consider-
ations [24]. Before conducting the FCGR tests, fatigue pre-crack of 3mm was inserted in
all specimens. Then FCGR tests were performed by applied condition, such as at room
and cryogenic temperatures at stress ratio of 0.1 with sinusoidal frequency of 10 Hz. The
test equipment used for the critical CTOD and FCGR tests was a servo hydraulic testing
machine (Instron 8803, INSTRON, High Wycombe, UK) with the maximum load capacity of
±500 kN. In addition, the cryogenic temperature was controlled by the cryogenic chamber
(ILWON FREEZER, Namyangju-si, Korea). Test temperatures were maintained by liquid
nitrogen gas inlet-outlet control system (ILWON FREEZER, Namyangju-si, Korea).
 machine
test (Instron
equipment used8803,
for INSTRON, High Wycombe,
the critical CTOD and FCGRUK) testswith
wasthe maximum
a servo loadtesting
hydraulic capaci-
ty of ±500 kN. In addition, the cryogenic temperature was controlled
machine (Instron 8803, INSTRON, High Wycombe, UK) with the maximum load capaci- by the cryogenic
tychamber
of ±500 (ILWON FREEZER,
kN. In addition, theNamyangju-si, Korea). Test
cryogenic temperature wastemperatures were
controlled by the maintained
cryogenic
by liquid nitrogen gas inlet-outlet control system (ILWON FREEZER,
chamber (ILWON FREEZER, Namyangju-si, Korea). Test temperatures were maintained Namyangju-si,
byKorea).
liquid nitrogen gas inlet-outlet control system (ILWON FREEZER, Namyangju-si,
Metals 2022, 12, 173 6 of 15
Korea).

(a) (b)
(a)
Figure 5. Specimen design of FCGR test: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 9Ni (Unit: mm). (b)
Figure 5. Specimen design of FCGR test: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 9Ni (Unit: mm).
Figure 5. Specimen design of FCGR test: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 9Ni (Unit: mm).
3. Results
3.3. Results
Results
3.1. Fracture Performance (CTOD)
3.1. Fracture
3.1. Fracture Performance
Performance
The critical (CTOD)
CTOD(CTOD)
values of 3.5Ni and 9Ni are compared with other nickel alloy
steelsThe critical
both at CTOD
room values
and
The critical CTOD values ofof3.5Ni
cryogenic and 9Ni9Ni
temperatures
3.5Ni and arearecompared
[20–22].
compared with
In other
case
with nickelnickel
ofother
3.5Ni, alloy steels
the critical
alloy
both
steels at
CTODboth room
test at and
performcryogenic
room and temperatures
at cryogenic
cryogenic [20–22].
temperature
temperatures In
in order case of 3.5Ni,
to compare
[20–22]. In case of the critical
critical
3.5Ni,CTODCTOD test
values
the critical
perform
of other
CTOD at cryogenic
testnickel
perform temperature
alloyatsteels. As shown
cryogenic in order to compare
Figure in
temperature 6, order critical
the critical CTOD values
CTOD critical CTOD
to compare of other
nickel nickel
alloy
values
alloy
steels steels.
increaseAs shown
as nickel Figure
contents6, the critical
increase. CTOD
It is well values
known of nickel
that alloy
nickel
of other nickel alloy steels. As shown Figure 6, the critical CTOD values of nickel alloy steels
contributeincrease
to as
stabi-
nickel
lizationcontents
for increase.
austenite, It
and is well
the known
critical that
CTOD nickel
value contribute
increase as to stabilization
amount
steels increase as nickel contents increase. It is well known that nickel contribute to stabi- of for
retainedaustenite,
austen-
and thefor
lization critical
ite increase CTODand
[1,2,25,26].
austenite, value
the increase
Therefore,
criticalthe ascritical
CTODamount ofincrease
CTOD
value retained asaustenite
value is increase
influenced
amount of [1,2,25,26].
by nickel
retained con-
austen-
Therefore,
tents.
ite the critical CTOD value is influenced by nickel contents.
increase [1,2,25,26]. Therefore, the critical CTOD value is influenced by nickel con-
tents.

Figure 6. Comparison of the critical CTOD values for nickel alloy steels with different nickel contents
(Black color: 3.5Ni, Red color: 5Ni, Purple color: 7Ni and Blue color: 9Ni).

3.2. Fatigue Performance (FCGR)

FCGR of various nickel alloy steels in Paris region are illustrated in Figure 7 [27].
All FCGR√ data are summarized in terms of stress intensity factor range between 20 and
50 MPa m. As shown in Figure 7a, the fatigue crack growth rate of nickel alloy steels
decreases as nickel contents increase. In terms of FCGR, the start point, which is the linear
crack growth according to ∆K of 9Ni, is lower than that of 3.5Ni at room temperature.
Therefore, FCGR of nickel alloy steels increase while nickel content increase as shown
in Figure 7a. At low and cryogenic temperatures, FCGR of 7Ni is the lowest compared
to other nickel alloy steels as presented in Figure 7b,c. In addition, Figure 7c shows that
FCGR of 3.5Ni appeared abnormally fast compared to other nickel alloy steels. This result
is indicated that the fatigue crack growth characteristic of 3.5Ni become brittleness at
cryogenic temperature. In Section 4, these results are analyzed in terms of microstructural
and FDBT temperature.
 Figure 7a. At low and cryogenic temperatures, FCGR of 7Ni is the lowest compared to
other nickel alloy steels as presented in Figure 7b,c. In addition, Figure 7c shows that
FCGR of 3.5Ni appeared abnormally fast compared to other nickel alloy steels. This re-
sult is indicated that the fatigue crack growth characteristic of 3.5Ni become brittleness
Metals 2022, 12, 173 at cryogenic temperature. In Section 4, these results are analyzed in terms of microstruc-
7 of 15
tural and FDBT temperature.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure
Figure7. 7.
Comparison of da/dN—ΔK
Comparison curves
of da/dN—∆K of various
curves nickel
of various alloyalloy
nickel steels: (a) 298
steels: (a)K; (b)K;173
298 (b)K;173
(c) K;
108 K.
(c) 108 K.

InIn casesofofthe
cases thelow
lownickel
nickelcontent
content inin the
the nickel alloy
alloy steel,
steel,the
thefactor
factorm,m,the
theslope
slopeofof
the
FCGR, increases further with decreasing temperature in comparison
the FCGR, increases further with decreasing temperature in comparison with the high with the high nickel
content
nickel of theofnickel
content alloyalloy
the nickel steel.steel.
At theAtsame temperature,
the same temperature,the factor m increases
the factor as nickel
m increases as
contents
nickel decrease.
contents These
decrease. tendencies
These are illustrated
tendencies in Figure
are illustrated 8a. As
in Figure 8a.shown
As shownin Figure
in Fig-8b,
material
ure constants
8b, material from FCGR
constants from are
FCGR observed to locatetowithin
are observed locateawithin
single line except
a single some
line data.
except
Withdata.
some regard to the
With heat treatment
regard to the heat process in nickel
treatment alloyinsteels,
process nickel3.5Ni,
alloy5Ni and 3.5Ni,
steels, 9Ni preform
5Ni
quenching and tempering (Q-T). According to Figure 8b, the Q-T treated steels have linear
relationship between Log C and m irrespective of temperature. Therefore, it is possible
that the relationship between Log C and m can predict FCGR of Q-T treated nickel alloy
steels. The simple mathematical model of material constants and nickel contents (N) are
as follows:
Log C = −7.02 − 1.50 m (7)
m = 4.48 − 0.53N + 0.03N 2 at 298 K (8)
2
m = 4.00 − 0.25N + 0.01N at 173 K (9)
m = 6.31 − 0.84N + 0.04N 2 at 108 K (10)
 𝐿𝑜𝑔
𝐿𝑜𝑔 𝐶 𝐶= =−7.02
−7.02−− 1.50
1.50 𝑚𝑚 (7)(7)

𝑚𝑚= =4.48
4.48
−− 0.53𝑁 0.03𝑁
0.53𝑁 0.03𝑁 atat 298
298 KK (8)(8)

Metals 2022, 12, 173 𝑚𝑚= =4.00

4.00
−− 0.25𝑁 0.01𝑁
0.25𝑁 0.01𝑁 atat 173
173 KK (9)
8 (9)
of 15

𝑚𝑚= =6.31
6.31
−− 0.84𝑁 0.04𝑁
0.84𝑁 0.04𝑁 atat 108
108 KK (10)
(10)

(a)(a) (b)(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure8.8.8. Relationship
Relationship
Relationship of
ofof material
material
material constants
constants in
inin
constants Paris
Paris
Paris equation
equation
equation from
from
from FCGR:
FCGR:
FCGR: (a)
(a)
(a) 3.5Ni;
3.5Ni;
3.5Ni; (b)
(b)
(b) 9Ni.
9Ni.
9Ni.

Figure9 99presents
Figure
Figure presentsda/dN—ΔK
presents da/dN—ΔKcurves
da/dN—∆K curvesofof
curves ofnickel
nickelalloy
nickel alloysteel
alloy steelagainst
steel againstthe
against thedesign
the designcurve
design curve
curve
suggestedby
suggested
suggested byBS
by BS7910
BS 7910[28].
7910 [28].Material
[28]. Materialconstants
Material constantsfor
constants fornickel
for nickelalloy
nickel alloysteel
alloy steelare
steel aresummarized
are summarizedinin
summarized in
Table
Table 4.
4. With
With the
the fixed
fixed slope
slope of
of 3.0,
3.0, material
material constant,
constant, C,
C, of
of 9Ni
9Ni
Table 4. With the fixed slope of 3.0, material constant, C, of 9Ni is the highest comparedis
is the
the highest
highest compared
compared
toto
to other
other
other nickelalloy
nickel alloy steels.
steels.
steels. However,
However,
However, CC Cvalue
value
value ofofof9Ni
9Ni 9Ni
has has
has about
about
about 58% 58%
58% lower
lower
lower than
than
than that
that that
inin in
BSBS
BS 7910
7910[28].
7910 [28].
[28].This This
Thisimplies implies
impliesthat that
thatthe the C
theC Cvalue value in BS
valueininBSBS7910 7910 is
7910is isvery very conservative
veryconservative
conservativetotoreflectto reflect
reflectthe the
thema-
ma-
material
terial
terial constant
constant
constant associated
associated
associated FCGR
FCGR FCGR
ofof of nickel
nickel
nickel alloy
alloy
alloy steels
steels
steels inin in efficient
efficient
efficient manner.
manner.
manner.

Figure
Figure 9.9.9.
Figure Comparison
Comparison ofof
Comparison of FCGR
FCGR
FCGR for
forfornickel
nickel
nickel alloy
alloy
alloy steels
steels
steels against
against
against BS7910
BS7910
BS7910 with
with
with the
the
the fixed
fixed
fixed slopeofof
slope
slope of3.0.
3.0.
3.0.

Table 4. Comparison of material constants for various nickel alloy steels.

Material C (m/cycle) m
3.5Ni 4.01 × 10−12
5Ni 5.39 × 10−12
7Ni 5.51 × 10−12 3
9Ni 9.70 × 10−12
BS 7910 1.65 × 10−11

4. Discussion
4.1. Microstructure Analysis
In this study, Figure 10 presents the dimple structure of fracture surface in order to
discuss the fracture characteristic of nickel alloy steels. The dimple size of 3.5Ni is smaller
 4. Discussion
4.1. Microstructure Analysis
In this study, Figure 10 presents the dimple structure of fracture surface in order to
Metals 2022, 12, 173 9 of 15
discuss the fracture characteristic of nickel alloy steels. The dimple size of 3.5Ni is small-
er than that of 9Ni as shown in Figure 10a,b. It is found that the dimple size is influenced
by nickel contents. In terms of Figure 10b,c, the dimple size after the critical CTOD test
than
at that of 9Ni
cryogenic as shownisinsmaller
temperature Figure 10a,b. It isatfound
than that roomthat the dimpleTherefore,
temperature. size is influenced
the ten-
by nickel
dency of contents. In terms ofby
fracture toughness Figure 10b,c,
nickel the dimple
contents size afteraccording
is reasonable the criticaltoCTOD test of
analysis at
cryogenic
dimple temperature is smaller than that at room temperature. Therefore, the tendency of
size.
fracture toughness by nickel contents is reasonable according to analysis of dimple size.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 10. Dimple
Figure 10. Dimple size
size by
by SEM
SEM images:
images: (a)
(a) 3.5Ni
3.5Ni at
at 298
298 K;
K; (b)
(b) 9Ni
9Ni at
at 298 K (c)
298 K; (c)9Ni
9Niat
at108
108K.
K.

Figure 11 presents
presents thethefatigue
fatiguestriations
striationsofof3.5Ni
3.5Niandand9Ni9Nibyby scanning
scanning electron
electron mi-
micro-
croscope
scope (SEM) (SEM) image
image [29].[29].
AsAs a results,
a results, thethe fatigue
fatigue striationspacing
striation spacingofof3.5Ni
3.5Niisisnarrower
narrow-
er than
than thatthat of 9Ni.
of 9Ni. It isItexpected
is expectedthatthat
FCGRFCGR of 9Ni
of 9Ni is fast
is fast compared
compared to 3.5Ni
to 3.5Ni basedbased on
on the
fatigue
the striation
fatigue spacing.
striation As shown
spacing. As shownin Figure 11c, it
in Figure was
11c, it confirmed that Fatigue
was confirmed striation
that Fatigue is
stria-
hardly
tion is found
hardlyinfound
the fracture
in the surface
fractureafter the FCGR
surface after test
the of 3.5Nitest
FCGR at cryogenic temperature.
of 3.5Ni at cryogenic
Therefore,
temperature. theTherefore,
FCGR of 3.5Ni at cryogenic
the FCGR of 3.5Ni temperature
at cryogenic may be analyzed
temperature through
may fatigue
be analyzed
striation. In addition, FCGR of nickel alloy steels obtained from this study are reasonable
according to existing paper and microstructure analysis.
Metals
Metals2022,
2022,12,
12,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 10
10ofof15
15

through
through fatigue
fatigue striation.
striation. In
In addition,
addition, FCGR
FCGR of
of nickel
nickel alloy
alloy steels
steels obtained
obtained from
from this
this
Metals 2022, 12, 173 10 of 15
study
studyare
arereasonable
reasonableaccording
accordingto toexisting
existingpaper
paperand
andmicrostructure
microstructureanalysis.
analysis.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c)
Figure
Figure11.
Figure 11.Fatigue
11. Fatiguestriation
Fatigue striationof
striation ofnickel
of nickelalloy
nickel alloysteels
alloy steelsafter
steels afterFCGR
after FCGRtest:
FCGR test:(a)
test: (a)3.5Ni
(a) 3.5Niat
3.5Ni at298
at 298K;
298 K;(b)
K; (b)9Ni
(b) 9Niat
9Ni at298
at 298K
298 K
K;
(c)
(c)3.5Ni
(c) 3.5Niat
3.5Ni at108
at 108K.
108 K.
K.

As
Asmentioned
As mentionedabove,
mentioned isisconfirmed
above,ititis confirmed
confirmedthatthat the
thatthe growing
thegrowing
growing prior
prior
prior austenitic
austenitic
austenitic grain
grain
grain size
size ledled
size led
to
to
to increase
increase thethe
increase the fraction
fraction
fraction of
of retained
retained
of retained austenite
[2]. In[2].
austenite
austenite [2]. In
In addition,
addition,addition, itit isknown
it is well is well
well known
known
that thethat
that the
the
fracture
fracture
fracture toughness
toughness increasesincreases
toughness while thewhile
increases while the fraction
theof
fraction fraction
retainedof retained
retained austenite
ofaustenite austenite increases
increases increases
[30]. [30].
[30]. As
As shown As
in
shown
shown12,
Figure in
inFigure
Figure
the 12,
12,the
therelationship
relationship relationship
between prior between
between
austeniteprior
prior austenite
austenite
grain size andgrain
grain
FCGR size
size and
wasand FCGR
FCGRwas
confirmed was
by
existing
confirmed
confirmed paper.
by In case ofpaper.
by existing
existing the region
paper. In of low
In case
case of∆K,
of theFCGR
the region
region increases
of lowand
of low ΔK,∆K
ΔK, th decreases
FCGR
FCGR increases
increasesas prior
and
and
∆K
∆K decreases
austenite grainas
decreases size
as increases
prior
prioraustenite
austenite[31].grain
grainsize
sizeincreases
increases[31].
[31].

Figure
Figure12.
Figure 12.The
12. Theinfluence
influenceof
influence ofprior
of prioraustenite
prior austenitegrain
austenite grainsize
grain sizeon
size onFCGR
on FCGR(Data
FCGR (Datafrom:
(Data from:[31]).
from: [31]).
[31]).

To
To analyze
To analyzefatigue
analyze fatigueand
fatigue andfracture
and performance,
fracture
fracture performance,
performance,we we
observe the microstructure
we observe
observe the of nickel
the microstructure
microstructure of
of
alloy
nickelsteels.
nickel alloy For microstructure
alloy steels.
steels. For analysis,
For microstructure
microstructure a small a
analysis,
analysis, part of nickel
a small
small part alloy
part of steels
of nickel
nickel were
alloy
alloy soaked
steels
steels in
were
were
3% Nitalin
soaked
soaked etchant.
in 3% Microstructure
3% Nital
Nital etchant. is observed byisis
etchant. Microstructure
Microstructure optical microscopy
observed
observed by (OM).
by optical
optical Figure 13 present
microscopy
microscopy (OM).
(OM).
the microstructure
Figure
Figure 13
13present of 3.5Ni
presentthe
the and 9Ni. The
microstructure
microstructure of prior
of3.5Ni austenite
3.5Niand
and9Ni. grain
9Ni.The size is
Theprior
prior calculated
austenite
austenite according
grain
grain size
sizeisis
to ASTEM E112 [32]. The prior austenite grain size of 9Ni is about 3 factor longer than that
of 3.5Ni. Therefore, fatigue and fracture performances of nickel alloy steels increases when
the prior austenite grain size increases. The prior austenite grain sizes of nickel alloy steels
are summarized in Table 5.
 Table 5. Comparison of prior austenite grain diameter for nickel alloy steels.

calculated according
Materialto ASTEM E112 [32]. ThePriorprior austenite
Austenite grain
Grain size of 9Ni
Diameter is about 3
(μm)
factor longer than
3.5Nithat of 3.5Ni. Therefore, fatigue and fracture
33.3 performances of nickel
Metals 2022, 12, 173 alloy steels increases when the prior austenite grain size increases. 11 of 15
The prior austenite
9Ni 98.3
grain sizes of nickel alloy steels are summarized in Table 5.

Table 5. Comparison of prior austenite grain diameter for nickel alloy steels.

Material Prior Austenite Grain Diameter (μm)

3.5Ni 33.3
9Ni 98.3

(a) (b)
Figure13.
Figure 13.Microstructure
Microstructureofofnickel
nickelalloy
alloysteels:
steels:(a)
(a)3.5Ni;
3.5Ni;(b)
(b)9Ni.
9Ni.

4.2. FDBT
Table Temperatures
5. Comparison foraustenite
of prior Nickel Alloy
grainSteels
diameter for nickel alloy steels.
As mentioned above, Tobler et al. found the FDBT temperature of 9Ni based on 𝐾 -
Material Prior Austenite Grain Diameter (µm)
m relationship [10]. However, since 𝐾 is a suitable fracture toughness parameter in the
(a)
elastic fracture mechanics,3.5Ni it is necessary to derive the FDBT (b)temperature
33.3 on the basis of
the relationship 9Ni
of theofcritical CTOD-m 98.3
Figure 13. Microstructure nickel alloy steels: for high (b)
(a) 3.5Ni; toughness
9Ni. materials to which elastic-
plastic fracture mechanics is applied. In addition, in order to obtain an FDBT tempera-
4.2.
tureFDBT Temperatures
suitable for nickelfor
Temperatures Nickel
forsteel,
Nickel a Alloy
Alloy Steels
comparison
Steels of the FDBT temperature derived based on
𝐾 andAs the criticalabove,
As mentioned
mentioned CTOD
above, is required.
Tobler
Tobler etetal. In this
al.found
found thestudy,
the FDBT we
FDBTtemperaturecompareofto
temperature thebased
of9Ni
9Ni critical
based ononCTOD
K 𝐾-m-
Ic
and the Paris law exponent (m) on the same plot. As shown
m relationship [10]. However, since 𝐾 is a suitable fracture toughness parameter in the
relationship [10]. However, since K Ic is a suitable fracture in
toughness Figure 14,
parameterthe critical
in the
CTODfracture
elastic
elastic values mechanics,
fracture decrease and
mechanics, it mnecessary
it is
is increase as
necessary to temperature
to derive
derive thethe FDBT decrease.
FDBT In case on
temperature
temperature of m
on thevalue,
the basis the
basis of
of
variation
the of
relationship 9Ni ofis
themore stable
critical than
CTOD-m that
for of
high 3.5Ni. In
toughness addition,
materials
the relationship of the critical CTOD-m for high toughness materials to which elastic- thetoFDBT
which temperature
elastic-plastic by
the critical
fracture CTOD
mechanics decreases
is applied. as
In amount
addition, of
in nickel
order contents
to obtain
plastic fracture mechanics is applied. In addition, in order to obtain an FDBT tempera- increase.
an FDBT Based on
temperature FDBT tem-
suitable
perature
for
ture nickel by
suitable the
for arelationship
steel, steel, of
comparison
nickel thethe
a of critical
FDBTCTOD-m,
comparison temperature
of the FDBTno brittle
derived failure
temperature based exists
on in
derivedK Icthe fatigue
and
based the
on
critical
and CTOD
fracture is required.
performances In this
of thestudy,
nickel we compare
alloy steels to
atthe
the
𝐾 and the critical CTOD is required. In this study, we compare to the critical CTOD critical
actual CTOD
operating and the Paris
temperature. law
exponent
and the Paris(m) on lawtheexponent
same plot. (m)Ason shown in Figure
the same plot.14,
Asthe critical
shown in CTOD
Figurevalues
14, thedecrease
critical
and m increase as temperature decrease. In case
CTOD values decrease and m increase as temperature decrease. In case of of m value, the variation ofm9Ni is more
value, the
stable thanofthat
variation 9Niofis3.5Ni.
more In addition,
stable than the
thatFDBT temperature
of 3.5Ni. In addition, by thethecritical
FDBTCTOD decreases
temperature by
as
theamount
critical of nickeldecreases
CTOD contents as increase.
amountBased on FDBT
of nickel contentstemperature
increase. by the relationship
Based on FDBT tem- of
the critical CTOD-m, no brittle failure exists in the fatigue and fracture
perature by the relationship of the critical CTOD-m, no brittle failure exists in the fatigue performances of the
nickel alloy steels at the actual operating temperature.
and fracture performances of the nickel alloy steels at the actual operating temperature.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)
Figure 14. Cont.
Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Metals 2022, 12, 173 12 of 15

(c)
Figure 14. Comparison of m–the critical CTOD relationship: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 7Ni; (c) 9Ni.

In order to compare FDBT temperatures (c) of nickel alloy steels based on the relation-
ship of 𝐾 -m, 𝐾 values for nickel alloy steel are obtained using the conversion equation
relationship: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 7Ni;
Figure 14. Comparison of m–the critical CTOD relationship: 7Ni; (c)
(c) 9Ni.
9Ni.
given in BS7910 [28]:
In order
order to
tocompare
compareFDBT
FDBTtemperatures
temperaturesofofnickel alloy
nickel steels
alloy based
steels on on
based thethe
relationship
relation-
𝑛𝜎 𝛿𝐸using the conversion equation given
shipIcof 𝐾 -m,
of K -m, K Ic 𝐾 values for nickel alloy𝐾steel
values for nickel alloy steel are obtained
= are obtained using the conversion equation (11)
in BS7910
given [28]: [28]:
in BS7910 1−𝜈
s
where, E is elastic modulus, δ is theKcritical nσys δE ν is poisson’s ratio and n is Equation
CTOD,
Ic = 𝑛𝜎 2𝛿𝐸 (11)
(11): 𝐾 = 1−ν (11)
1−𝜈
where, E is elastic modulus, δ is the 𝜎 .
critical CTOD, ν is poisson’s ratio and n is Equation (11):
𝑛 = 1.517 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.3 < 𝜎 ⁄𝜎 < 0.98 (12)
where, E is elastic modulus, δis the 𝜎critical
−0.3188
CTOD, ν is poisson’s ratio and n is Equation
(11): σ ys
where, 𝜎 is tensilenstress. = 1.517 Figureσus 15 shows
f or -m <
𝐾 0.3 σys /σus < 0.98
relationship for nickel alloy steels(12) ac-
cording to various temperatures.𝜎 FDBT temperatures of various nickel alloy steels are
.
𝑛 = 1.517 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.3 < 𝜎 ⁄𝜎 < 0.98 (12)
where,
summarizedσus is tensile
in Tablestress.
6. To Figure
verify 𝜎 the validityKof
15 shows Ic -mtherelationship
derived results, for nickel
it wasalloy steels
confirmed
according
that the to various temperatures.
of 9Ni15FDBT temperatures of various nickel alloy steels are
where, 𝜎 FDBT temperature
is tensile stress. Figure wasshows similar
𝐾 -mtorelationship
the FDBT temperature
for nickel alloy suggested
steels ac-by
summarized
Tobler et al. in
as Table
shown 6. in
ToFigure
verify 15cthe validity
[10]. In of the derived
Figure 15,
cording to various temperatures. FDBT temperatures of various nickel alloy steels are the results,
FDBT it was confirmed
temperatures by 𝐾 that
are
the
lowerFDBT thantemperature
thoes by 6. of 9Ni
the was similar to the FDBT temperature thesuggested by Tobler
summarized in Table Tocritical
verifyCTOD.the validity Wells ofconfirmed
the derived thatresults, plastic
it wasdeformation
confirmed
et(blunting
al. as showneffect)in Figure
of the 15c [10].
crack tipInisFigure 15, the FDBT
proportional to temperatures
the toughness by K Ic of
value arethe
lower than
material
that the FDBT temperature of 9Ni was similar to the FDBT temperature suggested by
thoes
[33]. by
For the
highcritical CTOD.
toughness Wells confirmed
materials, it can that
be the plastic
inferred
Tobler et al. as shown in Figure 15c [10]. In Figure 15, the FDBT temperatures by 𝐾 are that 𝐾
deformation
, a (blunting
fracture effect)
toughness of
pa-
the crack
rameter tip
basedis proportional
onbyelastic to the toughness
fractureCTOD.mechanics, value of the material [33]. For high toughness
lower than thoes the critical Wellsdoes not accurately
confirmed that thereflectplasticthe plastic de-
deformation
materials,
formation itatcan
the be inferred
crack tip andthat K Ic ,hardening
strain a fracture effect.toughness parameter
Therefore, the basedtemperature
FDBT on elastic
(blunting effect) of the crack tip is proportional to the toughness value of the material
fracture
by 𝐾For mechanics,
may does
inaccurately not accurately reflect the plastic deformation at the crack tip and
[33]. high toughness predictmaterials, theitactual
can bebrittleness
inferred that temperature
𝐾 , a fracture of thetoughness
material in
pa-a
strain hardening
cryogenic effect. Therefore,
environment, leading theaFDBT
to situation temperature
in which K Icstructure
bythe may inaccurately
is operatedpredict
in a
rameter
the actual based on elastic
brittleness fractureof
temperature mechanics,
the material does
in anot accurately
cryogenic reflect theleading
environment, plastic to de-a
condition at
formation vulnerable
the crack totip
brittleness.
and strain hardening effect. Therefore, thetoFDBT temperature
situation in which the structure is operated in a condition vulnerable brittleness.
by 𝐾 may inaccurately predict the actual brittleness temperature of the material in a
cryogenic environment, leading to a situation in which the structure is operated in a
condition vulnerable to brittleness.

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Cont.

(a) (b)
Metals 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15
Metals 2022, 12, 173 13 of 15

(c)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Comparison of m–K
m–𝐾Ic relationship: (a) 3.5Ni; (b) 7Ni; (c) 9Ni.

Table6.6. FDBT
Table FDBT temperatures
temperaturesof
ofnickel
nickelalloy
alloysteels.
steels.

FDBTFDBT
Temperature
Material Material FDBTBased
FDBT Temperature on 𝑲𝑰𝒄 Based on
Temperature Temperature
KIc Based Based onCritical
on the CTOD
the Critical CTOD
3.5Ni 3.5Ni 151 K 151 K 160 K160 K
7Ni 7Ni - - 110 K110 K
9Ni 9Ni 90 K 90 K 104 K104 K

5. Conclusions
this study
The aim of this study is
is to
to assess
assess fatigue
fatigue and
and fracture
fracture performances
performances of nickel alloy
different nickel
steels with different nickel contents
contents both
both at
at room
room and
and cryogenic
cryogenic temperatures.
temperatures. Based
Based on
on
results from
the results from this
this study,
study,the
thefollowing
followingconclusions
conclusionsare
aredrawn:
drawn:
• The
The critical
criticalCTOD
CTODvaluesvaluesofofnickel
nickelalloy
alloysteels
steelsincrease
increase asasnickel
nickelcontents
contents increase.
increase.It is
It
well known
is well known thatthat
nickel contribute
nickel to stabilization
contribute for austenite,
to stabilization and theand
for austenite, critical CTOD
the critical
value
CTODincrease as amount
value increase of retained
as amount austeniteaustenite
of retained increase. increase.
Therefore, the critical
Therefore, CTOD
the criti-
value
cal CTODis influenced by nickel contents.
value is influenced by nickel contents.
•• The
The FCGR
FCGR of of nickel
nickel alloy
alloy steels
steels increase
increase while
while nickel
nickel content
content increase.
increase. In cases of
the
the low nickel content in the nickel alloy steel, the factor m, the slope of the FCGR,
low nickel
increases
increases further
further with
with decreasing
decreasing temperature in comparison comparison with the high high nickel
nickel
content of the nickel alloy steel. In addition, the factor m increases
content of the nickel alloy steel. In addition, the factor m increases as nickel contents as nickel contents
decrease
decrease at atthe
thesame
sametemperature.
temperature.The Thematerial
materialconstants
constants from
fromFCGR
FCGR areare
observed
observed to
locate within a single line except some
to locate within a single line except some data. data.
•• The
The dimple
dimple size size of
of 3.5Ni
3.5Ni isissmaller
smallerthanthanthat
thatofof9Ni.
9Ni.In In addition,
addition, thethe dimple
dimple sizesize
af-
after
ter thethecritical
criticalCTOD
CTODtest testatat cryogenic
cryogenic temperature
temperature isis smaller
smaller than
than that
that at
at room
room
temperature. Therefore, the
temperature. Therefore, the tendency
tendency of of fracture
fracture toughness
toughness by by nickel
nickel contents
contents is is
reasonable
reasonable according to analysis of dimple size. In case of fatigue striation, 3.5Ni
according to analysis of dimple size. In case of fatigue striation, 3.5Ni isis
narrower
narrowerthan than9Ni.9Ni.ItItisisexpected
expectedthat thatFCGR
FCGR ofof
9Ni9Niis is
fast compared
fast compared to 3.5Ni based
to 3.5Ni on
based
the
on fatigue
the fatigue striation spacing.
striation Therefore,
spacing. FCGR of
Therefore, nickelofalloy
FCGR steels
nickel obtained
alloy steels from this
obtained
study are reasonable according to existing paper and microstructure
from this study are reasonable according to existing paper and microstructure anal- analysis.
• Based
ysis. on FDBT temperature by the relationship of the critical CTOD-m, no brittle
• failure
Based on exists
FDBT in the fatigue andby
temperature fracture performances
the relationship of theof the nickel
critical alloy steels
CTOD-m, at the
no brittle
actual operating temperature. The FDBT temperature by the critical CTOD and K Ic
failure exists in the fatigue and fracture performances of the nickel alloy steels at the
decreases as amount of nickel contents increase. In addition, the FDBT temperatures
actual operating temperature. The FDBT temperature by the critical CTOD and 𝐾
by K Ic are lower than thoes by the critical CTOD. The different criterion for fracture
decreases as amount of nickel contents increase. In addition, the FDBT tempera-
toughness parameters lead to this discrepancy. For high toughness materials, it can be
tures by 𝐾 are lower than thoes by the critical CTOD. The different criterion for
inferred that K Ic , a fracture toughness parameter based on elastic fracture mechanics,
fracture toughness parameters lead to this discrepancy. For high toughness materi-
does not accurately reflect the plastic deformation at the crack tip and strain hardening
als, it can be inferred that 𝐾 , a fracture toughness parameter based on elastic frac-
effect.
Metals 2022, 12, 173 14 of 15

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.Y.P. and M.H.K.; methodology, J.Y.P.; validation, J.Y.P.,
B.K.K. and D.G.N.; formal analysis, J.Y.P.; investigation, J.Y.P.; writing—original draft preparation,
J.Y.P.; writing—review and editing, M.H.K.; visualization, J.Y.P.; supervision, J.Y.P.; project administra-
tion, J.Y.P.; funding acquisition, B.K.K. and D.G.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: This study has been conducted with the support of the Korea Institute of
Industrial Technology as “Development of wear-resistant hardfacing materials and processes for NPP
valve seat and disc (141571933, 20206500000020)”.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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