Express a deduction about something that has happened. We feel quite sure about it. SD ‘She must have gone out. Express a deduction about Something that didn't happen in the past based on present evidence. She can't have passed such a difficult exam, Uy Express the idea that semething was desirable or needed but didn't take place. ‘She should have asked you before borrowing your pen. ‘Something took place asnt desirable. Indicates that something was done but it wasn't necessary. The person who didit thought it was necessary. ‘When the party was over, | realized that you needn't have cooked so much food as most of it was untouched, Express an unfulfilled duty or obligation. Paul ought to have waited until the lights were green before ha crossed the street. (But he didn't wait) Express the possibilty that an action took place in the past The little girl may have lost her keys. (itis possible that she lost her keys) Express a past possibility. (Our neighbors might have heard seme noises when our car was stolen. Express past reference about something that was not cared out She could have called the doctor early in the morning. - (Ghe didn't call the doctor) aw \ Used in the Third Conditional. I would have gone to university if my parents had had more money. (The speaker dicin't go to university)