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Nano & Micro Fluids

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Nano & Micro Fluids

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Nano Fluids

Micro
Fluidics

ANNAPOLIS, MD
 2

Contents

1 Micro Fluidics ............................................................................................................................... 5

1.1 Definitions of Micro ............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Definitions and Advantages of Microfluidics .............................................................................................. 5
1.2.1 How Does Microfluidics Works? .......................................................................................... 5
1.2.2 Advantages of Choosing a Microfluidic Device ? ................................................................ 5
1.3 Physics of Microfluids .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Major Differences Between Micro- and Macro- Fluidics........................................................................ 7
1.5 Case Study – Microfluidics .................................................................................................................................. 8
1.5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 8
1.5.2 Microfabrication ................................................................................................................ 10
1.5.3 Pumping, Valving and Mixing ............................................................................................ 10
1.5.4 Separations ........................................................................................................................ 10
1.5.5 Detection ........................................................................................................................... 11
1.5.6 Droplet and Digital Microfluidics ....................................................................................... 12
1.5.7 Paper Microfluidics ............................................................................................................ 13
1.5.8 Applications ....................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.9 Future Developments ........................................................................................................ 14
1.5.10 References ......................................................................................................................... 14

2 Mechanisms of Nanofluids ..................................................................................................... 18

2.1 What is a Nano?.................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Nanofluids .............................................................................................................................................................. 18
2.2.1 What Applications are Suitable for Nanofluids? ............................................................... 18
2.2.2 What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanofluids? .......................................... 19
2.2.3 CFD Techniques for Nanofluid Flow Solution .................................................................... 19
2.2.4 Macroscale Based Techniques........................................................................................... 20
2.2.5 Finite Differencing Method ............................................................................................... 20
2.2.6 Finite Volume Method....................................................................................................... 20
2.2.7 Common FVM Solvers ....................................................................................................... 21
2.2.8 Finite Element Method ...................................................................................................... 21
2.2.9 Dynamics of Nanoparticle Motion in a Liquid ................................................................... 22
2.2.10 Other Macroscale Based Techniques ................................................................................ 23
2.2.10.1 Control Volume Finite Element Method ................................................................. 23
2.2.10.2 Boundary Element Method ..................................................................................... 23
2.2.10.3 Spectral Method ...................................................................................................... 24
2.2.10.4 Meshless Methods .................................................................................................. 24
2.2.10.5 Lattice Boltzmann Method ...................................................................................... 24
2.2.10.6 Dissipative Particle Dynamics Method .................................................................... 24
2.2.11 Microscale Based Techniques (Molecular Dynamic Simulation) ....................................... 25
2.2.12 Flow Properties in Nanofluids Environment...................................................................... 25
2.2.13 Density and Specific Heat .................................................................................................. 26
2.2.14 Thermal Conductivity ........................................................................................................ 26
2.2.15 Viscosity ............................................................................................................................. 26
2.2.16 Heat Transfer Coefficient................................................................................................... 27
2.2.17 Numerical Simulation ........................................................................................................ 28
 3

List of Tables
Table 1.1 Comparison Using Traditional Methods And In Microfluidic Emulsions. Adapted With
Permission From Agresti J. J. Et Al, Ultrahigh-Throughput Screening In Drop-Based Microfluidics
For Directed Evolution, PNAS 2010, 107:4004-4009. Copyright 2010 National Academy of
Sciences, U.S.A. ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Table 2.1 Nonculture used in this study ............................................................................................................ 25

List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Example of a microfluidic chip with channels thinner than 1 mm ...................................... 5
Figure 1.2 Ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a representative physical .................... 7
Figure 1.4 (a) A glass microfluidic device, featuring a network of microchannels in which fluids
can be manipulated. (b) Laminar flow of red and blue inks within a microfluidic device. Courtesy
of Sally A. Peyman. ............................................................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 1.5 (a) Parabolic flow profile of a fluid as it is passed through a microchannel via
hydrodynamic pumping. (b) Flat profile generated by electroosmotic flow (EOF) through a
microchannel ........................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 1.6 (a) Operation of a microfabricated ‘Quake’ valve: air pressure is applied via a
control channel, forcing the PDMS fluidic channel to close (redrawn from Studer, V.; Hang, G.;
Pandolfi, A.; Ortiz, M.; Anderson, W. F.; Quake, S. R. J. Appl. Phys. 2004, 95 (1), 393–398). (b) A
microfluidic device............................................................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 1.8 Particle and cell processing in microfluidic devices. (a) Trapping of particles,
allowing separation or reactions. (b) Continuous deflection of particles, enabling separations or
even reactions if the particles are deflected through laminar streams containing reagents
[redrawn from Pamme, N. Lab Chip 2007, 7, 1644–1659]. In both cases, physical barriers can
also be employed rather than applied forces....................................................................................................... 10
Figure 1.7 Cross-injection method of sample introduction. (a) Sample is pumped through the
cross in the channel such that a small plug of sample is present in the main channel. (b)The flow
is switched to inject the plug into the separation channel ............................................................................. 11
Figure 1.9 Common chip designs for droplet generation: (a) T-junction generation, with (b) a
photograph showing formation of the droplets in a fabricated device (reprinted from Song, H.;
Bringer, M. R.; Tice, J. D.; Gerdts, C. J.; Ismagilov, R. F. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2003, 83 (22), 4664–4666,
with permission. Copyright 2003 American Institute of Physics). (c) Flow focusing generation,
with (d) a photograph of droplet production. Adapted from Bauer, W.-A. C.; Fischlechner, M.;
Abell, C.; Huck, W. T. S. Lab Chip 2010, 10 (14), 1814–1819, with permission. Copyright 2010
Royal Society of Chemistry .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 1.10 (a) One-plate and two-plate electrode arrays for digital microfluidics (redrawn
from Jebrail, M. J.; Wheeler, A. R. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2010, 14 (5), 574–581). (b) Photograph
of an electrode array with multicolored droplets. Reprinted from Jebrail, M. J.; Wheeler, A. R.
Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2010, 14 (5), 574–581, with permission. Copyright 2010 Elsevier, Inc.... 13
Figure 1.11 Examples of paper microfluidics for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. (a) Paper
device with hydrophobic channel walls, fabricated by photolithography (reprinted from
Martinez, A. W.; Phillips, S. T.; Whitesides, G. M.; Carrilho, E. Anal. Chem. 2010, 82 (1), 3–10, with
permission. Copyright 2010 American Chemical Society). (b) Channel structure cut out of paper.
Reprinted from Fu, E.; Lutz, B.; Kauffman, P.; Yager, P. Lab Chip 2010, 10 (7), 918–920, with
permission. Copyright 2010 Royal Society of Chemistry................................................................................ 13
Figure 2.1 Some applications of nanofluids in a glance.................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2.2 Nanofluid preparation is not just mixing nanoparticles and a liquid but special
physical and chemical techniques are needed to have a stable nanofluid .............................................. 19
 4

Figure 2.3 Different CFD Techniques for Nano-Fluids ................................................................................. 20

Figure 2.4 (a) Flow in a wavy Chuime solved by ANSYS FLUENT[17] (b) flow in a parabolic
trough collector solved by ANSYS CFX[22] (figures are reprinted with permission from
publisher) ........................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2.5 (a) Flow in a shell and tube regenerative type latent heat storage system solved by
COMSOL Multiphysics (b) Analysis of a Direct Solar Absorption Collector by FlexPDE[27] (Figure
reprinted with permission from publisher) ......................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2.6 Forces acting on a general particle suspended in a fluid flow by different sources .. 23
 5

1 Micro Fluidics
1.1 Definitions of Micro
Micro - (Greek letter μ or legacy micro symbol µ) is a unit prefix in the metric system denoting a
factor of 10−6 (one millionth)1. Confirmed in 1960, the prefix comes from the Greek μικρός (mikrós),
meaning "small". The symbol for the prefix comes from the Greek letter μ (mu). It is the only SI prefix
which uses a character not from the Latin alphabet. "mc" is commonly used as a prefix when the
character "μ" is not available; for example, "mcg" commonly denotes a microgram. Also the
letter u instead of μ is allowed by one of the ISO documents. Some examples are:
• Typical bacteria are 1 to 10 micrometers in diameter.
• Eukaryotic cells are typically 10 to 100 micrometers in diameter.

1.2 Definitions and Advantages of Microfluidics

Microfluidics is the science of manipulating and controlling fluids, usually in the range of microliters
(10-6) to picolitres (10-12), in networks of channels with dimensions from tens to hundreds of
micrometers (Tarn & Pamme, 2014)2. (see Figure 1.1). This discipline takes its origins in the early
1990’s and has grown exponentially. It is viewed as an essential tool for life science research or in a
larger way in bio technologies. Furthermore, through the miniaturization and automation made
possible by microfluidics and nano
fluidics, one may:
• Improve the precision of
experiments
• Lower limits of detection
• Run multiple analyses
simultaneously
1.2.1 How Does Microfluidics
Works?
Microfluidics deals with very precise
fluid control, under small volumes and
space, micro meaning one of the
following features:
• Small volumes (µL, nL, pL, fL)
Figure 1.1 Example of a microfluidic chip with channels
• Small size (mm, µm)
thinner than 1 mm
• Low energy consumption
Active microfluidics refers to fluid
handling made by active components as microfluidic pumps or microfluidic valves. Microfluidic
pumps supply fluids in a continuous way or are used for dosing whereas the microfluidic valves can
inject precise volumes of sample or buffer3.
1.2.2 Advantages of Choosing a Microfluidic Device ?
Due to the low volumes required, microfluidic technologies represent a promising alternative to
conventional laboratory techniques. They allow complete laboratory protocols on a single chip of
few square centimeters. Table 1.1 shows the main advantages of using microfluidics instead of

1 Wikipedia
2 MD Tarn and N Pamme, “Microfluidics”, Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical
Engineering. 2014 Elsevier Inc.
3 Wikipedia
 6

conventional laboratory assays for a given experiment (Ultra-high throughput screening of a typical
enzyme). Microfluidics is often used and described in “lab on a chip” and “organ on a chip”
technology. But microfluidics can be applied to a wide range of applications, such as:
• Cosmetics (emulsions & formulations)
• Pharmaceuticals (drug discovery)
• Health (personalized medicine & diagnosis)
• Chemistry (flow synthesis & stoichiometry)
• Biology (cell culture and 3D printing)
• Energy (EOR models plasma confinement)
To better appreciate the impact of microfluidics, one can make an analogy with the evolution of the
computers. In the 60’s, one needed an entire room to run a computer. Since then, every component
has been reduced in size and laptop products appeared. Now a simple smartphone is more powerful
than any computer built before. This has reduced prices, and is much more user friendly. It’s the
same with microfluidics!

Table 1.1 Comparison Using Traditional Methods And In Microfluidic Emulsions. Adapted With
Permission From Agresti J. J. Et Al, Ultrahigh-Throughput Screening In Drop-Based Microfluidics For
Directed Evolution, PNAS 2010, 107:4004-4009. Copyright 2010 National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.

1.3 Physics of Microfluids4

The physics can be best described by length factor as depicted in Figure 1.2.
• Length-scale ratios dictate approach for understanding flow
• Continuum flow region is traditional Chem Eng. Fluid mechanics
• For microfluidics, Knudsen number is of the order 10-7 How does a small L influence things
in the continuum flow region?
• Viscous Forces tend to dominate Inertial Forces → Re << 1

4 Rajan Arora, “Microfluidics and its Applications”, Presentation, 2016.

 7

Figure 1.2 Ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a representative physical
length scale (Knudsen Number = d/L) . From J. Fluid Eng. 121, pp. 5-33, ASME

1.4 Major Differences Between Micro- and Macro- Fluidics

• Turbulence (or its absence: laminar flow) - Inertia vs viscosity; convective mixing
• Electro-osmotic flow (EOF) - When an ion-containing fluid placed in a microchannel that has
fixed charges on its surface and an electrical potential is applied along the channel, the fluid
moves as a plug rather than with the parabolic-flow allows very high resolution separations
of ionic species. It is a key contributor to electrophoretic separations of DNA in microchannels
5(see Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 (a) Parabolic flow profile of a fluid as it is passed through a microchannel via
hydrodynamic pumping. (b) Flat profile generated by electroosmotic flow (EOF) through a microchannel

5 See previous.
 8

1.5 Case Study – Microfluidics

Authors : MD Tarn and N Pamme
Title : Microfluidics
Appeared Originally : Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and Chemical Engineering,
2014 Elsevier Inc.
Source : http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409547-2.05351-8
Citation : M.D. Tarn, N. Pamme, Microfluidics, Reference Module in Chemistry, Molecular Sciences and
Chemical Engineering, Elsevier, 2014, ISBN 9780124095472, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
409547-2.05351-8.
1.5.1 Introduction
The field of microfluidics involves the use of micro structured devices, featuring dimensions typically
on the order of tens to hundreds of micrometers, that allow the precise handling of low volumes
(usually nanoliters or less) of fluids within them (Figure 1.4)1. The original driving force behind
miniaturization was the enhanced performance that could be gained by down-scaling analytical
systems, and the possibility of integrating multiple components within a single device. While the first
microfluidic device was developed in the 1970s,2 it was not until the early 1990s that microfluidics
came to the fore.3 These ‘lab-on-a-chip’ devices originally focused on aspects of analytical chemistry,
but microfluidics has since expanded into many areas, particularly in chemistry and biology. The
principle and development of microfluidics can be traced via a series of reviews published since
2002,4 and through numerous other review articles5 and books6.

Figure 1.4 (a) A glass microfluidic device, featuring a network of microchannels in which fluids can be
manipulated. (b) Laminar flow of red and blue inks within a microfluidic device. Courtesy of Sally A.
Peyman.

Flow within microfluidic devices is almost always laminar (Figure 1.4 (b)), as opposed to turbulent,
meaning that mixing generally occurs by molecular diffusion. While mixing based on diffusion could
take days in conventional flask-based systems, the small distances within microfluidic channels
enable complete mixing within seconds or minutes.7 A further advantage of such small dimensions is
that volumes of samples and reagents are significantly reduced, saving costs on reagents and
producing less waste. Integration of multiple components and processes can be achieved on a single
device, yielding a platform with a small footprint. It is this potential for integration that drives the
‘micro Total Analysis System’ (microTAS, mTAS) concept,3b in which all aspects of an analysis process,
from sampling to detection, can be performed on one device, enabling ‘sample in-answer out’
 9

capabilities with short analysis times. As such, microfluidic devices are very well-suited to point-of-
care (POC) diagnostics.8

Figure 1.5 (a) Operation of a microfabricated ‘Quake’ valve: air pressure is applied via a control
channel, forcing the PDMS fluidic channel to close (redrawn from Studer, V.; Hang, G.; Pandolfi, A.; Ortiz,
M.; Anderson, W. F.; Quake, S. R. J. Appl. Phys. 2004, 95 (1), 393–398). (b) A microfluidic device
incorporating numerous Quake valves (green lines ¼ valve control channels) for whole genome
amplification from single sperm cells. Reprinted from Wang, J.; Fan, H. C.; Behr, B.; Quake, Stephen R. Cell
2012, 150 (2), 402–412, with permission. Copyright 2012 Elsevier, Inc.
 10

1.5.2 Microfabrication
Microfluidic devices can be fabricated from a range of materials using different methods. 9
Fabrication typically follows the process of forming channels on the surface of a solid substrate,
before drilling or punching access holes into the substrate, and finally bonding it to another plate to
seal the channels. Tubing or reservoirs can then be connected to the access holes, allowing solutions
to be introduced. Early devices were fabricated from silicon and glass via photolithography and wet
etching methods, and glass in particular remains a popular material.10 Polymer chips have become
common due to their amenability to mass fabrication.11
However, the most common chip material employed in the research lab nowadays is the flexible
elastomer, poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS),12 which is well-suited to rapid prototyping. It is
sometimes required that microchannel surfaces be modified to exhibit certain properties or
functional groups, which can be achieved by several techniques13 such as the deposition of
organosilanes.14 Paper microfluidic devices are now also being developed.15
1.5.3 Pumping, Valving and Mixing
Several methods are available for pumping solutions through microfluidic channels,16 but the two
most common are hydrodynamic and electroosmotic flow (EOF)-based pumping (Figure 1.5).
Hydrodynamic pumping involves the application of pressure, for example via a syringe pump, or
hydrostatic and centrifugal17 forces, and is characterized by a parabolic flow profile. EOF-based
pumping occurs when a voltage difference is applied across a microchannel that features charged
surfaces. An electrical-double layer is formed at the channel surface, and the application of the
voltage drives the bulk solution through the channel, with the flow profile being almost completely
flat. Integrated valves have become an important part of many microfluidic systems. 16,18 The most
common type is the ‘Quake’ valve, which relies on the flexibility of PDMS (Figure 1.5).19 Here, a
fluidic channel fabricated in PDMS can be closed by applying air pressure to a control channel present
in a layer above (or below); releasing the pressure allows the valve to reopen. Such pneumatic valves
enable complex, highly parallel processing, in what is known as ‘microfluidic Large-Scale Integration’
(mLSI).20 A number of methods exist for enhancing the mixing of reagents within a microfluidic
channel in order to perform even faster reaction and binding events.21 These methods range from
intelligent channel design to the application of force fields that induce turbulence within the flow.
1.5.4 Separations
Microfluidics began with the miniaturization of analytical chemistry methods for the separation and
analysis of sample mixtures, and this remains a strong focus. Capillary electrophoresis was one of the
first success stories of lab-on-a-chip due to the ease with which it could be miniaturized and the

Figure 1.6 Particle and cell processing in microfluidic devices. (a) Trapping of particles, allowing
separation or reactions. (b) Continuous deflection of particles, enabling separations or even reactions if
the particles are deflected through laminar streams containing reagents [redrawn from Pamme, N. Lab
Chip 2007, 7, 1644–1659]. In both cases, physical barriers can also be employed rather than applied
forces.
 11

increase in performance achievable,3c and has since become a mainstay in many microfluidic
technologies22. Particular importance is the cross-injection method for reproducibly injecting a
sample into a separation channel (Figure 1.6).23 On-chip chromatography can be achieved by a
number of methods,24 including the use of packed particle beds, functionalized monoliths, and the
fabrication of pillars within a channel.
The separation of particles and cells has also become significant. Surface-functionalized particles can
bind target analytes in a sample, allowing separation of the target from the matrix. Cell sorting and
counting is an important process for biological studies, while the separation of cells from a sample,
such as in the separation of blood cells from plasma,25 is a crucial step for analysis. Particles or cells
can be manipulated (Figure 1.6 (a)) via barriers, or forces such as magnetism,26 acoustophoresis,27
surface acoustic waves (SAW),28 optical tweezers,29 dielectrophoresis,30 inertial forces31 that can also
utilize cell/particle shape and deformability,32 optoelectro fluidic forces,33 optoacoustic tweezers,34
thermophoresis,35 and diffusiophoresis.36 These techniques can be applied to the trapping of
particles/cells within the channel for separations, exposure to reagents, and observation.37
Continuous flow separations involve pumping a sample through a microchamber and deflecting the
particles laterally, again via barriers or forces, until they are separated from the sample stream
(Figure 1.6 (b)).38
These continuous flow mechanisms can also be applied to on-chip focusing, a crucial component of
cytometric methods.39 Reactions On-chip reactions include organic synthesis40 and immunoassays.41
The most basic process is to introduce two or more reagent streams at a junction and to let them mix
by diffusion.42 Reactions can also be performed on microchannel walls if reagents are bound to them,
or on functionalized particles that are trapped or being passed through a reagent stream.43 The use
of microvalves allows very controlled introduction, mixing, and pumping of reagents, enabling
parallelization and automation of highly complex procedures. Reactions may also be carried out

Figure 1.7 Cross-injection method of sample introduction. (a) Sample is pumped through the cross in
the channel such that a small plug of sample is present in the main channel. (b)The flow is switched to
inject the plug into the separation channel

within droplets via the use of droplet or digital microfluidic systems, as described below. The
amplification of DNA is an important procedure for clinical diagnostics and forensic science, and is
achieved using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).44 Both thermo cycled PCR and isothermal
amplification45 can be performed on-chip.
1.5.5 Detection
A wide range of detection methods have been developed for microfluidic devices. Off-chip detection
with conventional methods is feasible if a suitable volume of sample can be collected. However, on-
chip detection is normally desired in order to realize a fully integrated device or to observe effects in
situ and in real-time. Optical detection methods are often employed,46 in particular fluorescence47
 12

but also absorbance or chemiluminescence, and these may be aided by optical fibers, micro lenses,
and waveguides.
Electrochemical detection can be achieved via the integration of electrodes during microfabrication
of a chip.48 Significant development has also gone into the combination of microdevices with mass
spectrometry,49 usually via electrospray ionization (ESI). Many other detection techniques have also
been applied on-chip,50 including surface plasmon resonance (SPR), Raman and infrared (IR)
spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
1.5.6 Droplet and Digital Microfluidics
Droplet microfluidics has become a particularly valuable tool for chemical and biological processes.51
It involves the generation of discrete volumes of a ‘dispersed phase’ solution in an immiscible
‘continuous phase’ liquid, usually by devices that feature either a T-junction or a flow focusing layout
(Figure 1.8). By modifying the surface properties of the microchannel and the flow rates of the
immiscible solutions, it is possible to generate water-in-oil droplets or oil-in-water droplets, as well
as droplets-within-droplets.

Figure 1.8 Common chip designs for droplet generation: (a) T-junction generation, with (b) a
photograph showing formation of the droplets in a fabricated device (reprinted from Song, H.; Bringer, M.
R.; Tice, J. D.; Gerdts, C. J.; Ismagilov, R. F. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2003, 83 (22), 4664–4666, with permission.
Copyright 2003 American Institute of Physics). (c) Flow focusing generation, with (d) a photograph of
droplet production. Adapted from Bauer, W.-A. C.; Fischlechner, M.; Abell, C.; Huck, W. T. S. Lab Chip 2010,
10 (14), 1814–1819, with permission. Copyright 2010 Royal Society of Chemistry

Microbubbles of gas can also be generated via similar processes.52 These droplets can be produced
at a rate of hundreds or even thousands per second in a highly reproducible manner, and can
therefore act as identical reaction or analysis vessels. Multiple reagents can be introduced into the
droplet and mixed within milliseconds. Applications include particle synthesis, protein
crystallization, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and enzyme kinetics.
Digital microfluidics also utilizes droplets but in a different manner. Here, the device consists of an
array of electrodes coated with a hydrophobic insulator, onto which droplets can be placed and then
manipulated by the application of electric fields (Figure 1.9).53 The droplet movement can be
controlled such that they can be dispensed, merged, mixed, and separated, allowing chemical
reactions, extractions, and cell studies to be performed.
 13

Figure 1.9 (a) One-plate and two-plate electrode arrays for digital microfluidics (redrawn from Jebrail,
M. J.; Wheeler, A. R. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2010, 14 (5), 574–581). (b) Photograph of an electrode array
with multicolored droplets. Reprinted from Jebrail, M. J.; Wheeler, A. R. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2010, 14
(5), 574–581, with permission. Copyright 2010 Elsevier, Inc.

1.5.7 Paper Microfluidics

In recent years, the use of paper as a material for microfluidic devices has become increasingly
desirable for low cost point-of-care (POC) diagnostics (Figure 1.10).15,54 Hydrophobic channel walls
are patterned onto filter paper via printing or photolithography, or alternatively the channel
structure can be cut out of paper.55 When liquid is introduced onto the paper, the natural wicking
properties draw the fluid through the channels and into spots of dried reagents, typically yielding a
color change that indicates the presence of an analyte. Similar principles have also been employed in
which thread is used as the substrate material.56

Figure 1.10 Examples of paper microfluidics for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics. (a) Paper device with
hydrophobic channel walls, fabricated by photolithography (reprinted from Martinez, A. W.; Phillips, S.
T.; Whitesides, G. M.; Carrilho, E. Anal. Chem. 2010, 82 (1), 3–10, with permission. Copyright 2010
American Chemical Society). (b) Channel structure cut out of paper. Reprinted from Fu, E.; Lutz, B.;
Kauffman, P.; Yager, P. Lab Chip 2010, 10 (7), 918–920, with permission. Copyright 2010 Royal Society
of Chemistry

1.5.8 Applications
Lab-on-a-chip technology can be applied to a wide variety of chemical and biological processes.
Organic synthesis within microreactors can give high yields of product,40 with specialized fields also
being investigated such as radiopharmaceutical synthesis.57 Microfluidic devices can be employed for
the monitoring of everyday concerns, such as in environmental58 and food59 analysis, as well as in
 14

forensic science60 where only small amounts of sample may be available. Microfluidics has become
of particular importance for clinical diagnostics, with immunoassays 41,61 and DNA analysis44 being
amenable to miniaturization either in microchannel-based approaches or with microarray
technology 62. Microfluidic technology has been developing more and more towards integrated
systems; true mTAS.4i With this, a concerted effort is being put into the use of microfluidic devices for
point-of-care (POC) diagnostics,10,53 many of which are available commercially or are on the verge of
market release63.
While microfluidics began its life as a tool for chemistry, particularly in analysis, it has since grown
into its potential for studying many other areas, particularly cell biology.64 Individual cell studies can
be performed by trapping them in flow,37 or by performing procedures on them whilst still flowing,38a
as well as in droplet-based systems. The use of Quake valves allows complex, parallel processing of
chemical or biological species,20a,b even to the extent of performing whole-genome amplification from
single cells.65
Microfluidic platforms can also enable a more accurate portrayal of the conditions within the body
compared to traditional, flask based cell and tissue culture methods. Tissues have been studied on-
chip,66 and even organs-on-a-chip can be produced.67 From these organ-chips, it can be envisaged
that a ‘human-on-a-chip’ could be formed that acts as a model for the physiology of a human being,
allowing a much greater understanding of in vivo processes and advancing the fields of drug
discovery68 and personalized medicine.69
1.5.9 Future Developments
Microfluidics has now reached the point where individual and multiple integrated processes can be
performed for a wide variety of applications. Future developments will be concerned with bringing
such technology into commercial devices operated by the non-specialist, and will require
standardization of microfluidic components and the improvement of real-world interfacing, allowing
intuitive handling and operation by unskilled end-users. Commercialization of systems employing
microfluidic devices, whether in POC devices or in a ‘chip-in-a-box’ format, will become more
frequent, with many multi-national companies now investing heavily in microfluidic research and
with the many small companies being spun out of university activities. Devices for basic research will
also remain highly important, especially on the biological front as researchers strive to produce the
‘human-on-a-chip’.
1.5.10 References
1. Whitesides, G. M. Nature 2006, 442(7101), 368–373.
2. Terry, S. C.; Jerman, J. H.; Angell, J. B. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 1979, 26(12), 1880–1886.
3. (a) Manz, A.; Miyahara, Y.; Miura, J.; Watanabe, Y.; Miyagi, H.; Sato, K. Sens. Actuators B Chem.
1990, 1(1–6), 249–255; (b) Manz, A.; Graber, N.; Widmer, H. M. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 1990, 1(1–
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 18

2 Mechanisms of Nanofluids6
2.1 What is a Nano?
According to Wikipedia, Nano- (symbol n) is a unit prefix meaning "one billionth". Used primarily
with the metric system, this prefix denotes a factor of 10−9 or 0.000000001. It is frequently
encountered in science and electronics for prefixing units of time and length.
Examples:
• One nanometer is about the length that a fingernail grows in one second.
• Three gold atoms lined up are about one nanometer long.
• If a toy marble were scaled down to one nanometer wide, Earth would scale to about 1 meter
(3.3 ft) wide.
One nanosecond is about the time required for light to travel 30 cm in air, or 20 cm in an optical fiber.
The prefix derives from the Greek νᾶνος (Latin nanus), meaning "dwarf". The General Conference on
Weights and Measures (CGPM) officially endorsed the usage of nano as a standard prefix in 1960.
When used as a prefix for something other than a unit of measure (as for example in words like
"nanoscience"), nano refers to nanotechnology, or means "on a scale of nanometers".

2.2 Nanofluids
In 1993, [Masua. et al.]7 measured thermal conductivity and viscosity of three different water-based
suspensions contain ng Al2O3, TiO2, and SiO2 nanoparticles (particles with a size between 1 and 100
nm). They reported that both thermal conductivity and viscosity of the water become greater
than before by adding nanoparticles. Later in 1995, [Choi]8 selected the name “nanofluid” for a
mixture of nanoparticles and a liquid. It should be kept in mind that nanofluids are not produced
simply by adding nanoparticles to water or oil and stirring the mixture, similar to mixing sugar and
tea, but rather the formation of a nanofluid requires special physical and chemical processes. In order
to produce a uniform and efficient dispersion of particles for long-term application. Surfactant
(noncovalent functionalization), functionalization of nanoparticles, control pH and sonication are
some primary approaches for increasing the stability of nanofluids. "the most suitable method for
preparing stable nanofluids is determined based on the nan para ul type and the choice of the base
liquid.
2.2.1 What Applications are Suitable for Nanofluids?
Indeed, in most applications in which conventional fluids 're used for cooling or heating purposes,
nanofluids can be used to replace single-phase fluids. Nanofluids can be used in solar collectors and
photovoltaic systems, car radiators, refrigerators, boilers, medicine-delivery systems, cooling of
electronic equipment, lubrication of components, heating and cooling of building design, CO2
absorption, porous media, aerospace, oil recovery, and any type of liquid-based heat exchanger9-10-

6 Omid Mahian, Lioua Kolsi, Mohammad Amani, Patrice Estelle, Goodarz Ahmadi, Clement Kleinstreuer, Jeffrey
S. Marshall, Majid Siavashi, Robert A. Taylor, Hamid Niazmand, Somchai Wongwises, Tasawar Hayat, Arun
Kolanjiyil, Alibakhsh Kasaeian, Ioan Pop, “Recent advances in modeling and simulation of nanofluid flows-Part I:
Fundamental and theory”, Physics Reports, 2018.
7 H. Masuda, A. Ebata, K. Teramae, N. Hishinuma, Alteration of Thermal Conductivity and Viscosity of Liquid by

Dispersing Ultra-Fine Particles. Dispersion of Al2O3, SiO2 and TiO2 Ultra-Fine Particles, Netsu Bussei. 7 (1993).
8 S.U.S. Choi, J.A. Eastman, Enhancing thermal conductivity of fluids with nanoparticles, ASME Int. Mech. Eng.

Congr. Expo. 66 (1995).

9 R. Saidur, K.Y. Leong, H.A. Mohammad, A review on applications and challenges of nanofluids, Renew. Sustain.

Energy Rev. 15 (2011).

10 R. Taylor, S. Coulombe, T. Otanicar, P. Phelan, A. Gunawan, W. Lv, G. Rosengarten, R. Prasher, H. Tyagi, Small

particles, big impacts: A review of the diverse applications of nanofluids, J. Appl. Phys. 113 (2013).
 19

11. Figure 2.1 gives an overview of primary nanofluid applications.

Figure 2.1 Nanofluid preparation is not just mixing nanoparticles and a liquid but special physical
and chemical techniques are needed to have a stable nanofluid

2.2.2 What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Nanofluids?

Generally, by using a nanofluid the of heat exchange in thermal systems is enhanced because of higher
thermal conductivity of nanofluids compared to the base fluid. Therefore, to transfer a specified value
of heat, the size of a thermal syst m can e reduced by using nanofluids to enhance heat transfer rate,
implying a more compact system and having in material weight and expense. In comparison with
microfluids, nanofluids have a higher stability and better ability to enhance heat conduction. On the
other hand, nanofluids have some disadvantages listed as follows12 :
➢ Nanofluids ha e a relatively high cost of production.
➢ Preservation of nanofluids for long-term use without aggregation and sedimentation of
nanoparticles is a challenge.
➢ The higher viscosity of nanofluids compared to base fluids leads to increases in pumping
power and increases the rate of frictional heating.
➢ Use of nanofluids can increase rates of corrosion and erosion of components into contact with
the nanofluids.
2.2.3 CFD Techniques for Nanofluid Flow Solution
Generally, it is difficult.' to so re the nanofluid flow problems analytically because of the nonlinear
nature of the governing equations. Therefore, to find the velocity and temperature fields, (CFD)
techniques may be used. In this part, the main CFD techniques that are used to determine the flow

11 Z. Zhien, C. Jianchao, C. Feng, L. Hao, Z. Wenxian, Q. Wenjie, Progress in enhancement of CO2 absorption by
nanofluids: A mini review of mechanisms and current status, Renew. Energy. 118 (2018).
12 O. Mahian, A. Kianifar, S.A. Kalogirou, I. Pop, S. Wongwises, A review of the applications of nanofluids in solar

energy, Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 57 (2013) 582–594.

 20

and heat transfer characteristics in nanofluid flows are briefly reviewed. These techniques can be
classified into three main groups as follows and shown in Figure 2.2:
• Macroscale based techniques
• Mesoscale based techniques
• Microscale based techniques

Microscopic Mesoscopic Microscopic

• Navier -Stokes
Equations are solver
approaches such as:
• Finite Diflerence
• Firinite Volume
• Finite Eement
• Lattice Boltzmann • Molecular Dynamics
Equation Simulation (Hamilton
• Dissipative Parlicıle Equation)
Dynamics Method

Figure 2.2 Different CFD Techniques for Nano-Fluids

2.2.4 Macroscale Based Techniques

Macroscale based techniques such as finite difference, finite volume, and finite element deal with
converting partial diff entia' equations to algebraic equations through discretization. Here, the
common macroscale based approaches are briefly reviewed.
2.2.5 Finite Differencing Method
Euler was probably the first one who introduced “finite difference method” (FDM), to solve
differential equations in more than 200 years ago. Finite difference method (FDM) is the oldest and
easiest numerical approach to solve the flow and heat transfer problems.
2.2.6 Finite Volume Method
The finite volume method ( FM) was introduced as an alternative to FDM to better handle complex
flow domains. A review of literature shows that FVM is the most common CFD procedure used in
solving nanofluid flow. In this approach, first the differential equations are converted into integral
form. Next, domain of solution is divided into continuous control volumes, and the governing
equation is applied to each of them. The values of desired parameters are calculated at the center of
control volume, then at the surfaces of control volumes the parameter values are estimated by
interpolation. Finally, for each control volume, the achieved integral terms are converted to algebraic
equations by using quadrature formulae. The finite volume approach is easy to understand ' because
every term has a clear physical description. The advantage of FVM is its flexibility: for use in complex
flows. On the other, one of its main disadvantage is the difficulty of extending the method for higher
than 2nd order accuracy in 3D modeling. As mentioned earlier, most numerical studies on nanofluid
is in used FVM.
 21

2.2.7 Common FVM Solvers

Two common FV base software packages used for simulation of nanofluid flows are ANSYS FLUENT
and NTSYS CFX. For example, [Esfahani et al.] simulated nanofluid flow in a wavy channel using
ANSYS FLUENT and the single-phase approach. Effects of various models for thermophysical
properties on the forced convection turbulent flow in a tube was investigated by [Minea] where
ANSYS FLUENT was used. [Minea & Lorenzini] employed ANSYS FLUENT to solve natural convection
of ZnO/water nanofluid in a cavity by assuming single ph. a homogenous model for nanofluid flow.
[Minea] utilized ANSYS FLUENT to anal' sis the variations of Brinkman number in a partially heated
tube in which Al2O3/water nanofluid is used as coolant. [Chereches et al.] employed ANSYSY
FLUENT to simulate the flow of ion.. ofluid in a circular tube in both laminar and turbulent regimes
while the flow was assumed be single-phase. In another study, [Kaloudis et al.] used ANSYS CFX to
model the nan ofuld fly in a parabolic trough collector by two-phase approach (Eulerian-Eulerian).
Figure 2.3 shows scale of the problems. Researchers are increasingly using open source software’s
as OpenFOAM, which provides a C++ toolbox for solving nanofluid-based pie "len. ihe advantage of
open-source software is both the reduced cost as well as the ease of apting and modifying the
software for specific problems. For example, Meng et al. [23] utilized OpenFOAM to model nanofluid
flow in a square cavity using both single-phase and two-phase flow.

Figure 2.3 (a) Flow in a wavy Chuime solved by ANSYS FLUENT[17] (b) flow in a parabolic trough
collector solved by ANSYS CFX[22] (figures are reprinted with permission from publisher)

2.2.8 Finite Element Method

In finite element method (FEM) the domain of solution is divided into series of finite element (often
unstructured) and governing equation are solved as weighted integrals over these elements. Before
discretizing the governing equations, each term multiplied by a weighted function, the use of each is
one of the main difference between FEM and FVM. The finial equations are in form on nonlinear
algebraic equations. The main advantages of FEM is its flexibility in dealing with complex geometry.
One of disadvantaged of FEM may be related to round off errors and its accumulation. Two FEM based
software packages that have been used for nanofluid are COMSOL Multiphysics and FlexPDE, although
the former package is more commonly only used. For example, [Nasrin et al.] used COMSOL to model
the pe." ma ce of a photovoltaic thermal (PV/T) system using nanofluids with the single-phase
approach. They compared the results of the numerical simulation with experimental data and found
computational agreement between them. In another work, [Bianco et al.] investigated thermal
efficiency and anta, y generation in a PV/T system using COMSOL where nanofluid flow was
considered as a single case fluid. [Gunjo et al]. Also, investigated melting and solidification in a shell-
and-tube regenera. type latent heat storage system where the working fluid was a mixture of paraffin
and nanopa tiu'as. They used COMSOL for the modeling by considering the temperature-dependent
of prope.. as low Figure 2.4 (a)). [Hatami and Jing] used FlexPDE to valu. te the performance of
 22

direct absorber solar collectors by nanofluids (see Figure 2.4 (b)).

Figure 2.4 (a) Flow in a shell and tube regenerative type latent heat storage system solved by
COMSOL Multiphysics (b) Analysis of a Direct Solar Absorption Collector by FlexPDE[27] (Figure
reprinted with permission from publisher)

2.2.9 Dynamics of Nanoparticle Motion in a Liquid

Knowledge of the dynamics of nanoparticles in the base liquid is a prerequisite for accurately
describing the processes of heat transfer in nanofluid flows. There are a wide range of forces that act
on particles suspended in a fluid, but only a fraction of these forces are significant for nanofluids due
to the small particle size. In general, forces acting on particles suspended in a fluid include those
induced by:
1- The base liquid
2- Surrounding walls and solid surfaces
3- Other nanoparticles
4- External magnetic or electric fields (if any)
5- An acoustic field (if any)
Figure 2.5 summarizes the main acting forces on a general suspended particle in a fluid flow, with
detailed discussion provided in [Mahian et al.]13.

13 Omid Mahian, Lioua Kolsi, Mohammad Amani, Patrice Estelle, Goodarz Ahmadi, Clement Kleinstreuer, Jeffrey
S. Marshall, Majid Siavashi, Robert A. Taylor, Hamid Niazmand, Somchai Wongwises, Tasawar Hayat, Arun
Kolanjiyil, Alibakhsh Kasaeian, Ioan Pop, “Recent advances in modeling and simulation of nanofluid flows-Part I:
Fundamental and theory”, Physics Reports, 2018.
 23

Figure 2.5 Forces acting on a general particle suspended in a fluid flow by different sources

2.2.10 Other Macroscale Based Techniques

There are some other macro scale based techniques that have been solve nanofluid flows which are
briefly reviewed here.
2.2.10.1 Control Volume Finite Element Method
Control Volume Finite Element Method (CVFEM) is a powerful technique to solve fluid flows in
complex geometries. Indeed, CVFEM is a combination FEM and FVM so that it has the benefits of these
two techniques in itself.
2.2.10.2 Boundary Element Method
The term "boundary element method” (BEM) is to describe a numerical approach that uses a Green's
function formulation to convert a 3D partial differential equation to an integral equation over a
 24

surface, typically the bounding surface of already immersed in the flow field (typically called the
'boundary integral equation. This boundary integral equation can then be discretized to obtain a
matrix system. When applicable, BEM nails very significant reduction of computation time since it is
necessary only to solve for the element of the unknown variables on the bounding surface, rather
than throughout the domain.
2.2.10.3 Spectral Method
The spectral method is a global approach (unlike FDM) that is based on expansion of the dependent
variables in eigen function expansions, which must be selected to be compatible with the differential
equation, the boundary conditions and the coordinate system used for numerical solution. In a
spectral method, the value of a parameter at each point is obtained by inversion of the eigenfunction
expansions, and so it depends on information obtained from the whole computational.
2.2.10.4 Meshless Methods
To use common CFD techniques such as FDM, FVM, and FEM, a mesh must first be generated, which
can sometimes be a challenge. To solve the meshless (also called meshfree or gridless) methods have
been proposed. In meshless method a set of nodes (without any connection) are scattered
throughout the solution domain. The most common meshless methods are:
• Meshfree local Petrov-Galerkin
• Finite point methods - Radial basis function approach
• Meshfree boundary schemes
In comparison with a standard FEM, a meshless approach is easier to use for modeling 3D problems
and can have higher accuracy. On the other hand, the computational cost of a meshless approach is
often greater than a standard FEM. As an alternative, Lagrangian schemes are another example of
meshless methods where no mesh is used in the solution. Generally, a et number of fluid molecules
are distributed randomly in the flow domain. For example, in Molecular Dynamics (MD) and
Dissipative Particle Dynamics (DPD), the motion of these muscular is governed by Newton's second
law of motion where a set of forces are acting on the fluid. In MD, the forces between the molecules
are calculated by using the inter-particle particles, such as the Lennard-Jones potential. In the DPD
approach, the forces consist of friction forces, conservative forces, and random forces. Based on
knowledge of the forces acting on molecules, the acceleration, velocity, and position of the particles
can be calculated. This allows statistical averaging to be implemented to calculate the bulk properties
of the domain such as density, viscosity, mass diffusivity, velocity, pressure, stream function, and
vorticity. For thermal transport problems, the first law of Thermodynamics is applied to the fluid
molecules which can then be solved for the molecules temperature in the flow domain.
2.2.10.5 Lattice Boltzmann Method
The lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) was first introduced in the 1980s. The application of this
method in simulating heat and mass transfer of fluids, especially in a plea geometries and
multicomponent flows, has increased in intervening years due to its effeteness and flexibility and
simplicity in comparison to the traditional computational fluid dynamics methods. The fundamental
idea of LBM is based on the discrete movement theory of a set of artificial fluid particles' placed on
lattices. The motion of these fluid particles is simulated by following evolution of a prescribed
Boltzmann equation. The most essential advantage of the LBM is the incorporation of microscopic
physical interactions of the fluid particles in the numerical simulation and reveal the mesoscale
mechanism of hydrodynamics.
2.2.10.6 Dissipative Particle Dynamics Method
The continuum Navier-Stokes equations (NSE) re generally used to study energy transport in
micro/nanoscale heat transfer applications such as in nonfluids. The major concern-particularly with
nanoparticle aerosols-is whether the scale r. nan scale should be simulated or if the continuum
 25

assumption is still applicable. This issue can be resolved by comparing the mean free path of the base
fluid to the scale of the problem under consideration . For aerosol systems for which mean free path
is of order of tens of nm (e.g. the mea free paul of air is 60 nm) the no-slip assumption may begin to
break down, even for microscale systems. A similar breakdown of the continuum assumptions can
occur in liquid nanofluid system is for problems involving length scales on the order of about 10nm
or less.
The most familiar approaches among discrete particle simulation methods is molecular dynamics
(MD), where the process starts from tracking individual atoms of the fluid and calculating their
velocities, accelerations and forces. From these microscopic details, further bulk properties such as
temperature, pressure viscosity, density, mass diffusivity, and flow rates can be recovered using
statistical sampling. sun analysis gives comprehensive data about microscopic details of the
simulated system. however, the primary drawback of this method is the extremely small physical and
time scales, which are not appropriate for tracking larger temporal and spatial scales that occur in
the bulk heat transfer applications. In general, the MD method is computationally expensive and time
consuming, even for cutting-edge supercomputers. The time and spatial scales often at transfer at the
nanoscale are larger than MD, yet smaller than the conventional continuum scales. Thus,
intermediate spatial and temporal scales must be captured. These scales can be car "red using
mesoscopic particle-based methods, so-called “coarse-graining” methods, v'. research simulated
particle represents a group of actual fluid molecules. These methods poss. "s" je unique capacity to
model relatively bulk physical systems and efficiently capture the essential details of the pertinent
interactions within fluid molecules. A relatively recent coarse-grained technique of this type is the
dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) method. The dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) method is a
coarse, rained version of MD where each DPD particle represents a group or packet of actual
molecules DPD particles are randomly distributed in the flow domain, and particle interaction obey
conservation of mass, momentum and energy.
2.2.11 Microscale Based Techniques (Molecular Dynamic Simulation)
The fluid flow usually solved for nanofluids using the continuum theory, which involves the
hypothesis of continuum medium. A mentioned in the previous section, the continuum
approximation can begin to break down for problems at the smaller end of the nanometer size range
(e.g. flow around carbon nanotubes, etc.) due to comparable characteristic dimensions of the fluid.
2.2.12 Flow Properties in Nanofluids Environment
So far there are no general mechanisms to rationalize the strange behavior of nanofluids, including
the highly improved effective thermal conductivity, although many possible factors have been
considered, including Brownian
motion, liquid solid interface layer, Nomenclature
ballistic phonon transport, and α aspect ratio of nanoparticles
surface charge state14. However, β Ratio of the nanolayer thickness to the original
there are still several other possible particle radius
macro-scale explanations such as φ Volume fraction of nanoparticles in suspension
heat conduction, particle-driven b Base fluid
natural convection, convection p Nanoparticle
induced by electrophoresis, eff Effective
thermophoresis, etc. To facilitate
better, Table 2.1 Nonculture used in this study
Table 2.1 displays the nomenclature
used in this study.

14 Xiang-Qi Wang and Arun S. Mujumdar, “A Review on Nanofluids - Part I: Theoretical And Numerical
Investigations”, Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, October - December, 2008.
 26

2.2.13 Density and Specific Heat

The calculation of the effective density ρeff and the effective specific heat Cp,eff of a nanofluid is
straightforward. The can be estimated based on the physical principle of the mixture rule as:

m mb + mp
ρeff = ( ) = = (1 + φp )ρb + φb ρp
v eff vb + vp
Eq. 2.1
where φ is the volume fraction. And for effective specie heat we have

Q
(ρCp )eff = ρeff ( ) = (1 + φb )(ρCp)b + φp (ρCp )
m∆T eff p
(1 + φb )(ρCp)b + φp (ρCp )
p
or (Cp )eff =
(1 + φp )ρb + φb ρp
Eq. 2.2
2.2.14 Thermal Conductivity
Currently, there is no reliable theory to predict the anomalous thermal conductivity of nanofluids.
From the experimental results of many researchers, it is known that the thermal conductivity of
nanofluids depends on parameters including the thermal conductivities of the base fluid and the
nanoparticles, the volume fraction, the surface area, and the shape of the nanoparticles, and the
temperature. There are no theoretical formulas currently available to predict the thermal
conductivity of nanofluids satisfactorily. However, there exist several semi-empirical correlations for
calculating the apparent conductivity of two-phase mixtures. They are mainly based on the following
definition of the effective thermal conductivity of a two-component mixture

dT dT
k p φp ( ) + k b φb ( ) k p + 2k b + 2(k p + k b )φ
dx p dx b
k eff = = kb
dT dT k p + 2k b − 2(k p + k b )φ
φp ( ) + φb ( )
dx p dx b
Eq. 2.3
where kp is the thermal conductivity of the particle, kb is the thermal conductivity of the base fluid
and φ is the particle volume fraction in the suspension. Maxwell’s formula shows that the effective
thermal conductivity of nanofluids relies on the thermal conductivity of the spherical particle, the
base fluid and the volume fraction of the solid particles. There are numerous suggestion proposed by
researchers to analyze the interactions among randomly distributed particles15.
2.2.15 Viscosity
Einstein (1956) was the first to calculate the effective viscosity of a suspension of spherical solids
using the phenomenological hydrodynamic equations. By assuming that the disturbance of the flow
pattern of the matrix base fluid caused by a given particle does not overlap with the disturbance of
flow caused by the presence of a second suspended particle, he derived the following equations

μeff = (1 + 2.5φp )μb

Eq. 2.4

15 See previous.
 27

Even since Einstein’s initial work, researchers have made progress in extending the Einstein theory
in three major areas.
1. To extend the Einstein equation to higher particle volume concentrations by including particle-
particle interactions. The theoretical equation can be expressed as μeff = (1+ c1φp + c2φp2 + c3φp3 + --
--)μb .
2. To take into account the fact that the effective viscosity of a mixture becomes infinite at the
maximum particle volume concentration φp max .3. This theoretical equation usually has the term [ 1-
[φp/φp max)]α in the denominator. To include the effect of non-spherical particle concentrations ( see
the [Wang and Mujumdar]16
Experimental data for the effective viscosity of nanofluids are limited to certain nanofluids. The
ranges of the parameters (the particle volume concentration, temperature, etc.) are also limited. Still,
the experimental data show the trend that the effective viscosities of nanofluids are higher than the
existing theoretical predictions. In an attempt to rectify this situation, researchers proposed
equations applied to specific applications. The problem with these equations is that they do not
reduce to the Einstein equation at very low particle volume concentrations and, hence, lack a sound
physical basis.
2.2.16 Heat Transfer Coefficient
Since the heat transfer performance is a better indicator than the effective thermal conductivity for
nanofluids used as coolants in transportation and other industries, the modeling of nanofluid heat
transfer coefficients is gaining attention from researchers. However, it is still at an early stage, and
the theoretical models for nanofluid heat transfer coefficients are quite limited. All the equations are
modified from traditional equations such as the Dittus-Boelter equation [Dittus and Boelter]17, or the
Gnielinski equation [Gnielinski]18 with empirical parameters added. Therefore, these equations are
only valid for certain nanofluids over small parameter ranges. More experimental and theoretical
studies are needed before general models can be developed and verified.
Recently, [Polidori et al]19 investigated the natural convection heat transfer of Newtonian γ
Al2O3/water nanofluids in a laminar external boundary-layer using the integral formalism approach.
Based on a macroscopic modeling and under the assumption of constant thermophysical nanofluid
properties, it is shown that natural convection heat transfer is not solely characterized by the
nanofluid effective thermal conductivity and that the sensitivity to the viscosity model used seems
undeniable and plays a key role in the heat transfer behavior. [Mansour et al.]20 investigated the
effect of uncertainty in the physical properties of γ Al2O3/water nanofluid on its thermohydraulic
performance for both laminar and turbulent fully developed forced convection in a tube with uniform
heat flux. Since the effects of certain nanofluid characteristics such as average particle size and spatial
distribution of nanoparticles on these properties are not presently known precisely, it is quite
difficult to conclude as to the presumed advantages of nanofluids over conventional heat transfer
fluids. More experimental data regarding these effects are needed in order to assess the true potential
of nanofluids.

16 Xiang-Qi Wang and Arun S. Mujumdar, “A Review on Nanofluids - Part I: Theoretical And Numerical
Investigations”, Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering, October - December, 2008.
17 Dittus, F. and Boelter, L. Heat transfer in automobile radiators of the tubular type. University of California

Publications in Engineering, 2, 443– 461 (1930).

18 Gnielinski, V. New equations for heat and mass transfer in turbulent pipe and channel flow. International

Chemical Engineering, 16, 359–368 (1976).

19 Polidori, G., Fohanno, S., and Nguyen, C. T. A note on heat transfer modelling of Newtonian nanofluids in laminar

free convection. International Journal of Thermal Sciences, 46, no. 8, 739–744 (2007).
20 Mansour, R. B., Galanis, N., and Nguyen, C. T. Effect of uncertainties in physical properties on forced convection

heat transfer with nanofluids. Applied Thermal Engineering, 27, no. 1, 240–249 (2007).
 28

2.2.17 Numerical Simulation

For numerical simulations two approaches have been adopted in the literature to investigate the heat
transfer characteristics of nanofluids. The first approach assumes that the continuum assumption is
still valid for fluids with suspended Nano-size particles. The other approach uses a two-phase model
for a better description of both the fluid and the solid phases, but it is not common in the open
literature. The single phase model is much simpler and computationally more efficient. Another
approach is to adopt the Boltzmann theory. The heat transfer enhancement using nanofluids may be
affected by several factors such as the Brownian motion, layering at the solid/liquid interface,
ballistic phonon transport through the particles, nanoparticle clustering and the friction between the
fluid and the solid particles. It is difficult to describe all these phenomena mathematically, however.
[Maïga et al.]21-22 numerically investigated the hydrodynamic and thermal characteristics of
nanofluids flowing through a uniformly heated tube (L = 1 m) in both laminar and turbulent regimes
using the single phase model with adjusted properties.
Results showed that the addition of nanoparticles can increase the heat transfer substantially
compared to the base fluid alone. It was also found that ethylene glycol- γ Al2O3 provided better heat
transfer enhancement than water- γ Al2O3 nanofluids. However, same researcher also discussed the
disadvantages of nanofluids with respect to heat transfer. The inclusion of nanoparticles introduced
drastic effects on the wall shear stress, which increased with an increase of the solid volume fraction.
A new correlation was proposed by to describe the thermal performance of Al2O3 /water nanofluids
under turbulent regime, 0.71 0.35 Nufully = 0.085 Re Pr , which is valid for 104 ≤ Re ≤ 5×105 , 6.6 ≤ Pr
≤13.9 and 0 ≤ φ ≤10%.
[Roy et al.]23 conducted a numerical study of heat transfer for water-γ Al2O3 nanofluids in a radial
cooling system. They found that addition of nanoparticles in the base fluids increased the heat
transfer rates considerably. Use of 10 vol% nanoparticles resulted in a two-fold increase of the heat
transfer rate as compared to that of the pure base fluid. Their results are similar to those of [Maiga et
al.] since they both used the same model.
[Wang et al.]24 investigated numerically free convective heat transfer characteristics of a two
dimensional cavity over a range of Grashof numbers and solid volume fractions for various
nanofluids. Their results showed that suspended nanoparticles significantly increased the heat
transfer rate at all Grashof numbers. For water- γ Al2O3 nanofluid, the increase of the average heat
transfer coefficient was approximately 30% for 10 vol% nanoparticles. The maximum increase in
heat transfer performance of 80% was obtained for 10 vol% Cu nanoparticles dispersed in water.
Furthermore, the average heat transfer coefficient was seen to increase by up to 100% for a nanofluid
consisting of oil containing 1 vol% carbon nanotubes. Furthermore, the presence of nanoparticles in
the base fluid was found to alter the structure of the fluid flow for horizontal orientation of the heated
wall.
Recently, [Abu-Nada]25 numerically investigated heat transfer over a backward facing step (BFS)
with nanofluids using the finite volume method. They found that the average Nusselt number
increased with the volume fraction of nanoparticles for the whole range of Reynolds number ( 200 ≤

21 Maiga, S. E. B., Nguyen, C. T.,

Galanis, N., and Roy, G. Heat transfer behaviors of nanofluids in a uniformly heated
tube. Superlattices and Microstructures, 35, 543–557 (2004).
22 Maiga, S. E. B., Nguyen, C. T., Galanis, N., and Roy, G. Hydrodynamic and thermal behaviors of a nanofluid in a

uniformly heated tube. volume 5 of Computational Studies, 453–462. WIT Press, Southampton, SO40 7AA,
United Kingdom, Lisbon, Portugal (2004).
23 Roy, G., Nguyen, C. T., and Lajoie, P.-R. Numerical investigation of laminar flow and heat transfer in a radial

flow cooling system with the use of nanofluids. Superlattices and Microstructures, (2004).
24 Wang, X.-Q., Mujumdar, A. S., and Yap, C. Free Convection Heat Transfer in Horizontal and Vertical Rectangular

Cavities Filled with Nanofluids. In International Heat Transfer Conference IHTC-13. Sydney, Australia (2006).
25 Abu-Nada, E. Application of nanofluids for heat transfer enhancement of separated flows encountered in a

backward facing step. International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, 29, no. 1, 242–249 (2008).
 29

Re ≤ 600 ) studied. Numerical simulation of natural convection in horizontal concentric annuli,

horizontal cylinder and a partially heated rectangular enclosure using nanofluids was also carried
out by [Abu-Nada et al. ]26. Results showed that, for nanoparticles such as Cu, Ag, Al2O3 and TiO2, the
inclusion of different types and different volume fractions of nanoparticles in base fluid (water) had
an adverse effect on heat transfer performance.
From the microscopic point of view, the traditional computational methods for two-phase mixture
flow do not reveal the inherent nature of the fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids.
A microscopic approach needs to be introduced to describe the effects of interactions between the
suspended nanoparticles and the base liquid particles as well as among the solid particles. The lattice
Boltzmann equation is one of the methods available to deal with such problems. By considering the
external and internal forces on the nanoparticles and the mechanical and thermal interactions among
the nanoparticle and fluid molecules simulated nanoparticle distributions and flow of nanofluids
using the lattice Boltzmann model.
The increased temperature of the fluids could increase the nanoparticle distribution, which is an
important factor responsible for heat transfer enhancement in nanofluids. [Xuan et al.]27 observed
that the random motion of nanoparticles tends to flatten the temperature distribution near the
boundary wall. Due to the irregular fluctuation of suspended nanoparticles, the Nusselt distribution
fluctuates along the main flow direction rather than exhibiting the smooth distribution of the base
fluid. Their results indicated that the distribution and volume fraction of the nanoparticles were
important factors determining the temperature distribution and heat transfer improvement with
nanofluids. Another interesting numerical investigation was conducted by [Xue et al.]28 using
nonequilibrium molecular dynamics simulations. They studied the effect of the liquid-solid interface
on the interfacial thermal resistance and found that the simple monatomic liquid around the solid
particle had no influence on the thermal transport either normal to the surface or parallel to the
surface. They suggested that the large improvement of thermal conductivity in nanofluids cannot be
explained by thermal transport in the liquid-solid interface layer. In summary, it is difficult to
identify an established theory to predict accurately the heat transfer characteristics of
nanofluids. Many researchers deal with nanofluids as a single-phase fluid rather than a two-
phase mixture. However, the particle-liquid interaction and the movement between the particle
and liquids should play important roles in affecting the convective heat transfer performance of
nanofluids.

26 Abu-Nada, E., Masoud, Z., Hijazi, A. Natural convection heat transfer enhancement in horizontal concentric
annuli using nanofluids. Int. Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer, 35, no. 5, 657–665 (2008).
27 Xuan, Y. and Yao, Z. Lattice Boltzmann model for nanofluids. Heat and Mass Transfer/Waerme- und

Stoffuebertragung, 41, no. 3, 199–205 (2005).

28 Xue, L., Keblinski, P., Phillpot, S. R., Choi, S. U. S., and Eastman, J. A. Effect of liquid layering at the liquid-solid

interface on thermal transport. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, (2004).
 30

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