Granular Activated Carbon

for Controlling THMs

Benjamin W. Lykins Jr., Robert M. Clark, and Jeffrey Q. Adams

Suggestedreduction of the maximum contaminant level for trihalomethanes (THMs) could Background
force many utilities to change disinfectants or to alter treatment processes.Facedwith this Proper conventional treatment (coag
possibility, more utilities are considering granular activated carbon for trace organics ulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and
removal. This article presents performanceand cost data, collected from five sites, for the filtration) will reduce THM precursors.
removal of THMs, their precursors,and surrogates. The specific coagulation process influ-
ences the amount as well as the THM
The US Environmental Protection proper conventional treatment, depend- reactivity of the residual organic matter
Agency (USEPA) issued an amendment ing on their disinfectant scheme.” If, remaining prior to chlorination.rHigher-
to the National Interim Primary Drink- however, this concentration is substan- molecular-weight organics are most
ing Water Regulations on Nov. 29, 1979, tially reduced, GAC may be an acceptable effectively removed during pretreatment;
establishing a maximum total trihalo- treatment alternative, especially if chlo- lower-molecular-weight organics are
methane (TTHM) level in drinking water rine must be used to maintain a disin- more effectively reduced by GAC.s.9
of 0.10 mg/L.i This amendment has fectant residual in the system. Jodellah and Weberg indicated that in-
caused many utilities to alter their
treatment methods to reduce the con-
centration of TTHMs. Various treatment
techniques available to utilities have
been documented.2
Recently, however, the USEPA and
other regulatory agencies have suggested
that the allowable TTHM concentrations
in drinking water be lowered.3 This is i
due in part to the World Health Organi-
zation’s recommendation, based on ad-
ditional health data, of a guideline value
of 30 pg/L for chloroform.4 In addition,
the 1986amendments to the Safe Drink-
ing Water Act require the USEPA to
develop disinfection regulations that in-
cludecontrolof disinfection by-products.”
These disinfection by-product regula-
tions could lead to a lower TTHM regu-
lation, which would force many drinking
water utilities to change disinfectants or
consider using various alternative treat-
ment technologies, ranging from im-
proved conventional treatment to gran-
ular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption.
Some water utilities have been able to
maintain THM concentrations below the Figure 1. TOC removal by GAC adsorption at Cincinnati, Ohio
existing regulation of 0.10 mg/L by
MAY 1988 BENJAMIN W. LYKINS JR. ET AL 85

Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association


Figure 2. TOC removal by GAC adsorption at Manchester, N.H.
C:reased total organic carbon (TOC)
removal by activated carbon treatment
resulted in decreased THM formation in
treated water.
Several investigators have identified
the benefits of coagulation prior to
activated carbon adsorption. Randtke
and Jepsenio reported significant in-
creases in the adsorptive capacity of
organics after alum coagulation. Lee and
co-workers” showed that alum coagula-
tion enhanced both carbon adsorption
capacity and the rate of uptake. Semmens
86 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association
ing current and potentially lower THM
regulations at utilities that use chlorine
for disinfection.
Granular activated carbon has been
used for many years to control taste and
odor, and more utilities are considering
its use for trace organics removal. It may
also be a viable treatment alternative for
controlling THMs and their precursors.
Data presented by Symons and co-
workers* showed that the time to GAC
exhaustion for THMs (service time until
the effluent concentration nearly equaled
the influent concentration) for 11 loca-
tions ranged from 3 to >26 weeks. No
definite pattern was apparent from these
data to correlate empty bed contact time
(EBCT) or GAC influent concentration
to service time. Blancklsreported reduc-
tions in THM removal percentages that
ranged from 60 percent for fresh GAC to
29 percent after six months of operation
at Davenport, Iowa.
Extensive data on both performance
and cost have been collected during
several years of field-scale GAC research
by the USEPA’s Drinking Water Re-
search Division. These research sites
were located at Cincinnati, Ohio; Jef-
ferson Parish, La; Manchester, N.H.;
Evansville, Ind.; and Miami, Fla. This
article presents performance and cost
data from these research sites for re-
moval of THMs, their precursors, and
surrogates.
Research locations
Cincinnati, Ohio. The primary source
water for the Cincinnati Water Works is
the Ohio River. To aid settling, 17 mg/L
of alum was added to the raw water.
Prior to flocculation and clarification, 17
mg/L of lime and ferric sulfate (8.6 mg/L
for high turbidity and 3.4 mg/L for low
turbidity), and chlorine (plant effluent
concentration 1.8 mg free chlorine/L)
were added. Postfiltration adsorption
was evaluated by GAC contactors with
an ultimate EBCT of 15.2 min.
Jefferson Parish, la. The Mississippi
River is the source water for the Jefferson
Parish treatment plant. Potassium per-
manganate (0.5-1.0 mg/L) was added for
taste and odor control. A cationic poly-
electrolyte (diallyldimethyl diammonium
chloride [0.5-8.0 mg/L]) was added as
the primary coagulant with lime (7-10
mg/L), which was fed for pH adjustment
and co-workersizobserved improved to 8.0-8.3. Chlorine and ammonia (3:l
GAC performance with greater levels of ratio) were added for chloramine disin-
pretreatment. Weber and Jodellah%oted fection (1.4-1.7 mg/L residual after
that alum coagulation improved overall filtration). An existing sand filter was
adsorbability of TOC. Lykins and Clark14 converted to a postfilter GAC adsorber
showed the effectiveness of conventional having about a 20-min EBCT. In addition,
treatment for removal of TOC and THM four GAC pilot columns were operated in
formation potential at several water series providing 11.6-, 23.2-, 34.7-, and
utilities. Although conventional treat- 46.3-min EBCTs. Also, pilot GAC col-
ment will enhance removal of TOC and umns with 20-min EBCTs were eval-
THM precursors, it is generally inade- uated after disinfectants (chlorine,
quate for removing THM precursors to monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, ozone)
levels that will be consistent with meet- were applied.
JOURNAL AWWA
 Manchester, N.H. The principal water
source for Manchester is Lake Massa-
besic. Alum and sodium aluminate were
added for coagulation, pH adjustment,
and alkalinity control at dosage levels
averaging about 12 and 8 mg/L, respec-
tively. Chlorine was added prior to sand
filtration at an average dose of 1 mg/L.
At the clearwell, chlorine was again
added in the range of 2-3 mg/L to produce
an average distribution system free
chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/L. A GAC
filter normally used for taste and odor
control was used for postfiltration ad-
sorption with a 23-min EBCT.
Evansville, Ind. The Evansville utility
uses Ohio River water as its source.
Chlorine and alum were added before
primary settling with average concen-
trations of 6 and 28 mg/L, respectively.
A free chlorine residual of 1.5-2.0 mg/L
was maintained after sand filtration.
Approximately 12 mg lime/L was added
after primary settling for pH controlto
8.0. A pilot plant operating in parallel
with the full-scale plant used chlorine
dioxide for disinfection. (Because of the
chlorine dioxide generating procedure,
chlorine was also present.) Average alum
and polymer dosages of 12 and 0.8 mg/L,
respectively, were added to the raw
water. An average lime dose of about 6 z
mg/L was used for pH control to 8.0. i 200-
3
Post-pilot-plant GAC contactors had an
EBCT of 9.6 min.
Miami, Fla. Raw water is supplied to
the greater Miami area by seven wells.
Lime softening was done with three soft-
eners. Activated silica (1.6 mg/L) was
fed to the influent. After recarbonation,
18 mg chlorine/L was added. After the
chlorine contact basin, the water was
sand filtered before distribution. Four
bench-scale GAC glass columns were
operated in series after the clearwell at Figure 5. TOX removal by GAC at Jefferson Parish, La.
EBCTs of 6.2-24.8 min.
TOC removal by GAC
Removal of TOC has been suggested
as a means of measuring treatment per-
formance. Total organic carbon is rela-
tively easy to analyze and incorporates
all organics but does not relate to any
specific regulatory requirement. In the
following evaluation, however, TOC was
used as a general surrogate to determine
the performance of GAC adsorption
becausegoodcorrelations have been seen
between TOC and THM formation
potential. l4
At Cincinnati, Ohio, the TOC effluent
concentration at the start of one run was
about 0.2 mg/L (nonadsorbable fraction)
and increased to about 1.1 mg/L after
approximately 100 days of operation.
After that point, the TOC tracked just
below the sand filter effluent for the
duration of the 320 days of operation
,(Figure 1). At Manchester, N.H., the
nonadsorbable TOC fraction at the start Figure 6. Comparison of distribution system versus three-day simulated
of one evaluation was about 0.5 mg/L. distribution at Cincinnati, Ohio

MAY 1988 BENJAMIN W. LYKINS JR. ET AL 87

Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association


Figure 7. Term THM concentrations after GAC adsorption at Cincinnati, Ohio
rigwe 8. Term THM concentrations after GAC adsorption at Manchester, N.H.
The GAC effluent concentration in-
creased until about 35 days of operation
before tracking just below the sand filter
effluent for the remainder of the 130-day
run (Figure 2).
Evaluation of GAC for TOC removal
at Cincinnati and Manchester demon-
strated typical or semitypical break-
through curves. At Jefferson Parish, La.,
however, the full-scale GAC adsorber
seemedto remove the TOC concentration
88 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association
steadily for about 160 days during one
study (Figure 3). The nonadsorbable
TOC fraction at the beginning of this
study was 0.2 mg/L. This phenomenon
was not seen in pilot GAC series con-
tactors at Jefferson Parish. Using the
same source water used for the full-scale
system and also experiencing a non-
adsorbable fraction of 0.2 to 0.3 mg/L,
the series GAC contactors showed what
could be classified as typical TOC break-
through curves. Total organic carbon
concentrations broke through (effluent
TOC concentrations first exceeded non-
adsorbable fraction) after approximately
30,50,80, and 110 days of operation for
the 11.6-, 23.2-, 34.7-, and 46.3-min
EBCTs, respectively. At Miami, Fla., the
average TOC concentration of the GAC
influent was higher and breakthrough
occurred sooner (1-14 days for 6.2 and
24.8 min, respectively) than noted for
the other locations.
Total organic halide removal
by GAC
Total organic halide (TOX) is indica-
tive of total halogenated organics that
may be an adequate surrogate indicator
of THMs. Removal of TOX by GAC was
evaluated during field-scale studies at
Cincinnati and Jefferson Parish. Figure
4 shows a limited amount of instanta-
neous TOX removal at Cincinnati. At
the start of this study, ~5 pg/L of TOX
was nonadsorbable. A gradual increase
in GAC effluent concentration was noted
until about 140 days of operation. At
that time, the GAC influent concentra-
tion increased with a corresponding in-
crease in effluent concentration.
During a pilot-plant study at Jefferson
Parish, chlorine was added to one of the
treatment systems. The TOX influent
concentration varied from 120 to 340
pg/L over 370 days of operation. Figure 5
shows that the nonadsorbable TOX was
~5 pg/L (similar to Cincinnati) with
removal of the adsorbable TOX con-
tinuing over the 375 days of operation.
THM removal by GAC
Removal of instantaneous THMs and
their precursors by GAC to meet a TTHM
regulation was also evaluated. Because
the utilities studied used various disin-
fectants that affected the THM concen-
trations, a common parameter was
needed for purposes of comparison.
Terminal trihalomethane (term THM)
was selected because it represented the
maximum THM (instantaneous THM
[inst THM] plus THMs formed) in the
distribution system at a given time.
During the Cincinnati study, clearwell
samples were stored at ambient tem-
perature with free chlorine residual to
simulate actual conditions in the dis-
tributed water.r6 Figure 6 shows that
inst THM values were comparable for
the system samples and the three-day
stored samples for one year. At the other
research sites, ambient conditions (pH,
temperature) were maintained but often
chlorine dosageswere much greater than
those used in actual treatment. Although
this may be atypical, it is important to
maintain a free chlorine residual in the
distribution system as well as a simu-
lated system when THM concentrations
are evaluated.
Some water utilities are able to main-
JOURNAL AWWA
 TABLE 1
Length of CAC operation and cost estimates for TTHM removal by GAC
TTHM Goals-/g/L
10 25 50 100
Location Day’ Conc.t C/l,OOOgal Day’ Conc.t C/l,OOOgal Day* Conc.t C/l,OOOgal Day* Gmc.t ~/l,OOOgal
Cincinati. Ohio
(three-day term,
15.2.minEBCT) 50 75 24.9 155 45 14.9 208 70 13.8 280 150 12.2
Jefferson Parish, La.
(five-day term,
18.8.min EBCT) $ $ 1 20 80 57.4 63 170 25.8 103 220 21.0
Manchester, N.H.
(three-day term,
23.min EBCT) 2 73 56.9 16 70 98.0 98 65 41.2 § 5 5
Evansville, Ind.
(three-day term,
9.6.min EBCT) t $ t 6 96 92.1 56 53 25.7 5 § 5
Miami, Fla.
(six-day term,
24.8.min EBCT) $ x $ 15 580 92.7 17 580 82.9 20 510 72.1
*Day to GAC exhaustion for THM goal
tConc.-GAC influent concentration
fGAC effluent was not below 10 pg/L.
§GAC effluent did not exceed 100 kg/L.

tain their THM concentrations below other locations and, as with TOC, broke As shown in Table 1, the GAC ad-
the existing promulgated regulation of through quickly. The nonadsorbable sorbers used at Cincinnati produced the
0.10 mg/L (100 pg/L) by conventional six-day term THM was about 10 rg/L, overall best term THM removals. A
treatment. If the regulation is lowered and breakthrough occurred around 1,2, trihalomethane regulation of 10 pg/L
substantially, however, other treatment 7, and 14 days for the 6.2-, 12.4-, l&6-, will probably negate the use of GAC at
alternatives will be required and GAC and 24%min EBCTs, respectively. all the locations evaluated. Using GAC
may be an alternative worth evaluating. Because terminal THM values can to meet a 25-pg/L regulation may not be
The length of time that GAC can remove simulate concentrations in the distribu- economically feasible in most cases. At
trihalomethanes and their precursors to tion system, it is possible to estimate the the 50-pg THM/L concentration, how-
meet a possible regulation of 10, 25, 50, length of GAC operation for meeting ever, GAC may be attractive for some
or 100 pg/L will determine its efficacy as possible THM goals. Table 1 gives an surface water plants. For locations such
a viable treatment option. indication of how long GAC can remove as Miami, GAC may not be an acceptable
Using the same locations and runs for various concentrations of THMs. alternative.
examples of THM and precursor removal
by GAC as were used in the TOC
examples, breakthrough curves show
the same general shape. For instance, at
Cincinnati, Ohio, the nonadsorbable
three-day term THM was about 3 pg/L
at the start of an adsorption study and
breakthrough occurred after about 50
days of operation (Figure 7). From about
day 110,the three-day term THM effluent
was approximately the same increment
below the sand filter effluent throughout
the 320-day study (Figure 7). For Man-
chester, N.H., the nonadsorbable three-
day term THM concentration was about
10 pg/L. This concentration increased to
about 45 pg/L after 40 days of operation
and then tracked below the sand filter
effluent for the rest of the 130-day run
(Figure 8). The nonadsorbable five-day
term THM at Jefferson Parish, La., was
about 15 pg/L and this concentration
steadily increased for about 140 days of
operation for one run (Figure 9). With
the series contactors at Jefferson Parish,
the nonadsorbable fraction was about 25
pg/L and breakthrough was noted at 40,
70, 90, and 110 days for the 11.6-, 23.2-, Figure 9. Five-day term THM concentrations after GAC adsorption at Jefferson
34.7., and 46.3-min EBCTs, respectively. Parish, La.
The term THM concentrations for Miami
were much higher than those seen at the
MAY 1988 BENJAMIN W. LYKINS JR. ET AL 89

Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association

 Effect of prechlorination
By not using chlorination prior to
GAC adsorption, it could be anticipated
that fewer TTHMs would be produced
because of additional precursor removal.
Parallel GAC columns were evaluated in
a study at Jefferson Parish.17 One GAC
column received no chlorination prior to
GAC adsorption, whereas the other GAC z 0 OQ - 00 0
column received 1.0 mg free chlorine/L
after about 30 min of contact time. A
o”vvVW0 00
five-day term THM concentration was
determined for both GAC column efflu-
VP 8 v”v 0v
ents to simulate concentrations in the
farthest reaches of the distribution sys-
tem. Essentially the same THM concen-
tration was present in the GAC effluent,
regardless of whether chlorine was or
was not added prior to GAC treatment
(Figure IO). A longer chlorine contact
time prior to GAC adsorption might
have shown some difference.
At two research locations mentioned
previously (Cincinnati, Ohio, and Man-
chester, N.H.), chlorine was added prior Figure 10. Comparison of GAC effluent for chlorinated and nonchlorinated
to the GAC adsorbers. At another location. influent at Jefferson Parish, La.
(Jefferson Parish, La.), monochlorqmine
was applied prior to GAC. Comparison
of term-THM removal among these
locations is difficult because of the
precursor variability of the source
waters. However, some general trends
were noted. For instance, with an in-
fluent of 160 pg/L the GAC contactors
used at Cincinnati produced an initial
term-THM removal of 98 percent. After
90 days of operation, approximately 63
percent of the term THM was still being
removed. At Manchester, where the GAC
beds were designed for taste and odor
control, initial term-THM removal was
85 percent at an influent concentration
of 72 pg/L. After 90 days of operation,
approximately 35 percent of the term
THM was being removed. At Jefferson
Parish, where a sand filter had been
converted to a postfilter adsorber, 83
percent of the term THM was initially
removed by GAC that had an influent
concentration of 93 pg/L. After 90 days
of operation, approximately 40 percent
of the term THM was being removed.
One concern about using chlorine prior
to GAC treatment may not be reduction
of THMs but adsorption of chlorinated Figure 11. Linear regression of three-day term THM and TOC for GAC effluent at
organics on’the carbon. Reactivation of Cincinnati, Ohio
carbon that contains chlorinated or-
ganics may produce undesirable by-
products, e.g., dioxins and furans.18 cinnati and Manchester GAC effluent acceptable levels, the length of GAC
shows a reasonable relationship until operation may be short. For instance,
Predicting THM concentrations GAC exhaustion. A l.O-mg/L TOC ex- Manchester would only be able to operate
Good correlations have been found haustion criterion may be acceptable as for approximately 16 days. Conversely,
between TOC and THM formation an operational guideline for THM control with deep-bed GAC contactors, Cincin-
potential.14 Once these correlations are as well as for control of other organics.19 nati could operate much longer (more
developed, surrogate parameters such At l.O-mg/L GAC exhaustion for Cin- than 155 days).
as TOC may be used as an indicator of cinnati, about 32 pg/L term THM was Total organic halide was also evaluated
THM concentration. seen (Figure 11). The same GAC exhaus- as a possible predicator of THM concen-
As discussed earlier, term THM can tion criteria for Manchester gave about trations. Instantaneous THM and in-
simulate distribution system THM con- 25 pg/L term THM (Figure 12). Although stantaneous TOX of the effluent at
centrations. Total organic carbon corre- the l.O-mg/L TOC criteria may allow Cincinnati tracked each other through-
lated to three-day term THM for Cin- THM concentrations to be kept within out 210 days of operation. The instan-

90 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY JOURNAL AWWA

Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association

 Jefferson Parish and Evansville than for
the other utilities. Neither of these util-
ities used free chlorine as a disinfectant
through treatment, although Evans-
ville’s chlorine dioxide generation pro-
duced some free chlorine. It is possible
that chlorine may react with the least-
adsorbable fraction of TOC. This phe-
nomenon should be examined in more
detail.
Cost for removing THMs
By looking at the days to GAC exhaus-
tion in Table 1 for various THMgoals, it
is obvious that the use of GAC for THM
control will be expensive for all the
locations studied except Cincinnati. The
deep-bed GAC contactors at Cincinnati
were designed to provide efficient organic
and organic precursor removal. On the
other hand, at Jefferson Parish, an exist-
ing sand filter was used as a postfiltra-
tion adsorber, and at Manchester, the
GAC filters were designed for taste and
odor control.
Table 1 shows cost estimates for
TTHM removal by GAC for these loca-
Figure 12. Linear regression of three-day term THM and TOC for GAC effluent at tions. Actual days to exhaustion for each
Manchester, N.H. THM goal were determined for each
location and costs weregenerated from a
TABLE 2 computer program that was developed
Regression results for term THM versus TOC
with data from GAC field operations. All
Location A a R2 N five locations could remove terminal
Cincinnati, Ohio 26.5 2.002 0.814 735 THMs to 25 pg/L at varying costs.
Jefferson Parish, La. 68.4 0.616 0.460 404 Cincinnati had the lowest cost at 14.9W
1,000 gal and Manchester, Evansville,
Manchester,Ind.
Evansville, N.H. 23.4
25.1 1.235
1.407 0.743
0.661 ~~ and Miami costs were in the 92-984/1,000
Miami, Fla. 53.6 1.372 0.906 68
gal range. For the 50-pg/L THM goal,
Cincinnati’s estimated cost of 13.84/1,000
TABLE 3 gal was the lowest and Miami’s estimated
Regression results for term THM versus TOX cost of 82.94/1,000 gal was the highest.
Jefferson Parish and Evansville costs
Location* A a --R2 1 N
_.
I I I were in the 25Q/l,OOO-galrange. Three
Cincinnati, Ohio 0.1445 1.538 0.879 25 locations had GAC influent THMs that
Jefferson Parish, La. 0.6398 I
1.208 I
0.869 I
27 exceeded 100 pg/L. Costs for meeting a
*TOX was analyzed only at these locations. lOO-pg/L goal were 12.24/1,000 gal,
214/1,000 gal, and 72.14/1,000 gal for
TABLE 4 Cincinnati,Jefferson Parish, and Miami,
TOC levels equivalent to 50.pg/L TTHM respectively.
These cost estimates show that adding
GAC treatment for THM control could
place a heavy financial burden on all of
the utilities except Cincinnati. If the
cost of GAC treatment at Cincinnati is
154/1,000 gal, the overall increase in the
water bill would amount to about 20
percent or $25 per year for an average
household.
taneous THM concentration was always lowing equation was hypothesized for Based on these analyses, TOC may be
lower than the TOX, as might be term THM breaking through GAC as a useful mechanism for estimating
expected becausethe TOX includes all of related to TOC or TOX: TTHM removal and would have signif-
the halogenated organics. Instantaneous icant operational advantages. To illus-
THM and instantaneous TOX were term THM = AXa (1) trate the use of TOC as a predictor of
compared at Jefferson Parish for 375 TTHM concentration, Eq 1 and the
days of operation. Up to about 90 days of in which term THM = terminal trihalo- values in Table 2 were utilized to predict
operation, the instantaneous THM methane in micrograms per litre, X = a TOC concentration equivalent to a 50-
tracked below the TOX, as in Cincinnati. TOC (in milligrams per litre) or TOX (in pg/L TTHM value. Table 4 shows the
After that point in time, the two param- micrograms per litre), and A,a = param- results of this prediction and the target
eters did not correlate as well. eters determined by regression. Regres- level for TOC that will result in a 50-
To provide a better correlation between sion results are shown in Tables 2 and 3. pg/L concentration for TTHMs in the
term THM and TOC or TOX, the fol- The regression results are worse for distribution system. Using these TOC
MAY 1988 BENJAMIN W. LYKINS JR. ET AL 91

Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association


120-
40-
L 78:8:80 (Aug. 1986).
20-
0 I I 1 1 I
0 5 10 15 20
EBCT--ml”
Figure 13. Estimated GAC treatment costs for a 50-pg/L TTHM exhaustion
criterion
levels for various EBCTs yields the costs
shown in Figure 13. This assumption
was used to present an example of cost
differences among three utilities at
which multiple EBCTs were available.
These utilities were located at Miami,
Jefferson Parish, and Cincinnati.
Figure 13 shows estimated GAC treat-
ment costs for a l.O-mg/L TOC target.
Miami’s cost ranged from $1.27/1,000
gal at a 12.4-min EBCT to 79.74/1,000
gal for a 24.8-min EBCT. Jefferson
Parish’s cost did not change much, rang
ing from 354/1,000 gal for a lO.&min
EBCT to 314/1,000 gal for a 31.4-min
EBCT. For Cincinnati, the cost for a 4.4-
min EBCT was 614/1,000 gal. At a more
practical EBCT of 15.2 min, the cost was
13.3c/l,OOOgal, comparable to the cost
shown in Table 1.
Summary
When chlorine is not applied prior to
conventional treatment, THM precur-
sors will be removed but probably not
sufficiently to meet THM concentrations
below 100 pg/L (if chlorine is used as the
postdisinfectant). Granular activated
carbon has been shown to be a possible
treatment alternative for meeting some-
what lower THM concentrations. How-
ever, GAC will not be effective for all
situations. With GAC contactors and
source waters similar to Cincinnati,
precursors can effectively be removed
with GAC.
The cost of GAC treatment varied for
each location examined, with 14.94/1,000
gal being the lower cost for a 25+g/L
TTHM goal and 984/1,000 gal the highest
cost. For a 50-pg/L TTHM goal, the
lower cost was 13.84/1,000 gal and the
highest cost was 82.94/1,000 gal. This
92 RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY
Copyright © 1988 American Water Works Association
Treatment. Jour. Envir. Engrg.-ASCE,
111:6 (Dec. 1985).
---I-
8. SEMMENS, M.J. & STAPLES, A.B. The
Nature of Organics Removed During
Treatment of Mississippi River Water.
Jour. A WWA, 78:2:76 (Feb. 1986).
9. JODELLAH,A.M. & WEBER,WJ. Control-
ling Trihalomethane Formation Potential
by Chemical Treatment and Adsorption.
Jour. A WWA, 77:10:95 (Oct. 1985).
10. RANDTKE,S.J. & JEPSEN,C.P. Chemical
Pretreatment for Activated Carbon Ad-
sorption. Jour. A WWA, 73:8:411 (1981).
11. LEE,M.C.;SNOEYINK,V.L.;&CRITTENDEN,
J.C. Activated Carbon Adsorption of
Humic Substances. JOUY. A WWA, 7318:
440 (Aug. 1981).
12. SEMMENS,MJ. ET AL. Influence of Coagu-
lation on Removal of Organics by Gran-
0 ular Activated Carbon. JOUY. AWWA,
13. WEBER,W.J. & JODELLAH,A.M. Removing
Humic Substances by Chemical Treat-
ment and Adsorption. JOUY. AWWA,
77:4:132 (Apr. 1985).
I I I I 14. LYKINS,B.W. JR. & CLARK,R.M. Removal
25 30 35 40 45 of Humic Material by Conventional
Treatment and Carbon. 193rd ACS Natl.
Mtg., Denver, Colo., Apr. 5-10, 1987.
15. BLANCK,C.A. Trihalomethane Reduction
in Operating Water Treatment Plants.
cost would have to be evaluated with Jour. A WWA, 71:9:525 (Sept. 1979).
other treatment alternatives for control- 16. MILLER, R. & HARTMAN,D.J. Feasibility
Study of Granular Activated Carbon and
ling THMs, taking into account disin- On-site Regeneration. EPA-600/S2-82-087
fection by-products other than THMs (1982).
and any other detrimental effects. 17. LYKINS, B.W. JR.; KOFFSKEY,W.E.; &
MILLER, R.G. Chemical Products and
Acknowledgment Toxicologic Effects of Disinfection. JOUY.
The authors thank Sue Campbell and A WWA, 78:11:66 (Nov. 1986).
Jeff Finkeldeyfor their efforts in produc- 18. LYKINS, B.W. JR.; CLARK,R.M.; & CLEV-
ing the graphics and Betty E. Wilkinson, ERLY,D.H. Polychlorinated Dioxin and
Patricia Pierson, and Sandi Dryer for Furan Discharge During Carbon Reacti-
vation. Jour. Envir. Engrg. Div.-ASCE,
typing the manuscript. 114:2:300 (Apr. 1988).
This article has been reviewed in 19. LYKINS,B.W.JR.;CLARK,R.M.;&MILTNER,
accordance with the USEPA’s peer and R.M. Synthetic Organic Chemical Re-
administrative review policies and ap- moval by Granular Activated Carbon.
proved for presentation and publication. AWWA 1987 Ann. Conf., Kansas City,
Mention of trade names or commercial MO.
products does not constitute endorse-
ment or recommendation for use by the About the authors:
USEPA. Benjamin W. Lykins
Jr. is chief of systems
References and cost evaluation
1. National Interim Primary Drinking Wa- staff at the US Envi-
ter Regulations;Control of Trihalometh- ronmental Protection
anes in Drinking Water. Fed. Reg., Agency (USEPA), 26
44:231:68624-68707(Nov. 29, 1979). W. Martin Luther
2. SYMONS,J.M. ET AL. Treatment Tech- KingDr., Cincinnati,
niques for Controlling Trihalomethanes
in Drinking Water. EPA-600/2-811156 ‘ns is a graduate of
(Sept. 1981). Marshall University (Huntington, W. Va.)
3. VOGT,C. Developmentof Drinking Water with a BS degree and of the University of
Regulations for Organic Contaminants Cincinnati (Ohio) with an MS degree. He
in the United States. SecondNatl. Conf. is a member of A WWA and his work has
on Drinking Water: Treatment for Or- been published previously in JOURNAL
ganic Contaminants. Edmonton, Alta., AWWA and Journal ASCE. Lykins has
April 7-8, 1986. been involved in drinking water research
4. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. for thepast loyearsand has been with the
World Health Organization (1984).
5. The Safe Drinking Water Act Amend- USEPA and its predecessor organizations
ments of 1986,PL 99-339(June19,1986). for 25 years. Robert M. Clark is director
6. MCGUIRE, M.J. & MEADOW, R.G. and Jeffrey Q. Adams is an environmental
AWWARF Trihalomethane Survey.]our. engineer, both with the Drinking Water
A WWA, 80:1:61 (Jan. 1988). Research Division, Water Engineering
7. COLLINS,M.R.; AMY, G.L.; & KING, P.H. Research Laboratory of the USEPA in
Removal of Organic Matter in Water Cincinnati.
JOURNAL AWWA