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ACE
Engineering Academy
llydj;tbd I Drlhl I Bhopal lPune lBhubaneswar lBengaluru lLuclimow lPatna lChennai lVijayawada lVisakhapatnam lTirupati lGuntur lKukatpally (Hyd)

Environmental Engineering
Volume - I: Study Material with Classroom Practice Questions

GATE r Civil Engineering

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Population Forecasting & Water Demands
Sources and Conveyance of Water
Quality of Water
Plain Sedimentation
Coagulation

Disinfection
Miscellaneous Water Treatment
Distribution System

Introduction to Waste Water Engineering

and Estimation of DWF & WVYF
Design of Sewers
Characteristics of Sewage
Treatment of Sewage
Activated Sludge Process
Trickling Filters
Slu4ge Digestion
Septic Tanks
Oxidation Ponds
Disposal of Sewage Eflluents
Solid Waste Management
Air Pollutlon artd Control
Noise Pollutlon LOg - ttz
 Population Forecqsting &
Wster Demqnds
Day Schools - 45 to 90 /pcd
Total Quantify of water rctltrircd
Rcsidontial Schools - 135 to 225 lpcd
for a town depends on: Hostcls ltt0 tit/bed
i) Rate of demand
Restaurants 70 lit/seat
ii) Design period
Hospitals (< 100 bcds) - 340 lit/bed
iii) Population (at thc crrtl ol'tlcsign pcriod)
Hospitals (>100 bcds) 450lit/bed
) Rate of demand: Bus & Railway Stations, Airport -70lpcd
Exprcsscil as /pltrl, /pcrl t'lt:
Public use: Lawn sprinkling, public parks
3. Various lypcs ol' tlcmand (As per etc...
lS: | 172 lt)t)l): 7. Losses: Leakage due to bad plumbing,
l) liol iur irv('rrrlitt lttdian town without full
thefts etc.
llrrslrtnli syslt'ttt (lirr LIG)
| | )orrrt'slic ( 50 to 60%) --135 /.p.c.d Fire demand: (Generally 5 to l0'/o
.) lrrtlrrsltral & commercial
of total demand of the citY):
(20to25%) --70
I l'rrblic use ( 5 to 10 %) -- 10
I/min
,1. Losses & thefts (15 to20 %) -- 55

'Iotal demand: 270l.p.c.d

kglcri at the fire hydrant

b) With full flushing system ( HIG) high. Therefore it affects the distribution
1. Domestic -- 200 /.p.c.d system rather than storage tanks.
2.Industrial & commercial '- 70
for
3. Public use -- 10
9. Empirical Formulae fire
4. Losses & thefts -- 55 demand:
a) Kuichling's formula: Q :3182 6
Total demand: 335 /.P.c.d
Where,

Q: Demand in lit lmin ;

homes, Boarding Schools and Hostels:
135 /pcd.
P : population in thousands
b) Freeman formula:
4. Domestic demand:
Bathing, cooking etc. ..
Q:1136 [(P/s)+ 10]

c) National board of fire underwriters

3. Industrial and commercial demand: formula: Q: 4637 6lr - 0.01 6l
Offices, hostels, hospitals, factories,
industries etc. Buston's Formula: Q :5663 ..fi
Offices - 45 to 90 ipcd
 ACE
nngineeriosAcademy 2 Environmental Engineering

l0.Factors affecting the rate of l3.Components - design demand:

demand: 1) Sources of supply: Maximum daily
a) Size of city consumption.
b) Climatic conditions 2) Pipe rnains: (Source toservice
c) Types of gcntry and habits reservoir).Maximum daily consumption.
d) Industrial and commercial activity. 3) Filters and other units: Twice the
e) Quality of water supply average daily demand (sometimes Max.
0 Pressure in the distribution system daily demand).
g) Development of sewage facilities
h) System of supply 4) Pumps: Twice the average demand
i) Cost of water 5) Distribution system: Total draft.
j) Policy of metering
14. Design period: A reasonable future
period for which provision is made in water
System of supply:
a) Intermittent system : supply scheme.
Generally consumption is less.
o It shall not be too large to become a
b) Continuous system: burden on the present users or too short
Generally Consumption is more. to be uneconomical.
o { design period of 20 to 30 years is
11. Variation in demand and their effects generally adopted.
on the design of various components of a o It depends on useful life of component,
water supply scheme. difficulty in future expansion, funds
availability, anticipated rate of
population growth,interest rate etc
Component Design period
Dams 50 years
Conveying main pipes 30 years
o6t2 24hr Distribution svstem 30 years
Maximum daily demand Water treatment units 15 years
:
1.8 x Average daily demand Pumps, Service Reservoir 15 years
Maximum hourly demand I S.Population Forecasting Methods :
:
1.5 x Average hourly demand Based on law of probability and therefore
of a Maximum daily give approximate estimate.
Maximum hourly demand
:2.1 x Average hourly demand Arithmetic increase method:
a)
o Rate of change of population with time
l2.TotalDraft: Greater of the following. is assumed to be constant.
D Max. daily demand + Fire demand. It is . Applicable to old and large cities with
called coincident draft. no industrial growth and reached a
ii) Max. hourly demand. saturation or maximum development.
 ,!. acE
tJFrrgine€ring Aeademy 3 Population Forecasting & Water Demands

'l'his method yields lower results for b) Geometrical increase method.'

rapidly growing cities. o Percentage increase in population fronn
v Pn:(Po+nx) decade to
decade assumed to be
is
Where, constant. It gives good results for young
Po: latest known population; and rapidly expanding cities.
Pn: Prospective population after 'n' Pn:Po [1+(r/100)]"
decades. Whcro.
x : average increase in population per 'r' geometric meano/o increase.
decade.

llxample:1 Example:2

The population frgures in a growing town are Population data portaining to a community is given
e
)r
as follows: (ESE - 2002) below. Find population in the year 2030 by
Year Population Year Population Geometrical incrcasc rncthod.
990 2000 20t0
a t970 40,000 1980 46,000
I

50000 80000 r40000

t 1990 53,000 2000 58,000
The predicated population in 2010 by
Sol:
fuithmetic Regession method is
Year Population Pcr tJccade 7o increases
(a) 62,000 o) 63,000
in po
(c) 64,000 (d) 65,000
50-'40y401x 100 : 25
1980 40000
[(s(
tJO- 50y50lx 100 : 60
1990 50000
[(lJ(
2000 80000
t, l]0)/tt0lx 100:75
[( 140
Per decade increases 2010 140000
Year Population
in nopulation
1970 40000
11-
2030 - 2010
lr,, . 140000
6000 = 2 decadcs
1980 46000 10
7000
r990 s3000 Geometric average of per clccittlc'2, ittcrease
5000
2000 58000
inpopulation (-) : (r, t r, * r,)l

X=
6000+7000+5000
a
=6000 : ,'|
J

P" =\ +nx
x';:;""'
2010-2000
n=-= 1
I Pn =Prorn: *,[' t :r+oooo[r.K)'
10 #]'
Po = 58000
:301795
Pro'o :P, =Po + lx=58000 + 1(6Ooo)=O+ooO c) Incremental increase method:
o Combination of the above two methods'
 ACE 4 Environmental Engineering
:EnginesingAcaaemy

In this method , the average of increase d) Decreasing rate method: Quite rational
in population is found by arithmetic method for the cities whose rate of
increase method and to this is added the increase goes on reduce, as they reach
average of net incremental increase. saturation.
T --1t- --1 T --]
fn: fo+ n. x+
n(n+l) - p.
"=pl1+'o-D
"L r00llllt*r-- 1....1.r*t--
roo I L r00 l
|

Exnmple 3:
-.Y

of a town is given below.

Past population data
Find the population in the year 2030 by The census record of a particular town shows the
incremental increase method. population figures as follows. (ESE-ee)

Year 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year r980 1990 2000 2010
Pooulation 25000 40000 50000 70000 Pooulation 55500 63700 71300 79500

Estimate the population for the year 2020 by

Sol:
decreasing rate of growth method.
Per
Increment
decade
over Sol:
Year Population increases
increase in Year Population Per decade Decrease
in o/o
population 7o increases in
population
L} in increase
1980 25000 + 150001 nonulation
1990 40000
10000{ - 5000 1980 55500
2000 50000 +10000 15.31 \
20000 1990 63700 +3.88
20r0 70000 t 1.93 v
2000 71300 +0.43
11.5
15000+10000+20000 20r0 79500
X= a =15000
J 2020-20t0
P" ro = 11.5,
10
v- - 5000 + 10000
=+ 2500 +3.88 +0.43
=+2.I55o/o

2030-2010
P"=/QQQQ;1= =2decades
l0

"(i*2
t),
pn
= pu + nx +
P, = 7e5oo[t . 1!#E] = runro

pzo:o
= pz :70000 + z(l sooo)+ UPC2500)
: 107500
Hydcrab;rl Il )rlhi l Rhopa.l l Pune l Bhubanesw l Bengaluru l Lucknow l Parn l Chemai lVijayawada lvizg lTirupati l Gmur l Kukapally(Hyd)
*fi** ACE nocrinsAcademy 5 Population Forcca.stittg & Water Demands

t ) Sirrr;llc graphical method:
. A graph plotted for a citY between
lirne and population is smoothlY
oxtended to the desired time'
'fhe graph is called ' logistic curve'
03. The population of India in thc ycar 2000 was
one billion and it increased in an cxponential
manner at a rate of 1.6 percent pr:r year. If
the growth rate is maintained what will be
the population in the year 2020.

. This gives very approximate results, 04. Given the population figure of a placc is
It is very unsafe to use this method 50000 in 1990. The average increase in
alone. population is 5000 per decade and average
l) Comparative graPhical method: incremental increase is 500 per decade.
Then the expected population of place in
o Based on the assumption that the
2020 AD will be
city under consideratiorr may
develop same as the selected similar
cities developed in the Past. 05. The population of a town is shown below:
o Year Population Year PoPulation
It is based on a logical background,
precise and reliable results can be t960 2.50.000 1970 4,80,500
obtained bv this method 1980 5,50,300 1990 6.38.600
2000 6,95,200
Class Room Practice Questions By projecting the PoPulation bY the
incremental increase method, population in
the vear 2020 would be
01. The population figure in a growing town are
as follows (ESE -00)
06. The populations of a city at previous
Year 1970 1980 1990 2000
consecutive census years was 4,00,000,
Population 40000 46000 53000 58000 5,58,500, 7,76,000 and 10,98,500. The
anticipated population at the next census to
The predicted population in 2010 by the nearest 5,000 would be... (GATE-91)
arithmetic regression method is
(a) 62000 (b) 63000 07. The prescnt population of a community is
28000 with an average water consumption
(c) 64000 (d) 6s0oo
of 4200 m'/d. The existing water treatment
plant has a design capacity of 6000 m' / d. It
02. The population of a town in three is expected that the population will increase
consecutive decades are: I lakh, 1.4 lakh, to 44000 during the next 20 years. The
1.68 lakh, respectively. The population of number of years from now when the plant
this town in the fourth consecutive decade, will reach its design capacity, assuming an
according to geometric method, would be: arithmetic rate of population growth, will be
(a) 1.9 laktt (b) 32.184lakh (GATE-04)
(a) 5.5 years (b) 8.6 years
(c)2.2laI,h (d) 2.s lakh
(c) 15.0 years (d) 16.5 years
 6 Environmental F,ngineedng

08. The census record of a particular town

shows the population figures as follows.

Estimate the population for the year 2020

by decreasing rate of growth.

01. (c) 02. (c) 03. (1.37)

04. (68000) 0s. (743900)
06. (1540000) 07. (c)
08. (100765)
u .So urces qnd Conv ey qnce
of Water
'lypes: 7. Undcrground sources:
a) Surface sources of water (a) Inl'iltration galleries (b) Infiltration wells
b) Sub-surface or Underground source of (c) Springs (d) Wells
water
(a) Infiltrrtion galleries: A horizontal or nearly
t. Surface-sources of water: Water is horizontll tunnel usually rectangular in
available at the ground surface. cross- scclion and having permeable
i) Lakes and Ponds boundarlics so tlrat groundwater can infiltrate
ii) Streams or Rivers into thr: siuno. lt is also known as horizontal
iii) Storage reservoirs well. liroclrrcrrlly located near a perennial
iv) Oceans rechargo sourcc lncl hence it is usually placed
along thc blrrk, or under the bed of a river.
) Sub-surface or Underground sources
of water: Exist below the ground surface.
(b) Infiltration wells: 'l'hcse are shallow wells
i) Infiltration galleries constructctl in sr.:r'ics along the banks of a
ii) Infiltration wells river to cullor;l llrc wltor seeping through the
iii) Springs banks of tlrc rivc:r.
iv) Wells and Tube - wells.
o Closotl itl lop irrrtl opon at bottom
o Thc var-ious irr li ltlation wells
are
3. Lake: connoctctl by gripcs lo a collecting sump
Lake water may have plenty of algae, weed wcll knowtr irs .i:rck wcll. Water from the
jack woll is prrrrrpt'tl kr lrcutment plant.
and other vegetable growth imparting bad
smell, taste and colour to the water.
(c) Springs: Splirrll is tt:tlrrr';rl orrtlkrw of ground
water wlriclr ll)lx'us rrl llrc glourrd surface as
4. Streams or Rivers:
a currcttl or sll'rJrrttr ol'llowirrg watcr.
In the mountains the river water is fairly pure
but as the river approaches plains the quality
o Sprirrgs irlc t:uprrbk: ol' supplying small
quatrlily ol wrrlct'.
deteriorates considerably, since it picks up lot
of suspended malter, clay, silt, etc., o ljsclirl orrl.y lirl srnall towns near hills or
hitscs ol'lrills.
f,. Storage reservoir:
The storage reservoirs are the main sources of (d) Wclls: Wrrlcr wclls may be classified as
water supply for big cities. l. Opcn wclls or Dug wells 2. Tube wells

6. Oceans: 8. Opcrr wclls or Dug wells:

Highly saline. The process of removing salt llavc cornparatively large diameters but low
from water is known as desalination. yicltls and are not very deep. Usually
corrstructed by digging.

HydenbadDelhilBhopallPmelBhubmeswlRcngalrrull,u:krrrwll'arnlChemailVijaFwada]Viag]TirupatilGuur Kuka+allyfi{Vd)
ffi.. ACE
.EEifirdrcertgacadcmY
8 Environmental Engineering
(
-_
9. Tube wells:
Tube well is a long pipe sunk into the
I

ground intcrcepting one or more water A town with a population 1 lakh supplied water lfr
bearing strata.
llt

10. Intakes: lr
Thcse are structure placed in a surface- It
water source to permit the withdrawal of between the source and supply is 10
m'
water from this source, and discharge it
into v
an intake conduit to the treatment
plants' lr
Sol: Q : Population x per capita water supply
h
: 100000 x 200lit/daY
11. ConveYance of Water:
Water is generally conveyed using by :0.23! m'/sec :
pressure conduits (pipe). To- design pressure hr: It is assumed as elevation difference I
(or)
conduits Darcy's Weisbach equation between source and suPPlY: 10 m
I
Hazen Wi lliams equation'
L: Distance between source and supply
: 8 km: 8000 m
Weisbach equation, n, =#J=#S , -=tuQ' o.oo3"8ooo"(o'23f =1g
"t- - 12.l dt l2.ld5
HazenWilliams equation, d:0'4 m
Diameter of the conveying main
v=0.85c,(n)'" (s)'*

To generate pressure to drive water from

a pump'
source to city or town it also requre
Capacity of pump require is found by
following equation
vOH
BHP=--?
0'746q'q'
rln& t'l^: efficiencY of PumP & motor

tlytlcrlhl II )clhi I llhopal I Pune I

 Quqlity of Water
ter Prtrr,Water: It is a chemical compound(HzO).
rce a) Jackson Turbid meter: Used to nrcasurc
lhe Polnble Water: Water which is fit for drinking. high turbidity (> 25 ppm) ---(JTU)
tif I'nhrlable Water: Water which is aestheticaly
lce b) Baylis Turbid meter: precisely rocorrl
krokirrg good. even low turbidity values( of the order ol'
0 to2 ppm) --- BTU
Wholesome Water: Chemically may not be pure
lrul doesn't contain anything harmful to human
lrt:ilrgs.
c) Nephelometer: Commonly used for
turbidity of range of 0 to 1 ppm-(NTU &
I'olluted Water: It contains undesirable FTU)--Formazin polymer is standard
srrbstances rendering it unfit for drinking and reference suspension.
rkrmestic use.
(lontaminated Water: It contains pathogenic Turbidity is the measure of resistance to
the passage of light through water.
btrcteria and unfit for drinking.

Mineral water: It contains useful minerals viz.

Oalcium, Magnesium and Iron in required
proportion.
Characteristics of Water:
I. Physical Characteristics:
1. Turbidity:
o It is caused by suspended materials such
as clay, silt or some other finally divided
organic and inorganic matter. Turbidity is
also due to presence of bactena, algae,
protozoa, fungi. Expressed in ppm
(or mg/l)
Standard unit is that which is produced by
2. Colour:
o It is caused by dissolved organic matters
from decaying vegetation or some
inorganic coloured soils, growth of algae,
metallic ions (Fe and Mn).
Measured by comparing the colour of
water sample with other standard glass
tubes fNesslar tubes)
Measured by Platinum Cobalt Method.
(Measured on Platinum Cobalt Scale)
a Permissible limit : 5 to 20 ppm.
a Measured by Tintometer.
3. Taste & Odour :

1 mg of finally divided silica (Fullers

a Due to dissolved organic matter or
inorganic salts, dissolved gases etc.
earth) in 1 liter of distilled water.
Threshold number is the standard unit for
a Measured on "Silica Scale"
measuring.
a Perrnissible limit for potable water: 5 to
Taste is expressed as FTN
10 ppm
(Flavor Threshold Number)
Turbidity meters
Odour is expressed as TON
(Threshold Odour Number)
T N: Dilution ratio.
 _--+ .-*&-..$i{r

Dilution Ratio: (A+ByA associated with organic matter having bacteria

A: Vol. of raw water sample
becomes the chief source of epidemic.
:
B Vol. of distilled water used for dilution.
Permissible Limit: I to 3.
The odour changes with temperature. 3. Dissolved impurities: It includes organic
It is tested normally at20o C to 25o C. compounds, inorganic salts and gases. The
is following are various dissolved impurities and
Odour measured by an apparatus their effects.
called Osmoscope.

Osmoscope: (a) Salts : CaClz,MgCl2,CO: , HCO3, They

The Osmoscope is graduated with pO cause hardness and alkalinity in water.
values from 0 to 5.
pO value of 0 indicates ,no perceptible (b) Metals: Iron causes red colour,
odour'. Manganese causes brown colour
pO value of
indicates ,extremely (c) Lead and arsenic: It cause poisoning
strong odour'.
(d) Gases: Oxygen causes corrosion of
Example: I metals
If 10 m/ water sample diluted
o Chlorine and Ammonia cause bad
with 190 m/ distilled taste and odour.
water at which odour is fust detectable, then TON
of the sample is
o COz and Hydrogen sulphide cause
acidity in water.

* 190 II. Chemical Characteristics:

sor: ToN - +!=
A10
1o
=20
1. Total solids, suspended solids and ,

4. Temperature : 10" C is desirable. dissolved solids :

5. Specijic Condactivity.. To know the dissolved
salt content. Determined by Dionic water
tester
lmpurities in water : paper No.44
1. Suspended impurities: They
turbidity. The concentration
inrpurities is measured by turbidity.
Eg : silt, clay, bacteria, fungi, algae.
2. Colloidal impurities: These are finely
divided dispersion of solid particles, ,rot
visible to thc naked eye. These impurities
I lvdcrabarll l)clhi lllhopal ]Pme
o Total solids can be found by evaporating a
sample of water and weighing the dry
residue left.
. Suspended solids can be found by filtering
water sample through Whatman filter
o Permissible TDS limit : 500 to 1000 ppm.
cause
of suspended Example:2
A 100 m/ water sample is drawn on to a empty dry
container whose initial weight is 95,452 gm. After
oven drying the sample at l03oC for 4 hours its
final weight measured to be 95.4g6 gm. Then total
if solid's concenfratio n in mc.l l.
lBhubaneswu lBengalm iLucknowlPahnlchennai lvljayamdalvizag lrirupari lGunrl Kukapally(rrvd)
 : ll: Quality of Water

W' - W : los,^ I
liol: Total Solidr: ,16u Sol: nFl
. v,u -
V H+
W2: final weight in gm,
Wr: initial weight in gm, 9=krs,,,
- =H* =10-emol/lit
""'H+
V: volume of water sample in ml
Example:4
95.486-95.452
x 106 =340 mg ll
100 If H* ion conccntration is 10-6 mol/lit. What is
pOJI
2. pH value of water : It indicates hydrogen
ion concentration in water.
. pH:logro(1/H), - : log,,,
Sol: pH -' .l,
ll ' -'" +
= logro
10-'
: U

If pH > 7 tt is alkaline: If pH<7 it is pH + poll l4

acidic. .'.pOll l4- 6 -8

. Alkalinity is by bicarbonates
caused 3. Hardness:
A characteristic which provonts formation of
(HCO3) of Ca and Mg and carbonates lather or foam with soap.
(COr), hydroxides (OH) of Ca, Mg, K, Effects of Hardncss : Scaling of boilers,
greater soap consulnptiun. corrosion and
Na. incrustation of pipc lirros, food becomes
tasteless etc.,
o Acidity is caused by Mineral Acids, free
CO2, Sulphates of Fe & Aluminum. Types of Hardncss:
o Alkalinity Effects: Incrustation and 1. Carbonate Hardness(CH)
sediment deposit in pipelines and difficult 2. Non Carbonatc tiardness(NCH)
in chlorination o Temporary or carbonate hardness: Caused
. Acid.ity Effects: Tuberculation & by HCOr and CO: of Ca & Mg.
Corrosion of pipe lines. o Can bc removed to some extent by simple
o Permissible limit z 6.6 to 8.5
boiling or removed fully by addition of
lime.
. pH is measured by Potentiometer and o Permanent or non Carbonate hardness
Colorimetric method. Caused by SO+, C/, NOr of Ca & Mg.

Exumple:3
. Can be removed by water softening
methods such as Lime soda process,
A water having pH value equal to 9 will have Deminerlization process and Zeolite
lrydrogen ion concentration equal to Process.
(rr) 10-e moles llitrc ft) 10e moles llitre Permissible limits: For boiler feed waters
1c) 10-s moles / litrc (d) 10s moles llitre < 75 ppm.
tlyrlcrabadll)clhilBhopallPmelBhubmeswlBengalmjLucknowlPatralChemaiivijalawadalvizg Tinpati lGmurl Kukatpallv(Hyd)
 For drinking purpose, between 75&II5 o Hardness is also expressed in degree of
ppm hardness
If Hardness is < 75 ppm is called 'Soft' . One British degree of hardness(Clark's
If Hardness is > 200 ppm is called , Scale) :14.25 ppm of CaCO3
'Hard' o One French degree ofhardness :10 ppm
Measurement: Measured in terms of of CaCOr
ppmor mg/lit of CaCOg o One American degree of hardness :I7.I5
Measured by EDTA test (Ethylene ppm of CaCO3
Diamine Tetracetic Acid test). In the Alkalinity inmgll as CaCO3
tihation process, Erichrome black T is
used to show the end of titration. : [tao" rn-nrr,
-
Equivalentwt'of caco:
I
After determining amount of Ca & Mg L Equivalentwt.of HCO, _l

ions present in water, by titration process

with versanate solution, hardness is . [^^ , Equivalentwt.of CaCO. I
+l LU, mmsi, x -
L '
|

estimated as follows : Equivalentwt.of CO, J

Total Hardness inmgll as CaCO3 .'. Total alkalinity

:_ [^_ , - ,-- _ t, Equivalentwt.of CaCO..-.| : HCOs-mg ll x (50/61) + CO3-mg// x (50/30)

L
tU&lfIIIl9r - L/-t Equivalentwt.of Ca l
Example:5
, [",- :,_ ,-__ r, Equivalentwt.of CaCO, I
+l Vfgmmq/(x-l
L- Equivalentwt.of Mg l For a water sample the total alkalinity is 200 mg//
as CaCOr. The Cat is 120 mg//, Mg# is 60 mgl/.

Combining weight or equivalent weight

What is total hardness, Carbonate hardness, non -
carbonate hardness.
: Molecular weight/ Valency
TH = CH: NCH =
(Ca# :40 ; Mg* :24; Sr** :87.6; CaCOr- -
:200 mgll as CaCOr
^Sal.'TA
:100; COs--:60; HCO:-:61;OH-:17 )
TH: Ca2* xa
20
"!9*Msr* 12

Total Hardness : Ca- mg I I x (50120)

:120x4+OO"a=550me//
+ Ms- m{l x (50112) 20 12

as CaCOr
TH: CH + NCH
...TH > TA
If TH > alkalinity, then CH: Alkalinity.
CH = TA :200 mgll as CaCOg
.'.NCH: TH - CH.
NCH:TH-CH:550 -200
If TH < Alkalinity, then CH: TH, NCH:0. :350 mgll as CaCO:

Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopa.l I Pune Bhubmesm j Bengalm I

Iruknow I Patn I Chennai I Vijapmda ] Vizg I Tirupati I cutu I Kukatrally(Il]'d)
rg t:ffi--*g^-..-' : 1l-| : Quality of Water

of i) Free Ammonia: Indicates presence of

llxample:6 undecomposed organic matter and it
k's ropresents first stage decomposition.
'lhc chemical analysis of water sample indicates the
Pcrmissible limit: less than 0.15 ppm
l)fcsence of cations as follows Na-:20 mgll ii) A buminoid Nitro gen Indicates
t'a'* 45 mgll ]4g*: 60 mgll, HCO: : 248,
I :

rlccomposition of organic matter has

SOa : 220, CL : 19.2. Compute total hardness, sllrtcd, limit shall not exceed 0.3 mg/lit
15
t:arbonate hardness and non - carbonate hardness
crluivalent to CaCOl. iii) Nillitcs: Indicates presence of partly
TH: CH: NCH: t ltrt:o nrposed organic matter.
limit : Nil
I'ulnrissible
Sol: Alkalinity= Ftgg, v
50
iv) Nitlrrtcs: indicates fully oxidized
'61 ()l'gitnl() nlillter.
l)crrrrissiblc limit : < 45 ppm.
=248x! = rOZ3mg/lit as CaCO: lixccss causes the disease called
61 "Mclhcrnoglobenima" (Blue baby
,,19*Ms**
20
tA 12
o
tliscirst')
'lirtnl K jcltllhl Nitrogen (TKN):Free
luttttt'turtit I organic nitrogen
s0
=48x-"+60x-
s0
20 12 6. Mctuls & ( lhcrrrical Substances :

=362.5m9/lit as CaCO, a) Iron & Mungitttcsc:

I'crrnissiblc lirrril: lron
mgll TH > Alkalinity Mn .' 0.05 pprrr.
trgl. CH : Alkalinity :203.3 mgllit as CaCOg . lixccss lrotr 8. Mn cause
tn- NCH: 362.5 -203.3 discoloulltiorr ul' clothes washed in
:159.2 mg/lit as CaCOr srrt'lr wrrlcr rrntl incrustati<ln of water
4. Chloride content: tttititts tlttt'lo tlcllttsils .
Present in the form of Chloride. b) Co;rprrr': Pcrrrtissiblc linrit - | to 3 mgll.
Imparts salty taste. o irlli't'ls lrrrrrrirrr lungs and other
o Permissible limit :
250 ms. I L. Presence r esprllrloly or'!lans .

of high quantity indicates pollution from

sewage and other human & industrial c) Sttllrltllcr: l'r;r'nrissible < 250 mg I I
waste. o ('irrrscs laxutive effect on human bodv
lrtttl tliitt'rhca.
5. Nitrogen Content:
Indicates presence of organic matter and the tl) lilorrridc :

extent to which iI has undersone . lrlouride < I ppm, cause formation of

decomposition. lbvr:r cavities in the teeth.
Different forms : . Iilouride > 1.5 ppm causes Flourosis
i) Free Ammonia ( mottling and discolouration of teeth)
ii) Albuminoid Nitrogen (organic nitrogen) and deformation of bones.
iii) Nitrites . Permissible limit : between 1 ppm and
iv) Nitrates 1.5 ppm.

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7. Dissolved gases :
a)HzS b) COz
c) Dissolved oxYgen d) Nitrogen
(a) HzS: It gives bad taste and odour
(b) CO2, Indicates biological activity and
causes corrosion in PiPe lines
(c) Dissolved oxygen (D.O): To know the
extent of pollution of water.
o Determined by Winkler's method
o Since D.O isconsumed bY unstable
organic matter, D.O less than its
saturated level indicates presence of
organic matter, therefore pollution.
o For fresh river water saturation D.O at
20" C:9.2m9I l.
. Permissible limit : For potable water
should be bet 5 to 10 PPm.
d) Nitrogen gas: Indicates presence of
organic matter.
8) Biochemical oxygen Demand
(B.o.D):
Permissible Limits : B.O.D. of safe drinking
water : Nil.
III. Microscopic Characteristics
o To Study about the presence ofBacteria,
Virus, Algae, Protozoa
o Bacteria is single celled organisms
Bacteria (l to 4 microns in size):
Classification:
1. Non pathogenic bacteria: They
Harmless; e.g Escherichia coliform or
E-coli
2. Pathogenic bacteria: They are harmful &
causes water borne disease.
o Detection of "E-Coli "indicates the
. probable presence of 'Pathogens'
o E - Coli bacteria is used as indicator
organism
: t4: Environmental Engineering
Classification based on shaPe:
Sphere shaPed bacteria
L Cocci -
2.Bacilli- Rod shaPed bacteria
3. Spirilla - twisted rod shaped bacteria
Classification based on living conditions:
1. Aerobic bacteria: It survives in
presence of OxYgen
2. Anaerobic bacteria: It survives in the
absence of Oxygen
3. Facultative bacteria: Survives with
without Oxygen
To detect and measure coliform bacteria, the
following tests are available.
l.Total count or agar plate count test
2. E-coli test
3. Membrane filter technique
1. Total count test: In this test bacteria are
cultivated on specially prepared medium
agar for different dilutions of sample of water
with distilled water. The diluted sample is
placed in an incubator for specified time at
specified temperature. The bacteria colonies
so formed are counted and results ate
computed per 100 m/
o For drinking water, the total count shall
not be more than 1 Per 100 m/
2. E -coli test: Divided into
a) Presumptive test
b) Confirmed test
c) Completed test
are In these tests, if gas is produced after
incubation, it is reported as +ve and fuither
tests are to be followed to confirm E-coli. If
no gas is produced it is presumed that there is
no bacteria and the test is treated as negative.
3. Membrane filter technique:
Recent method. Sample is filtered through
sterile membrane with pore size 5 to l0 mp.
 AC,E
---
llrc is retained on the membrane.
bacteria Class Room Practice Questions
l'lrc membrane is put in contact with suitable
nrrtrient. I M - Endo's medium ] which
rrrhibits growth of bacteria other than coli 01. The (lit'l' ooncentration and Mg'*
lirrm group. Then placed in incubator at conccrrtrtliott ol'lt water sample are 160 mgll
prcscribed conditions and the visible and 40 rttg// ls lhr:ir ions respectively. The
colonies are counted with microscope. total hardnoss ol'llris water sample in terms of
CaCOr irr rrrg// is rtPproximately equal to
MPN (Most Probable Number):It is the (a) 120 (h) .l(x) (c)261 (d) 567
bacterial density which is most likely to be
present in water. It is used to report the 02. The colilorrrr ot'1'.itttisttt irr 100 m/ of drinking
amount of bacteria present. water shottkl tttll lrt: tttorc tltarr
o To determine MPN, confrrmed or (a) l00t) (b)'tr50 (c) 100 (d) 1
completed tests results are required.
. 03. The appitntttts irr wlriclr tlto mcasurement of
Permissible limits : - MPN should be Nil.
turbidity is hnscrrl ott tlto intensity of light
tiny plants. scattcrod ut riglrt rtttglc lo tho incident light is
Micro Organic Plants: These are
called
Eg: Algae, plankton etc
(a) spcctrolnctt:r' (b) tintometer
r are . They cause bad taste odour and & (c) turbid tttclct' (cl) nophelometer
nof interface with smooth working of filter.
ruter o To control algae, copper sulphate
04. If for dilulirrg 25 rtri ol'watcr sample I15 ml
eis chemical is mixed in water of tastr: li'cc wrrtcl is rr:qtrirod to be added to
te at makc llrc witle:t' slttttplc to .ir.rst loose its taste,
rnies Protozoa: These are unicellular animals. then tlrc llitvor' llrrt:slrold ttumber (FTN) will
are be
lV. Water borne diseases : (a) 6 (h) 7 (c) n (d) e
Diseases which spread primarily through
contaminated water and important of these 05. Tho protlttt:l ol' ll' iorts and Oll ions in a
water borne diseases are : strongct'irt'icl is
(a) o (b) | (c) lo t 1d; tO-to
1) Bacterial infections :

a) Typhoid fever b) Dianhea 06. Watcr is cottsitk:rod 'hard' if its hardness is of

c)Cholera d) Bacillary dYsentery. tlrc orrh:l'ol'
(it) 50 ppttt (b) 100 ppm
lfter 2) Yiralinfections: (<;) |50 grgrttt (d) over 200 ppm
ther a) Infection Hepatitis
li. rf b) Poliomyelitis. 07. ll'krlll lrardness of water is less than its total
re is c) Gastroenteritis will
llkirlirrity the non-carbonate hardness be
ve.
r:t1uitI to
3) Protozoal infections: Amoebic dysentery.
(l) tutal alkalinity
(b) total hardness
rugh
mp.
(c) total alkalinity - total hardness
(cl)zcro

@
 Env;ironmental Engineerin
08. The only metal uTong.the
following which is Codes:
toxic to human bemss m
(a) calcium AB CD AB CD
(c) arsenic
(b) iron
(a)2 5 I 3 @)2 r i 4
(d) magnesium
(c) 1 2 3 4 @)2 s 4 I
09. When floride concentration
in water exceeds l4.In a water
mg I or so, the disease that may treatment plant, the pH values
!.5 be caused t
incoming and outgoing *ui..,
ls
respectively. Assuming a linear
i
l.zand g.
(a) methmoglobinemia variation c
(b) fluorosis pH with time, the averagepH
value of wate
IS
(c) dental carries in children
(d) poliomyelitis (a) 8.a @)7.2 (c) 7.8 (d) t.qt
10. If coliform 15. Two samples of water A and B have
bacteria is present in a sample pF
water, then the coliform test to
of values of 4.4 an!.!.+ respectively.
be conducted How manl
times more acidic ,urpl. A
is is than sampk
D Presumptive test (GArE- ee)
ii) Confirmed test i.io (b)so (c) 1oo
iii) Completed rest
The correct answer is mixfure formed by
(a) only (i) @) both (i) and (ii)
solutions
(c) both (i) and(iii) (d) all ttre aUove -l
-5
11. For a water sample the total hardness
is 200
6.8 (d) None
(c)
as CaCOr and alkalinity is 250
\E/l mg/l as l7.In a water sample, CO:- - irons
CaCOr. Then the carbonate ilrrd".* = 90 mglL,
i; ions : ngil
(a) 200 (b) 2s0 (c) a50 (d) 50 ff:. samplelt inmg/l as CaCOr?^ru^ii"i&""t
What is
lne11er
l2.In the above question (No.l1) the (a) 200 (b)50 (c) 100 @) 200
non
carbonate hardness is
(a) s0 (b) 200 (c)2s 18. A standard multiple _ tube fermentation
(d) zero test
was conducted on a sample of
water from a
13. Match the List-I with List-II and surface stream. The results of the analysis
select the for the confirmed test are given
correct answer using the codes below.
given below
the lists : (GATE 04)
Lrsr I (Tnsr) No. of positive
A. Colour No. of negative
B. Odour out of 5 tubes results out of5
C. Turbidiry D. Hardness tubes
List II
l. Baylis instrument 2. Burgess scale
3. Versenate method 4. Coliform Test
5. Osmocope
 t7 Quality of Water

MPN Index and95o/o confidence limits for (a) eriochrome black T indicator
combination of positive results when five tubes (b) fcrroin indicator
used oer dilutions (10 m/. 1.0 m/. 0.1m4 (c) mcthyl orange indicator
Combinatio MPN 957o confidence (d ) phcnol phthalein indicator
n of Positive Index limit
per 100 ml Lower
iof Uoner
23.Tha urgurrinsrn, which exhibits very nearly
4-2-l 26 t2 65
8.4 the charactcristics of an ideal pathogenic
4-3-r 33 t5 77
of indicatur is (GArE-04)
lter Using the above MPN Index table, the most (a) Entanroobl lristolytica (b) Escherichia coli
probable number (MPN) of the sample is (c) Salnrorrclll lyphi (d) Vibrio comma
(a) 26 (b) 33 (c) 260 (d) 330
24.Total Kjcldlrlrl rrilrogcn u measure of
pH 19. If the pH value of a water sample is 9, the (GATE-Os)
any allqlnity caused by OH- inmglL as CaCO3 is (a) total orgarric nilnrgcrr
rple (a) 0.s (b) 5 (c) 0.17 (d) 0.005 (b) total orgarric urrtl iurrrrrorrir nitrogen
e) (c) total amrnorrilr rrilnrgcrr
20. The results of analysis of a raw water sample (d) total inorgarric irntl lrrunonia nitrogen
are given below: (GATE-03)
25.I TCU is cquivirlcnl lo llro colour produced
by Turbidi : 5 mgll by (cATE-0s)
pH : 7.4 (a) lmgll of chloroplirlirtalc ion
Fluorides : 2.5 mgll (b) lmg// of pla(inrrttt iott
Total Hardness : 300 mgll (c) lmg//platinurrr in lirrrn of chloroplatinate
ion
Iron : 3.0 mgll
(d) 1mg// orguno-ch krroplatinate ion
/L, MPN : 50 per 100m/
'of 26.The prescrlco ol'hlrdness in excess of
From the data given above, it can be inferred z
that water needs removal of permissiblo lirrrit clr.rscs (GATE-06)
(a) cardio vascrrlirl problems (,;l:.1
(a) turbidity followed by disinfection
(b) skin discolout'ittion \-1. '
:est (b) fluorides and hardness
(c) calciurrr rlclicicncy
na (c) iron, followed by disinfection
(d) incrcasctl llundry expenses
(d) fluorides, hardness and iron followed by
'sis
disinfection.
27.Thc alkllirrity and the hardness of a water
sanrplo irrc 250 mgll and 350 mgll as CaCO3,
21. Most o the turbidity meters work on the
rcspoclivcly. The water has (GATE-06)
scattering principle. The turbidity value (ir) 3,50mg/l carbonate hardness and
so obtained is expressed in (GATE-04)
rron-carbonate hardness.
(a) CFU (b) Fru (c) JIU (d) Nru
(b) 250mg/l carbonate hardness and zero
Z2.Hardness of water is directly measured by non-carbonate hardness.
titration with ethvlene di-amine-tetracetic acid (c) 250mgli carbonate hardness and 350 mgll
(EDTA) using. (GArE-04) non-carbonate hardness.
(d) 250mgl/ carbonate hardness and 100
non-carbonate hardness.
Hydeabad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pune I Bhubmesw I Be ryyalunr I l,ucknow I Patra I Chemai iVijalamda lvizg lTirupati Gmur
I I Kukatpally(Hyd)
28. Results of a water sample analysis are as Common Data for Questions 31&32
follows: (GArE-03)
In concentrations obtained for a groundwater
Concentration Equivalent sample (having pH:8.1) are given below
Cation
N{s,llt Weieht (GArE-10)
Na* 40 23
Ion Ion concentration Atomic Weight
Mg*' 10 t2.2
(ms/L)
Ca 55 20
Ca*t 100 Ca:40
K- 2 39
Mqt* 6 Ms.:24
(milliequivalent weight of CaCOr:50/meq). Na t5 Na:23
Hardness of the water sample in mg// as HCO-3 2s0 H:l,C:12,
CaCo: is
o-16
soi S:32, O: 16
(a) 44.8 (b) 8e.s
(c) I7e (d) 358
45

CL 30 cL:35.5
Common Data for Questions 29 & 30
31. Total hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) present in
the above water sample is
Following chemical species were reported for
water sample from a well: (GATE-O9)
(a) 20s (b) (c) 50
(d) 308 275
Species Concentration 32. Carbonate hardness (mg/L as CaCO3) present
(q4ll in the above water sample is
equivalent/L) (a)20s (b) 3s0 (d) 28e (c)27s
Chloride (CL-) l5
15
33. If tomato juice is having a pH of 4.1, the
Sulphate (SOo'-)
hydrogen ion concentration will be
Carbonate (COr'l 05. (a) 10.94 x 10-5mol/L (b) 9.94x10-5moUL
30
Bicarbonate (HCO3I (c) 8.94x10-smol/L (d) 7.9ax10-5mol/L
t2
Calcipm Qt.) A wastewater sample contains 10 m mollt 5'6

Magnesium (tvtg'*)
l8 of OIf ions at 25oC. The pH of this sample is
pH 8.5 (a) 8.6(b) 8.4
(c) (d) 5.4 s.6
35. Match List-I (Estimation method) with
29.Total hardness in mg/L as CaCOr is List-II (Corresponding indicator)and select
(a) 1s00 (b) 2000 (c) 3000 (d) s000 the correct answer usins the codes siven
below the lists:
30. Alkalinity present in the water in mgll- as List-I
CaCO: is P. Azide modified Winkler method for
2s0
(a) (b) 1s00 (c) l7s0 (d) 5000 dissolved oxygen
a. Dichromate method for chemical oxygen
demand
R. EDTA titrimetric method for hardness
S. Mohr or Argentometric method for
chlorides
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubme sw Bengalm hcknow Patn
I I I I
Cheruni I Vijayamda I
Vizg Tirupati Gunr I Kukatpally(Hyd)
I I
 ,ffit"*g^-."* : le: euarityorwater

List-Il 38. n water sample has a pH of 9.25. The

l. Eriochrome Black T corrccntration of hydroxyl ions in the water
water
2. Ferroin sarnplc is
) l0 "'25 moles/L (b) 10+ m moles/L
75
r-10)
3. Potassium chromate ir (:r
4. Starch (c)0.302 mglL (d) 3.020 mglL
It (GArE-12)
Codes:
P aRS P aRS 39. A ll-.5 mL sample of treated waste water
(a)3 2 | 4 (b) 4213 rct;rrirt:s 187.5 mL of odour-free distilled
(c)4 | 2 3 (d) 42 31 wirlcr' lo rcduce the odour to a level that is just
pcrt:t:pliblc. What is the Threshold Odour
16. A standard multiple-tube fermentation test
Nurrrlrt'r ('l'ON) for the wastewater sample?
I
was conducted on a sample of water. The (ESE- 0e)
results of the analysis for the confirmed test
are siven below. (rEs- 06)
(u) 0.0 / (b) 10.07 (c) ls
(d) 16
nt ln
No. of No. of 40.'l'lrc t'orrt't'rrlnrlion of OH- ion in a water
positive negative sarrr;rlc is rrrt'rrsurccl as 77 mglL at25"C. What
08 Sample size (mL)
results out results out is llrt: ;rll ol llrc: wator sample? (ESE- 09)
lsent of 5 tubes of 5 tubes (a) l{) (b) I I (c) 12 (d) 13
10 4 I
89 I 2 a
J
41. l''rx' rr srrnrplt' ol' water with the ionic
0.1 I 4
corrr;lrsiliorr slrowrr bclow, the Carbonate and
, the 0.01 0 5
Norr-('irt'lrorlrlt' lrirrtlnoss concentration
(irr llrg// irs (':r('( )1) rt:spcctively are
MPN index for combinations of positive
L (GArE-14)
results when 5 tubes used per dilutions
L MPN table for l0 - I - 0.1 is siven below: 0 457
nolll Combination of MPN index rncr;//
positives per 100 m/
els
4 5-4-3 280
aa
4-3-r JJ ttter;//
with 4-2-l 26
olect 2-t-0 0 3.5 ',I

lven
Using the above MPN index table, what is the (ir) .l(X)lnrl 500 (b) 175 and75
most probable number (MPN) of the sample? (t:) '/.5 lrrtl 175 (d) 50 and200
for
(a) 280 (b) 33
(c) 26
(d) 70
42. Sorrrc ol' the water quality parameters are
37. How many gms of calcium will be required to
rrrclsurcd by titrating a water sample with a
Igen combine with 90 gms of carbonate to form
lilrirrrt. Group-I gives a list of parameters and
calcium carbonate
( lroup-ll gives the list of titrants.
(a) 20 gms (b) 6Ogms
for (c) 90 gms
(GATE- 13)
(d) 120 gms

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ll

Group-I Group-II
P. Alkalinity 1. N/35.5 AgNO3 01. (d) 02. (d) 03. (d) 0a. (c) 0s. (d)
2. N/40 NazSzOr 06. (d) 07. (d) 08. (c) oe. (b) 10. (b)
Q. Hardness
3. N/50 HzSO+ 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (d) ls. (c)
R. Chloride
16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (d) 1e. (a) 20. (d)
S. Dissolved oxygen 4. N/50 EDTA
2r. (d) 22. (a) 23. (b) 24. (b) 2s. (c)
The correct match of water quality parameters
in Group-I with titrants in Group-II is: 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c) 2e. (a) 30. (c)
(a) P-1, Q-2,R-3,S-4 (b) P-3, Q-4,R-1,S-2
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (d) 34. (b) 3s. (b)
(c) P-2,Q-1,R-4,S-3 (d) P-4,Q-3,R-2,S-1
36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (c) 3e. (d) 40. (b)
43. Some of the non-toxic metals normally found 41. (b) 42. (b) 43. (d)
in natural water are (GArE-14)
44.640.220 & 420
(a) Arsenic, Lead, Mercury
(b) Calcium, Sodium, Silver
(c) Cadmium, chromium, Copper
(d) Iron, Manganese, Magnesium

44. A, 100 CC of water sample drawn on to a

empty dry gooch crucible whose initial mass
found to be 98.42 gm.After oven drying at
103"C its final mass is 98.484 gm. Then it is
kept in a muffle furnace at 700"C for an hour'.

After cooling the mass of the crucible is

98.462 gm. Then find
(i) Total solids
(ii) Volatile solids
(iii) Fixed solids

Hydembad I Delhi I Bhopal I Prme I

Bhubmero | Bengalm I
Lucknow I
fatn I Clhemi I
Vijayawada I
Vizg Tirupati I Gmur I KukatpdlyFva)
I
Ig-
Plqin Sedimentqtion
d
:3 1
l) Methods of purification: ii) Design concepts of sedimentation
L Screening Tanks:
,oil 2.Plain sedimentation
(c) 3. Sedimentation aided with coazulation

l
|

4. Filtration VH

3l 5. Disinfection
V
6. Aeration
a, Sludge
7. Softening
I
8.Misc. treatment such as Fluoridation,
Recarbonation, Liming, desalination etc. Flowvelocity V":Q/BH
Settling velocity: V,
l. Screening: To remove large floating
Surface loading or over flow rate,
particles such as debris, trees, animals,
branches, bushes etc. with the help of screens.
V":
Q/(B.L)
According to proportionality
2. Plain sedimentation: To remove suspended
:LlH :
coarser particles which tend to settle down VHA/, .'.V, Vs x H/L
when offered storage or flow velocity For settling, V, ) Vo
reduced.
i) Types of Sedimentation tanks: Particles with settling velocity equal to or
a) Intermittent tank : greater then Vo will settle down.

o
(also called quiescent type)
Water is completely brought
Functions intermittently
b) Continuous Tank:
o Flow velocity of water is reduced by
providing sufficient length of travel.
o Designed such that the time taken by the
water particle to travel from one end to
another end is kept slightly more than
the time required for settling
suspended particle in water.
. Shapes:- Rectangular, square, circular
to rest.
Sedimentation efficiencv. n =
'v"\x100
Example:l
A sedimentation tank designed to capture
0.01 mm diameter particles with specific
gravity 2.65.|f sedimentation tank is designed
for an surface over flow rate 20 rf tdaytrt.
Find the efficiency of particle removal. Take
of a
kinematic viscocity of water: 0.01 cm'lsec.

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 ecaaemv :22: Environmental Engineering

_ s(s-l)d' o In order to increase the efficiency, the D1

Sol: Settling Velocity V,
186 should be increased, therefore smaller size
of particles can also be settled.
_
q.st(z.os
- sXo.or x ro')'
18 x (O.O t)x
c) Flowing through Period: It is the actual
t O-4
average time taken by water to pass
: through a sedimentation tank. It is always
= 8.99x 10-5 m/sec 7.l69 m/day
than detention time due to short circuiting.

n=\
'v. x 100=
7'769
x 100=38.85% d) Displacement Efficiency : (Flowing
20 through period/detention time) x 100. It
ranges between 25 to50%
iii) Design parameters :

a) Over flow rate, (V") : e) Normal design values adopted :

o Length not allowed to exceed 4 times the
o For plain Sedimentation Tank, Vo is width (L 4B or58) :
500 to 750litlfulni of plan area. o Flow velocity is normally kept: 0.3 m/min.
For Sedimentation Tank aided with o Total amount of flow from the tank
coagulation, Vo is 1000 to l2s}litlfulni within 24 hours should be made equal to
By-decreasing the over flow rate particles max daily demand.
smaller than that size can also be settled. o Length of the tank L: Flow
velocity
Therefore in order to increase the x Detention time
efficiency, over flow rute should be . Provision for sludge storage: 0.8 to 1.2 m
decreased. (For manually cleaned only)
o Depth doesn't have any effect bn the
effrciency of sediment removal. iv) Theory of Sedimentation:
b) Detention time (D1) :- Factors affecting settling velocity:
a Theoretical average time for which water i) Flow velocity of water
is detained in the tank ii) viscosity of water
a For Sedimentation Tank iii) Size, shape & specific gravity of the
Dt : Vol. Of tank/ Rate of flow particles.
o For circular tank,Volume
:D2(0.011D+0.7g5h) (a) tr'or d < 0.1 mm (or for Re <1)
Laminar flow condition occurs
----*l
+ Cylindrical portion
Stoke's Law :
|
) This law is valid for laminar flow condition
Conicalp rtion
(orwhen Cp:24lRe),

: Settling velocity V.:

- 9lS-fl4
For plain Sedimentation Tanks, D1
8 hours
4 to lg' 'u
Sedimentation aided with coazulation. Where, Vr: setting velocity.
Dt:2 to 4 hours d: dia. of particle
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pue I Bhubmem I
Bengalm I Lucknow I Patra I Chemi ]
Vijayawada lvizg Tirupati cmtru
I I I KukaOaIvGIvd)
 ACE
:23:
'"ffi nngioeeringAead€my Plain Sedimentation

u: kinematic viscosity
Class Room Practice Questions
S: Specific gravity of Particle
Re : Reynolds Number: Vr.d/u
:tual Since u depends upon temperature, (T), Common Data for Questions 1, 2 & 3
pass another equation for V, is
A soclimentation tank (6m wide, 15m long and
vays
v,:418 (s-1) o,
('l;Jo) vahd ror 3 rn water depth) is treating 2MLD of water.
ing.

ving d< 0.1mm. 0l. Thc surface overflow rate is

.It Units T - in oC,
d: in mm (a) u.s8 litlhrtr#
^ (b) g26titthrtnl
V.: in mm/sec
(c) f 02tt litlhrlrrf (d) None

(b) For d
lies between 0.1mm & lmm 02. Detenlion time is
(rr + zo) (a) 4.26 hr @) 3.8a hrs
V,:418 (s -1 ) u (c) 4.ll hr (d) 3.2a hrs
100

(c) For d >lmm or for Re > 1000 ,iO:,l lf ZO rng/L is the concentration of solids
Ito Here, turbulent condition occurs. present in the turbid water, the amount of dry

ry
V,:1.8 G;F:t solids doposited in the tank per day with 70Vo
tank cllicicncy is
) (a) e8 kg (b) 1a0 kg
Example:2
lm (c) 70 kg (d) ae kg

plain rectangular with SLR = 20t"',

Common Data for Questions 04 & 05
and DT :4hr.Assume L:B :4:l
A rcctutrgular sedimentation tank is treating
Sol: Q :20 MLD 1.8 MLI) ol'raw water with a detention period

2ox1o6
of4 hours.
- mt ldaY=2oooom3 /daY
103 04. Thc volurnc ol'tho tank required is
Surface area of
sedimentation tank, (a) 180 nrr (b) 260 m3

LrB= Q - 2oooo-rooom2 (c) .l(X) rn' (d) 360 m3

SLR 20 05. ll'rrllownblc ovcrflow rate is 500 lit lfulm2 and
L:48 l,:l|4:1, thcn the length required for the
4B2 = 1000 tnnk is
B: 15.81 rrr, L: 63.24 m (t) ltt.5 rn @) 2a.s m
Volume of sedimentation tank: (c) 27.-5 m (d) 36.5 m
Q x DT
2oooo
- x 4=3333.33m3 (Xr. In a continuous flow settling tank 3m deep
24
' (r0 m long. What uld you
recommend for effe
laaa aa
Volume 't1't1 11
.025mm
Depth of tank:
Surfacearea 1000 particles. The specific gravity is
2.65, u:0.01 cm'l sec.

4 Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubaneswar I Bcngalunr I Lucknow I Patna I Chemi lvijalamda lvizg lTinpati cuor
I I Kuka@nyftIvd)
 ffi*r*ffo*u"-, :24: Environmental Engineering

07. A sedimentation tank is to be designed to treat 13. A plain sedimentation tank has dimensions
one lakh cum of water per day. If the settling 100 x 50 x 3 m and receives flow 1,00,000
velocity of the particles to be removed is m'ld,. Calculate the surface over flow rate in
20 mlday, then the area of tank required is and dia of the smallest particle, which
(a) 1000m2 (b) 3000mt ^tlnlld
will be removed 100%. Take density of
(c) 5000m2 (d) 6000m2 particle :2.65g1cc, u :1.02xl0-'crtf I sec.

08. A particle is having a size of 0.025 mm with a 14. An ideal horizontal flow settling basin is 3m
specific gravity of 2.65. If the kinematic deep having surface area 900rri. Water flows
viscosity of water is 0.01 cm'lsec, the settling at the rate of 8000m3/d, at water
velocity of the particle as per Stokes law is temperature2Oo C (fr : l0-3 kg/m-s and
(a) 0.056 cm/sec (b) 0.048 cmlsec p :1000kg/m3)'Assuming Stoke's law to be
(c) 0.12 cm/sec (d) 0.28 cm/sec
valid, the proportion (percentage) of
spherical sand particles(O.Olmm in diameter
r'(09)A rectangular sedimentation tank is designed with specific gravity 2.65), that will be
for a surface overflow rate (surface loading) removed, is (GATE-2003)
'$of 12,000 litlhrlni. What percent of (a)32.s (b) 67 (c) 87.s (d) es.s
suspended particles of diameter 0.03 mm
would be removed (GArE-ee) Common Data for Questions 15 & 16
Common Data for Questions 10 & 11 A plain sedimentation tank with a length of
20m, width of 10m, and a depth of 3m is used
A settling tank has 26 min dia. with a2.10 m in a water treatment plant to treal 4 million
side water depth. Effluent weir is located on litres of water per day (4MLD). The average
the periphery of the tank. For a water flow of
temperature of water is 20oC. The dynamic
13000 m'lday
viscosity if water is 1.002 x 10-3 N.s/m2 at20o
10. The detention time available is C. Density of water is 998.2 kg/m3. Average
(a) 2.41hrs (b) 3.56 hrs specific gravity of particles is2.65.
(c) 4.2hrs (d) 1.86 hrs
15. What is the surface overflow rate in the
11. Weir loading in m3 / day / m is sedimentation tank?
(a) 208 (b)263 (c) 1e4 (d) lse (a) 20m3 lm2 Iday (b) 40m3 I llay
(c)67m'lm'lday ^rn2
(d) 133m'/m'lday
_12.
Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to
remove spherical particles of size equal to and 16. What is the minimum diameter of the particle
greater than 50prm with G : 2.3 from 100 which can be removed with 100% effrciency
MLD of water. Also determine the Detention in the above sedimentation tank?
time. L: B :: 3 : 1, depth of tank:3rn, (a) 11.8 x 10-3mm (b) 16.0 x 10-rmm
y: l.0l x l0-6m2/s (GATE-96) (c) 50 x10-3mm (d) 160 x10-3mm
ng
:25: Plain Sedimentation

ions
I L h horizontal flow primary clarifier treats settling velocity of the particles in water is
r wastewater in which l0%. 60Yo and 30% of described by stokes's Law.
,000
particles have settling velocities of 0.1 mm/s, Given: Density of water
1000 kg/m3; :
ein :2650kg^t;
0.2 mm/s, and 1.0 mm/s respectively. What density of particle
hich
would be the total percentage of particles :
g 9.81 m/s'; Kinematic viscosity of water
/of removed if clarifier operates^ at^ a Surface (v): 1.10 x 10-6 m2ls (GArE-rs)
Overflow Rate (SOR) of 43.2m'lrrt'.d?
3m
(GATE-0e) 2I.In a wastewater treatment plant, primary
(a) 43% (b) s6% sedimentation tank (PSD designed at an
ows
,ater
(c) 86% (d) 100% overflow rate of 32.5 m'ldavlm' is 32.5 m
long, 8.0 m wide and liquid depth of 2.25 m.
and
ll{. A setting tank a water treatment plant is If the length of the weir is 75 m, the weir
lbe surface overflow rate of
of
designed for loading rate (in nt'ldaylm) is (GATE-lS) _
m-
Leter 30 . Assume specific gravity of
be dav.m'"
)03) sedinrent particles :2.65, density of water
.5 (p):1000 kg/m3, dynamic viscosity of 01. (b) 02. (d) 03. (a) 0a. (c) 0s. (b)
water(p) :0.001 N.s/m2,and Stokes' law is
06. 0.0112 m/sec
5 valid. The approximate minimum size of
particles that would be completely removed is: 07. (c) 08. (a) 09.27.08
nof (a) 0.01 mm (b) 0.02 mm
10. (a) 11. (b) 12.44.s,14.83 &0.47
rsed (c) 0.03 mm (d) 0,04 mm
lion 13.20nf lm'lday |a. (c) ls. (a) 16. (b)
rage 19. A suspension of sand like particles in water
(b) 18. (b) re.3r.2r4
17.
mic with particles of diameter 0.10 mm and below
200 is falling into a sedimentation tank 0.01 at 20.22.s76 2r.112.66
rage m3/s, g:9.8 m/s2. Specific gravity of
particles:2.65, and kinematic viscosity of
water : 1.0105x10-' cm'ls. Thc minimum
surface area (in m2 required for this scttling
tank to remove particles of size 0.06 nrnr lnrl
above with 100% efficiencv is -
tcnrE- 14)
ticle 20. Consider a primary sedimentation tank (PST')
)ncy in a
water treatment plant lvith Surfacc
Overflow Rate (SOR) of 40 m'/m'ld. Th.
diameter of the spherical particle which will
have 90 percent theoretical removal efficiency
in this tank is um. Assume that

Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopal I hure I Bhubaneswar I

Bcnpluru | Lucknow I Patn I Chemi lUiapmda lvizag lTirupati I Gmur I Kulatrally(tlyd)
 Coagulation
Sedimentation Aided with coagulation: Flocculation: Slow mixing technique
o To remove very fine susPended which promotes agglomeration of particles
particles and colloidal particles. Coagulation: Mixing of coagulants
o Certain chemicals called "Coagulants" * Flocculation
are mixed with water which form a Dosage: It depends on the amount of
gelatinous precipitate called "floc' turbidity present in water'
which atbracts the fine susPended o Average dosage for normal water is
particles. 14 mgll.
. Optimum alum dosage may be
Commonly used coagulants: determined bY Jar Test.
1) Alum: A/z (SO+): l8HzO (Aluminum o Alum functions effectively only when
Sulphate). Also called filter alum. pH value lies between 6.5 &8.5
Copperas (Ferrous Sulphate + lime)
2) o Iron salts can be used over a wide
3) Chlorinated Coppers (Ferric Sulphate)
range ofpH values.
4) Sodium Sulphate
Chemical Reactions :
a Iron salts are used more frequently for + -+
Atz (SOil 18 HzO 3 Ca (HCO:)z
treating sewage and alum is used for
treating water.
o Detention time : 2 to 4hours
a Overflow rate : 1000 to 1250 litllvlm2 +
2 A1(OH)3 + 3Ca SO4 18 HzO
ofplan area.
Distribution
Intel channel Channel
AI2 (SO4\18 HzO + 3 Naz COs +3HzO -)
outlet chamber / 2 A/ (OH)3+3Naz SO4+18 HzO + 3COz
\l / o Addition of alum to water imParts
permanent hardness and COz evolved
causes corrosion
o Presence of alkalinity is necessary for
the functioning of coagulants. If raw
water is not alkaline, lime or soda ash is
added to make water alkaline.
Floc Chamber:
After mixing alum to the water in the Advantages of alum as coagulant :
mixing basin, it is gentlY stined bY a) Reduces taste and odour apart from
paddles in the floc chamber to build up turbidity
the floc. b) The floc is effective
a Detention time : 15 to 40 min. c) It is cheap
o Depth of floc chamber is half the depth
of settling chamber.
 c*rn *."F,a1,qq- ,.,[i e{ 'rf.{i"r frirrf
l:{
6t,6 "vglt. ,,u nlon-;,r ' "!P I rvt'tf c
{f h . ..:-

V '-'rt'-{r.fr'
Academy :27 : Coagulation

l)isadvantages of alum as coagulant : Total quick lime required per year

ru) Difficult to dewater the sludge formed
1.416 x 50 x 106 x 365
b)It imparts permanent hardness _
c) COz causes corrosion 106

:25842kglyr
l,,l:umple:I
A coagulation sedimentation plant clarifies :25.842 tonnes/yr
50 MLD. The dosage of filter alum
required is l6mglL. If the raw water is
Class Room Practice Questions
having an alkalinity equivalent to 5mg/L of
e
( 01. A wirk:r' llcutrncnt plant is required to process
CaO) required per year for the plant. Given 2tlf|(X) nt'/<l ol' raw water (density : 1000
the molecular weights as follows kg/rrr', kirrcrrrltics viscosity : 10im2/s). The
(Al:27, S:32, O:1 6, H:1, :40, C:12) rapitl rrrixirrg lirnk imparts a velocity gradient
Ca
of'qtttts I to blorrd 35 mgll of alum with the
flow lirr ir tlclurlion time of 2 minutes. The
lol: Q: 50x 106 Litlday powol' ilrprrl (W) rcquired for rapid mixing is
Alum dosage : 16mgllLit (a)32.4 (h) .16 (c)324 (d)32400
Total alum required per year
Commorr l)nlu lilr Qucstions 02 & 03
_ 16x50x10" x365
106 A wllcl lt'eitlnlonl plarrt trcating 10 MLD of
: watcr rctlrrirtrs 20 rng// of filter Alum. The
292x103 kglyear
watcr hirs 6rtrg// ol' alkalinity as CaCO:.
:292 tonnes/year (A/ 2(r.()7. S .12, O - 16, H : l, Ca: 40,
1 mg of alum requires aline and (' l2) (GArE-03)
as CaCO3

o .'. 16 mg of alum requires: 16x 0.45

:7.2 mg of alkaline as CaCO: per Lit of
02. Totul nlkrrlirrily I'crluircrnr:nt (10" mg per day
as ('ir('O1) rnirlclrirrg liltcr Alum, shall be
(a) lli0
(b) 120
(c) 90
(d) 60
water
Available Alkalinity :5 mglLit 03. Quanlily ol'()rriok Lime required (106 mg per
.'. Alkaline to be added additionally yolr irs ('ir( )) shall be
:7 (a) 2l.l2(b) 3000 (c) 4132
(d) 6132
.2 - 5 :2.2 mslLlt
04. l)ctcrrninc the quantity of alum required in
Quick lime to be added to the water rurtlcr lo lrcat | 2 million liters of water per day
:2.2 x 0.56: L232m/Lit at a lroatment plant, where l4ppm of alum
dosr.: is rcquired. Also determine the amount
)?)
Actual quick lime to be added : 1':':: ol'(lO2 gas which will be releasedpgliFe of
0.87 watcr trr:ated. [Atomic weights Al:27,
: 1.416 mslLit S:32, O:16, H:l]

l
 ACE :28: Environmenal Engineering
Engin€€ringAcad€rny

05. At a water treatment plant I2MLD is treated basin at depth of 3.5m. The required
a
daily using ferrous sulphate and lime. If the surface area (in m') for settling is (GATE-l2)
dosage of ferrous sulphate is l}mglL, (a) 2r0 (b) 350
determine the total quantity of ferrous (c) 1728 (d) 21000
sulphate and lime required daily. Use the
following chemical equation 10. What is the predominating coagulation
Fe SO+. 7H2O + Ca (OH)z mechanism for raw water having high
:
Fe (OH)2 + CaSO+ + THzO turbidity and high alkalinity? (ESE- 07)
(a) Ionic layer compression
06. Design a floculator for a design flow of (b) Adsorption and charge neutralization
3000m'/hr. Assume Detention time of 20 (c) Sweep coagulation
minutes. G : 40 sec-t. Also determine the (d) Inter particle bridging
power requirement if p:1.0087xt0r N. S/m2.
Length to width ratio 2 and depth may be 11. Which combination of surface water quality
assumed as 0.4B. parameters will indicate sweep coagulation as
the preferred mechanism of coagulation?
07, The design parameter for flocculation is given (ESE-0e)
by a dimensionless number Gt, where G is the (a) High turbidity-low alkalinity
velocity gradient and t is the detention time. (b) High turbidity-high alkalinity
Values of Gt ranging from 104 to 10s are (c) Low turbidity-high alkalinity
commonly used, with t ranging from 10 to 30 (d) Low turbidity-low alkalinity
min. The most pr of G
and t to produce smaller and denser floc is 72- A surface water treatment plant operates
(GArE-04) round the clock with a flow rate of
(a) large G values with short t
3.5 m3/min. The water temperature is 15oC
(b) large G values with long t and jar testing indicated an alum dosage of
(c) small G values with short t
25 mglt, Gt: 4x104 for producing optimum
(d) small G values with long t
result. The alum request for 30 days (in kg)
08. A flash mixer of 2 m3 with a velocity gradient is (GArE-14)
of mixing mechanism equal to 600 S-l and
fluid absolute viscosity of 1.0 x 10-3 N-sec/#
is continuously operated. What is the power 01. (d) 02. (c) 03. (d)
input per unit volume? (ESE - 05)
04. 168 kglday,5.55 mgll
(a) 360W (b) 720w
(c) 1a40W (d) 300w 05. 120 kgl day, 24.168 k{ day

06. 1613.92 watts 07. (a) 08. (b) 09. (b)

09. A town is required to treat
'/min of raw
water for daily domestic supply. Flocculating 10. (c) 11. (b) 12.3780C
particles are to be produced by chemical
coagulation. A column analysis indicated that
an overflow rate of 0.2 mm/s will produce
satisfactory particle removal in a settling

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I hrne I Bhubaneswar I Bengalum l Ircknow I Parra I Ctrennai I Viiayawada | $zag I Tirupati I cunur I KukaOanv6vd)
enng

luired
E-12)
Filtrqtion
l. Filtration: which the biological activities are at tlrcir
lation For removal of very fine suspended particles , highest. This layer is called the Schmutztlccke
high colloidal particles, bacteria, odour & taste by (dirty skin). This layer further helps in
t7) means of filtering the water through bed of absorbing and straining out the impurities.
granular materials i.e., filter media
2.4.Electrolytic action: Some of the sand grains
Types: of filter are charged with electricity of some
1) Slow sand filter polarity. Hence, when particles of suspended
2) Rapid sand filter and dissolved matter having electricity of
nlity 3) Pressure filter opposite polarity come into contact with such
on as sand grains, they neutralize each other and it
2. Mechanism of Filtration: results in changing the chemical
)e) i) Mechanicalstraining characteristics of water.
ii) Sedimentation and adsorption
iii) Biological metabolism 3. Efficiency of slow sand filters:
iv) Electrolytic changes i)Bacterial load: They remove about 98 to
99Yo ofbacterial load.
2.l.Mechanical straining: The particles of ii) Colour: SSF are less efficient in the
rrates removal of colour of raw water
suspended matter that arc of size larger than
:of the size of the voids are arrested and removed
150C by the action of mechanical straining. 4. Efficiency of rapid sand filters:
Je of D Bacterial load: Less efficient in reducing
mum 2.2.Flocculation, Sedimentation and bacterial load .They remove about 80 to
r kg) adsorption: The interstices(voids) between of bacterial load present in water.
90o/o
-r4) the sand grains act as minute sedimentation ii) Colour: Highly efficient in colour
tanks in which particles will settle and adhcrc removal.
to the sides of sand grains. Also thc colloidal
particles held in the voids and on the surfaces 5. Loss of head:
act as a gelatinous material and attracts the o Difference in water levels between filter
other fine particles. tank and outlet chamber.
o Due to the resistance offered by the sand
I
2.3. Biological metabolism: The bacteria which grains to the flow.
are caught in the voids of the sand grains o If loss of head exceeds a specified value
v ttllize organic impurities present in water and
convert them into harmless compounds by
the complex biochemical reactions. The
then filter should be cleaned.

6. Cleaning of filters:
harmless compounds so formed are deposited SSF: These are cleaned by scrapping and
at the surface of the sand in the form of a removal of top sand layer of 1.5 to 3 cm
layer which contains a zoological jelly in thickness.

Hydenbad lDelhi lBhopallPme lBhubmeswlBengalm lLucknowlPatna]Chemai iVijayamdalVizg lTirupati l(irrrrtru l Krrkrtprlly(l lyrl)
 ACE
fagin€€riogecaaemv
RSF: Washing of Rapid sand filter is done by
Back washing system (for 10 to 15 minutes).
Troughs are kept to receive the back wash
water. Water required for back washing is 2 to
5 o/o of total amount of water filtered water.
Back wash water rate is 5 to I times filtration
rate.
7. Filter troubles:
Some of the potential filter troubles which
may be encountered in the operation of
gravity type filters are as follows:
il Formation of mud balls
ii) Cracking and clogging of filter bed
iii) Air binding
iv) Sand incrustation
v) Jetting and sand boils
vi) Sand leakage
7.1 Formation of mud balls : Mud balls are the
conglomerations of the sand grains, floc and
other binding material, varying from the size
of a pea to 25 to 50 mm in diameter. Found
most densely collected at or near the surface
of the sand bed. The cause of mud-ball
formation is insfficient washing of the sand
bed.
Methods of removing mud balls.
. Breaking them up with rakes and washing.
o Washing the sand in place to break up the
mud balls by means of high velocity
surface wash.
. Washing with a solution of some
chemicals such as caustic soda, sulphuric
acid, etc.
. Digging out with shovels.
7.2 Cracking and clogging of filter bed: Due to
Shrinkage of the filter bed cracks would
develop in thc filter bed and pulling away the
sand from the side walls. The remedial
measures to overcome this houble are same as
those adopted to ovcrcome the formation of
mud balls.
HydenbadlDcllrillthopallPrmelBhubmeswlBengalm
: 30: Environmental
7.3 Air binding: When negative pressure exceeds
the water tends to release dissolved gases in
the form of bubbles which seriously affects
the working of filter such phenomenon is
called " Air binding". It occurs due to
a) more negative head b) increase in
temperature of water c) release of oxygen by
algae.
To avoid air binding: Avoid excessive
negative head ,avoid warming up of water as
it passes through the filter, control growth
algae in the effluent, avoid super saturation
waterwith air.
7.4 Sand incrustation: It may be caused either
due deposition of sticky gelatinous
to
materials such as floc from the influent water
or due to presence of calcium carbonates.
Due to sand incrustation, the sand grains
enlarge and the effective size of sand is
changed can be minimized by carbonating the
influent, thereby dissolving both calcium
carbonate and any manganese that might have
deposited on sand grains.
7.5 Jetting and sand boils: Results during back
washing of the filter can be
minimized by
surface wash.
7.6 Sand leakage: It is downward migration and
escape of fitness can be minimized by
properly proportioning sand and gravel layers.
8. Design criteria for Rapid Sand Filter:
o Rate of filtration: 3000 to 6000 litlhr/sq.
m of filter area.
o Total C.S. Area of perforations should be
about 0.2 percent of the total filter area.
9. Pressure Filters:
Water is forced through the filter at Pr.
ranging 3 to7 kglcm" .
LucknowlPannlChemilvijayawadalVze iTirupati lcuuul KukaOaIyGIyd)
 ACE
yEogineeringecaaeuy :31 : Filnation
:ring
. Working is similar to RSF. In doublc filtration the preliminary filter is
-;eeds o Rate of filtration: 6,000 to 15,000 litlhrlm known as roughing filter which in most of
2
es in of filter area. the oasos is rupi.d sand filter . The roughing
fects . Installed for colonies of few houses, filters gcncrally do not require the use of
rn is individual industries, private estates, coagulants.
swimming Pools, railway stations etc.
:in Installation ol' roughing filters practically
:n by ll). Double Filtration- Roughing Filter: doublc tho cnploily ol'slow sand filters and
Water is allowed to pass through a rapid sand
hence it is tluitc usclirl where land available
filter and then through a slow sand filter for tho irrstullulion ol' slow sand filters is
sslve arranged in series.
restrictod.
er as
th of
rn of ll.Comparison of Slow Sand Filters and Rapld Sand Filters
S.No Item (2) Slow sand filters (3) Rttpltl sund tilters (4)
rither
l. Size of filter Varies from 100 m'to 2000 m' or '/arics lirirrr l0 rrr2 to 50 m-
nous bed more
vater 2. Filter media of .Sand grains are finer . Slncl gluirrs aro slightly coarser.
Lates.
sand .Effective size:O.20to 0.35 mm . Efl'octi vtrsizo:0,35to0.55mm
rains .Uniformity coefficient: 1.8 to 3.0 . Unittrrrrritycocl'l'icicnt: 1.3 to1.7
Ld is .Thickness: 90 to 110 cm Reduced . Thiokncss: (r0 kr 75 cm. Not
g the
to not less than 40cm bv scrapoinc. redttcotl by wtrshing.
cium
3. Base material . Size:3to65mm o Sizc : 2 to 50 mrn
have
of sravel . Thickness : 30 to 75cm r jlliclrrosrr : 45 b 60 cm
4. Coaeulation Normally not required Emrcntinl _
5. Under drainage Provitlcd to rcccivc filtered water
back
system Provide only to receive filtered water, and alsu to supply watcr for back
dbv
wqrhing ol'liltr:r
6. Rate of
100 to 200 litres/ hour/ m' 3(XX) to 6(XX) litrr:s/ hour/m2
frltration
L 4nd
by
7. Method of Scrapping of top layer of 15 to 30 Agitntion nnd back washing with
cleanins mm thickness or witlrout comoressed air
yers.
8. Amount of
0.2to 0.6% of frltered water 2lo 5"1, ol'filtered water
wash water
ter:
9. Period of
flsq. I to 3 months I to 3 days
cleaning
10. Efficiencv Very efficient in the removal ol' [,r:ss efficient in the removal of
dbe bacteria but less efficient in thc bactcria, but more efficient in the
1.
removal of colour and turbiditv. rcmoval of colour and turbiditv

Hydenbad|DelhiIBhopal|PrmeIBhubaneswar|Bcn&iluruILucknow|ParraIChemiIVijayawadalvizas lfirupati IGunuu| ItukaOaXVGIVd)

Filter Hydraulics: Example l:
Carmen - Kozney Equation:
Headloss through a gramlar porous medium, Find the length and width of slow sand filter
h1 required to handle 2}r4LD of water with a rate of
, r----!-
fLVl rl-nt filtration of 200 litlhrlm2. Assume L:B: l:2
r-
- g.d n'-"' ......foruniform
hg= size particles.

(1- n) Sol: Surface area of slow sand filter

Where, f: l50r:__jz + I.7 5 a
rateof filtration
ov"d
D.0 l0o
=Ke:' tl ^
zx -'
L, B= 24 :416.66m2
d : grain size, f : friction factor 200
L : depthof filterbed L:28
n : porosity offiltermedia 2B:416.66
= B:14.43m
: particle shape factor
L:28.86 m
$
( 1 for sphere, < 1 for other shapes )
V,: superficial or approach filtration velocity Example 2:

g: acceleration due to gravity Design a 5 rapid sand filters to heat 30 mld of

p = density of liquid water with rate o filtration 3000 litlhrlm2. Also
p: dynamic viscosity of water.
find percentage of filtered water required to
backwash filter, if backwashing rate is 6 times
Re: Reynolds Number rate of fil{ration. Duration of backwash is 10 mins
FT,ow THRoUGH EXPANDED BEDS: and it is carried out once in e erv 24 hours.
L. _ (l-n) =v ,nl,
L (1-n") %
Where, L. : expanded bed thickness
Sol: Total area required - -a
IOF
Vr : velocity of backwash water {
30'
L: original bed thickness 24
=416.66m2
Vt : terminal settling vel. of particle 3000
ne : expanded bedporosity Area of each filtt r : 416'j =$3z
n : porosity of original bed 5
L:B :2:I
Headloss during backwashing,
Lx B=83.32
hru:L (1-n)(S-1)
B=l/m.n
\2 - =6.45m
(or)
: L"(1 -n) (S-l) L: 12.9 m
Where S:specific gravity of the filter particle
 pllrl I (6) "
(D1 =

Volume of meter used in backwash 03. A water fieatment plant is designed to treat
:
ROB xDOB x Areaof each filter 0.25m3lsec of turbid water. Nuiber of filter
: 6x3000"*" $.32 : units is equal to 4, Rate of filtration is
OU
249960 m
srlfktlfu,; Back wash rate : I0 ilm2lsec
L:B::2:1. Determine a) the length and breadth
Volume of water filtered of filter unit b) Flow rate in wash water
:
ROFx DOF xAreaof each filter trough, if are provided.
/ rn\ (GArE -e3)
=3000 xl24-:: lx 83.32
\ 60/ 0
:5957380 liters 4. In order to test a filtration process, clear water
is made to pass through a bed of uniform sand
tt/oof waterusedinbackwash : ?!99,60 ,too at a filtering velocity of 3.0m/hr. Sand bed
5957380 ' : has the following properties. Depth of bed :
:4.195 %o :
0.6m, sand grain size 0.5mm, sand specific
gravity : 2.65, sand grain shape factor for
Class Room Practice Questions calculating Reynolds Number (g):0.8,
Porosity of sand bed, e : 0.4, y : 1.0 x 10{
m'ls. Calculate the loss of head infiltration.
{)l.Design six slow sand filter beds from the
(GATE - e7)
following data
:
Population 50,000 persons
60
05. A bed of uniform sand, having particle size
Per capita water Demand: 150 htlhead/dav 0.65mm dia and specific gravity 2.66,
Rate of frlhation: lS0litlhrlnf porosity 0.42 and depth 65cm is to be washed
:
L 2 B. Assume max demand as 1.8 times hydraulically. Compute
average daily demand. Also assume that one (a) back wash rate so that expansion will be
unit out of six will be kept as stgrdby. s0%
(b) head loss at this rate.
{)2. A city has to treat 24MLD of turbid water
using Rapid sand filter with a filtration rate
5m'lhrlm'.
of Take u: 1.3 x I02 cr#lsec and assume
(a) Determine the size of the Filter bed if ^ n Ce:24lRe and Laminar flow conditiorr
6kr
L:B::2:1, only one unit of
filter is 06. A small filter of 0.05 m dopth rcrnoves 90olo
provided.
of particles presents in wator. lf the particle
(b) Determine the percentage of filtered water removal rcquirccl is 99,,1,, what should be the
required for backwashing the filter, if the depth of filter ? (cArE-e2)
rate of back wash is 6 times thc rate of (a) 0.10 m (b) 0.s0 m
filtration and duration of back wash is (c) 0.75 m (d) 1.00 m
trOmin. Back washing is done onoo' in ir
day.
 Academy Environmental Engineering

Common Data for Questions 07 & 08 (a) MMF = DMF>RSDSSF

A city is going to install the rapid sand filter (b) DMF>RSF>SSF>MMF

after the sedimentation tank
Use the following data.
- ot\ (c) RSDSSF>MMF=DMF
Design loading rate to the filter - 200nllnfd
Design flow rate - 0.5m3/s (d) SSF>MMF=DMF>RSF
Surface area per filter box- 50m2
11. A water treatment plant is designed to treat I
m3ls of raw water. It has 14 sand filters.
07. The Surface area required for the rapid sand
Surface area of each filter is 50 m2. What is
filter will be /t\
(a) 2r\rrt b) 2rsn] the loading rute I in--l-- | with two filters
(c)216m" (d) 2l8m' \ oay.m- /
out of service for routine backwashing?
08. The number of filters required shall be (GArE-13)
(a) 3 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8

09. The cleaning of slow sand filter is done by

(ESE - e6) 01. 35.35 m,17.67 m
(a) reversing the direction of flow of water 02.20 m, 10 m,4.l9o/o
(b) passing air through filter
(c) passing solution of alum and lime through 03. 9.48 m,4.74m,0.225 m3lsec
filter 04.0.216 m 05. 0.032 m/sec. 0.6258m
(d) scrapping off top layers of sand and
admitting water 06. (a) 07. (c) 08. (c) 0e. (d)

10. (a) lr.r44

10. Which one of the following is the correct
sequence of slow sand filter (SSF), Rapid
Sand Filter (RSF), Dual Media Filter (DMF)
and Mixed Media Filter (MMF) in the
decreasing order of their filtration rates?
(ESE- 06)

HydcnbedlDelhilBhopallh:nelBhuburc$rarlBcngalurulhcknowlPatnlCtrcnnailviiapuadalviza lTtrupati lGunurl rckapally(ttyd)

)enng

Disinfection
I Disinfection: It is the process of killing o Used for water supply for arrny troops,
pathogenic bacteria. private plants, swimming pools.
Methods: o Cannot be used for public water supply as
i) Boiting of water : it is costly.
.reat I o Most effective method of disinfection of v) Ultra violet rays:
i-rlters. water. . Very costly technique and is an effective
hat is o Cannot be used for huge quantities of method for the disinfection of water
public water supplies. o No residual effect is available for
filters o Cannot take care of the future possible protection against recontamination.
contaminations. o Adopted for water supply installations of
o Used only for Domestic purposes in private Buildings, Institutions, Treating
E-13) emergencies. small quantities of water in hospitals,
dispensaries for surgical use. Swimming
ii) Treatment with excess limes :
pools
o Effectively kills the bacteria, but cannot
'l safe guard the future pollution.
vi) Potassium Permanganate:
. Enough lime is added to water to raise its
o For disinfecting well water supplies which
I pH value to 9.5 or more, thereby most of are generally contaminated with lesser
amounts of bacteria.
the bacteria will be killed.
o o Can remove 100 % organisms causins
,-l Recarbonation is necessary. The process
of removal of excess lime before it is cholera.
supplied to public is known as o It also oxidizes organic matter
I
I
Recarbonation. vii) Silver or Electro-Katadyn Process:
iii) Ozone :
o Removes algae also and takes care of
o Ozone is a more powerful disinfectant future pollution. It is costly.
than chlorine. viii) Chlorination :
o Ozone is more costly than chlorine. o Universally adopted for public waters
o Does not provide residual protection supplies because it is capable of providing
against recontamination. residual disinfecting effects for long
o Cannot be stored. periods. It satisfies all the requirements of
o Used for disinfection of water on a small an ideal disinfectant.
scale such as for swimming pool o It takes care of any possible future
waters. contamination. (i.e it prevents
recontamination)
iv) Iodine and Bromine pills:
o Compared to chlorine , iodine provides . Only disadvantage is it imparts bad taste.
longer lasting protection against
o The addition of chlorine does not produce
pathogens and reduced offensive tastes any significant change in the pH
and odours.
o Value of the natural waters
o Chlorination is not effective if the water is
alkaline.
Hydcrabad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pune I Bhubaneswar I Bengalunr I Lucknow I Patrra I Chennai I Vijayawada I Vizag I Tinrpati I Gunnrr I Kulntprlly(l lyd)
ffi=ru
) Action of chlorine: 3. Chloramines:
is added to water, the NH, + HOCL -+ NHzCL (Mono chloramines)
When chlorine
+ HzO
following reaction takes Place:
+ HOCL -+ NHCLz (Dichloramines)
Cl2 + ffrO <+ HOCL + U* + CL=
NHzCL
+ HzO
(HydrolYsis)
This hydrolysis reaction is reversible' NHCLz + HOCL -) NCL: (Nitrogen
OCL- ...(Ionization) trichloride or Trichloramine)+ H2O
HOCL €) H+ +
This reaction is also reversible'
o The Monochloramines & Dichloramines
have got disinfecting properties'

At pH < 5.5 , + 100% HOCL and no OCL o The Trichloramine has got negligible
disinfecting ProPertY'
At pH > 9.5, -> 100% OCL and no HOCL
At pH :7.5,-+ 50%o HOCL and 50% OCL of chloramines
The relative distribution
Hypochlorous acid (HOCL) a1d-.tfe. hfno
.tttotit. ions (OCLI accomplish disinfection
of water.Thus Chlorine reacts with water to
ptoduce hypo chlorous acid (HOCL) and
^htno
chloiite (oCL) which ar9 -lgsether dichloramines exist.
knbwn as "free available chlorine"'HOCL is If pH > 8.4 , only Monochloramines exist'
80 to 100 times more powerful than OCL'
.
0.5

The free Clz rcacts with compounds such as

ammonia, proteins, amino acids and phenol

0.4

that may generally be present in water to form 0.3

Chloramines and Chloro derivatives which Combined
are called "Combined Chlorinet" It 0.2

possesses some disinfecting properties but

iess effective compared tofree available 0.1

chlorine .Some free chlorine also exists along

with combined available chlorine' 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0;7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Chlorine added, mg/L

Free chlorine is about 25 times more powerful
than combined chlorine. M: Destruction of chlorine residual by
reducing comPounds(Fe, Mn, HzS )
These compounds either in free or combined N: Formati,on of chloro-organic compounds
fbrm of chlorine, interfere with enzymes in and chloramines
the bacteria forming toxic chloro compounds O: Destruction of chloramines and chloro-
and thus destroYing the bacteria' organic comPounds
P: Formation of free chlorine and presence
Residual chlorine: Chlorine dosage - of chloro-organic comPounds not
Chlorine demand destroYed.

- adalvizg lTirupati lcuurl Kukapallv(Ilvd)

 When chlorine is added to water, some of it 4. Dosage :
is consumed in killing bacteria and oxidizing The dose of chlorine which lcervcs a residual
nes) organic matter toform its
compounds chlorine of about 0.2 mgllitre at the end of 10
(Chloramines) and the remaining chlorine is minutes contact period is selected which gives
nes) available as residual chlorine. This is the optimum dose of chlorine for the given
indicated by line The fall of line R
a. water sample.
)gen indicates oxidation of
chloro-organic Normal dosage 0.3 to I.I mg I I
compounds and chloramines, indicated by bad Residual Chlorine 0.1 to 0.2 mg I I
ines odour and taste in water. Any further increase Chlorine dose must be generally increased
in chlorine dose beyond point B will appear during rainy season.
,ible as residual chlorine onlv and this is shown bv C/2 dosage :
Clz demand + C/2 residual
line S.
The sudden decrease in the residual chlorine Example:l
is due to the fact that the increased
of the applied chlorine breaks
ooncentration Find C/z demand, if Cl2 dose of 0.6 mg// is
down chloramines by changing them to added to have C/z residual of 0.2 mgl/. Find
nitrogen compounds, dose of Bleaching powder required, if it
l.l. Factors affecting bactericidal efficiency of contains 30% of Clz. Also find monthly
chlorine: bleaching powder requirement in kg to treat 10
(D Turbidity: Turbidity decreases the MLD of water.
efficiency of chlorine as disinfectant.
/ (iD Metallic compounds presence: Iron Sol: C/z demand: C/z dose C/z residual
and manganese if present in water, they
-
:0.6 - 0.2:0.4mgll
e reduce the effectiveness of chlorine.
ntia Bleaching powder (BP) :
(iii) Amrnonia Compounds: Reduces the
#ffi L

efficiency 0.6 A 11
ined =./.m9. ll
ual 30 / 100
I (iv) pH Value of water: Increased pH value
1.0
reduces the effectiveness of chlorine as Total BP requircd in kg/day:Qx dose of BP
bactericide.
j1J""Y1";Tr,ffi mstt)
(v) Temperature of water: At lower
temperature, the efficiency will be less
Monthly requirement :20 x 30 : 600 kg
and hence requirement of
residual
chlorine will be more.
5. Various forms of Chlorine:
(vi) Contact Time: The killing of bacteria 1. As bleaching power or hypo chlorite
increases with increase of contact 2. As chloramines
period. Viruses are more resistant than 3. As chlorine gas or liquid chlorine
bacteria and hence require longer time 4. As chlorine dioxide sas
of contact and higher doses of Clz

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Prme I Bhubmesw I Bengalm I Ircknow I Patna I Chemi I Viiayamda I
Vizg Tirupati I Gunor I Kttloqrdly(Hytl)
I
;ffit AGE
tAD;fndneerlng Academy
S.l.Bleaching powder: (Calcium hypochlorite
Ca(oCI)2)
The bleaching powder contains about
30 to 35 percent of available chlorine.
Therefore, it can not be used for large
- water supplies. This chlorination
public
known as hypochlorination.
5.2.Chloramines: Chloramines
compounds formed by the reactions between
ammonia and chlorine .chloramines do not
cause bad taste and odour. Residual effects
lasts for longer duration.
Chloramines are much weaker disinfectants as
compared to free chlorine.
S.3.Chlorine gas or liquid chlorine: Chlorine in
gaseous or liquid form is now-a-days
universally adopted(liquid chlorine)
disinfectant for public water supplies
powerful disinfectant and may remain in
water as residual for sufficient time
No sludge is formed in its application, as may
be formed by using hypochlorites or
chloramines.
5.4 Chlorine dioxide: It has an
capacity 21t2 times that of chlorine. Further it
is effoctive in the removal of tastes and
odours, but due to its high cost of production
it is not economical
6. Types of Chlorination:
6.1 Plain chlorination: Only
treatment and no other treatment.
Helps to remove bactena and colour from
watcr and it also controls the growth of Algae.
It is uscd in case of emergencies, when full
fledged trcatment cannot be given. Also
adopted fbr oloan water.
6.2 Prechlorination: Chlorine is added before
raw water enters scdimentation tanks. It
helps in reducing thc quantity of coagulants
Hydcnba<l I Dclhi I Bhopal I Pune I Bhubmesw I Bengalm I Lucknow I Patra I Chemai I Viiayawada Vizas i Tirupali I Guuu I Kukatpally(tlyd)
: 38: Environmental Engineering
and to improve coagulation. It reduces
taste and odour of water;
o Controls the growth of algae .It reduces
the bacterial load on filters;
o It prevents putrefaction of sludge in
is settling tanks.
6.3 Post chlorination : This is the standard form
are the
of chlorination in which chlorine is added to
water as it leaves filters and before it enters
distribution system. The residual chlorine
present in water is useful for its protection
against contamination in the distribution
system.
Residual : 0.1 to 0.2 msll.
6.4 Double or multiple chlorination: It consists
as of pre-chlorination and post chlorination.
It is a Adopted when raw water is highlY
contaminated and contains large amount of
bacterial life.
6.5.Break point chlorination (or free residual
chlorination):
Break point chlorination gives an idea of
oxidizing chlorine to be added to water so as to ensure
the Cesired amount of residual chlorine..
Advantages (or other actions) of Chlorine
as disinfectant:
1. It will remove taste and odour.
2. It will have adequate bactericidal effect.
chlorine
3. It will leave a desired chlorine residual.
4. It will remove manganese and iron.
5. It will complete the oxidation of ammonia
and other compounds. Organic matter.
6.6. Super chlorination: The application of
chlorine to water beyond the stage of break
point is known as super-chlorination. It is
most commonly added at the end of
filtration.
I
_ ,,,- | r ]t I ltllllT-
ng ,"{il AcE
-.1]""Engin€€rbg Acad€my :39: Disinfection

Adopted whenever there is breakout of

Class Room Practicc Qrrcstions
water borne diseases.
When super-chlorination is
practiced, it
becomes necessary to remove the excess 01. It is required to supply water [o u propulation
chlorine by any suitable method of of 20,000 at a per capita demancl ol' 150 lit
dechlorination before water is supplied to the per day. Determine how much blclching
consumers powder is required in_kg on an averagc l)or'
)rrn day if the chlorine dosage is 0.2ppm. Assunrt:
Ito (r.7 Dechlorination: Process of removing excess bleaching powder contains 30% of availablc
ters chlorine by dechlorinating agents. This is to chlorine.
'ine
avoid chlorinous taste from water. Chemicals (a) 0.6 (b) 0.18 (c) 2 (d) 0.8
,ion used for dechlorination are:: sulphur dioxide,
ion Sodium thiosulphate, sodium bio sulphate, 02. Chlorine usage in the treatment of 20,000 cu
Activated carbon, potassium permanganate, m of water per day is 8 kg. The residual after
ammonia. 10min. contact is 0.15 mg/i. The chlorine
dosage and demand of water in mgll , arc
ists 7. Testing of chlorine Residuals: respectively
on. (D Orthotolodine test (a)2.s &0.2s (b)2.s &2.3s
hlv (iD D. P. D test (Diethyl-p-Phenylene- (c) 0.4 &0.2s (d) 0.4 & 0.15
of Diamine)
(iii) Chlorotex test 03. For a water, the dosage at break point is
(iv) Starch-iodidetest I.5 mgll and residual chlorine at that time is
ual o The orthotolidine test is most commonly found to be 0.3mg/L. If cumulative chlorine
used to determine the amount of residual added is2 mgll, the residual chlorine will be
of chlorinein water. (a) l.2mglL (b) 0.8 mglL
,ure
o The Starch-iodide test is more precise (c) 0.s mglL (d) zero
than the orthotolidine test, particularly
when residual chlorine is greater than 1 04. Chlorine gas used for disinfection combines
ine
p.p.m. with water to
form hypochlorous acid
(HOCL). The HOCL is ionizes to form
8. Kinetics of disinfection: hypochlorite (OCL) in a reversible reaction:
HOCL <-> H+ + OCL (k: 2.7 x 10-8 at 20o
Chick's Law: The rate of kill of organisms is
C), the equilibrium of which is governed by
proportional to the number of organisms
pH. The sum of HOCL and OCL- is known as
nla remaining in water atany time 't'.
free chlorine residual and HOCL is the more
Increase in temperature results in a more rapid
effective disinfectant. The 90o/o fraction of
kill HOCL in the free chlorine residual is
Nt = Noe-u' available at a pH value (GArE-04)
Cnt: cons tan t (a) 4.8 (b) 6.6 (c) 7.s (d) e 4
k: Disinfection rate constant
C: concentration of disinfectant
n : dilution coefficient

;t
"l
Hydcrabad lDelhi lBhopal lPrne lBhubaneswar iBengalm lLucknowlPatra]Chemi lVijayamdalVizg lTirupati l()urrrrrr Krrk;rtprlly(l ly<l)
I

;TE
 ACE : Environmental Engineering
Engine€dngAcademy : 40

05. The disinfection efficiency of chlorine in ll.Anaerobically treated effluent has MPN of
watertreatment (GATE-O0) total coliform as 10o / 100 mL. After
(a) is not dependent on PH value chlorination, the MPN value declines to 102 I
(b) is increase by increased pH value 100 mL. The percent removal (%R) and log
(c) remains constant at all pH values removal (1og R) of total coliform MPN is
(d) is reduced by increased pH value
(GArE - 11)
(a) %R :99.90; log R : 4
06. In disinfection, which of the following forms (b) %R :99.90; 1og R: 2
of chlorine is most effective in killing the (c) %R :99.99 ; log R: 4
pathogenic bacteria? (GATE-O2) (d) %R: 99.99; log R:2
(a) CL (b) ocl- ,/\
t*@,bhlorine gas (8 mg/L as
(c) NH2CL (d) HOCL - drinking water samPle.
residual and PH was me
07. Pathogens are usually removed by (as CLz) and 7.5, respectively, what is the
(a) chemical preciPitation
concentration of residual OCL-. Ions in the
(b) sedimentation
water? Assume that the chlorine gas added to
(c) activated sludge Process
the water is completely converted to HOCL
(d) chlorination
and OCL-.Atomic weight of CL: 35.5
(GArE - 11)
08. To obtain 99.7% kill of bacteria, ozone is to
be used in water with a residual of 0.6 mglL' GivenOCL- +H* e HOCL, K = 1075
The reaction constant under these conditions (a) 1.40S x 10-5 moles/L
is 3 x 10-2 per second. Calculate the time of (b) 2.S17 x 10-s moles/L
contact required.
(c) 5.63ax10-s moles/L
09.If 0.7 mglL of chlorine is required for (d) l.l21x10r moles/L
at pH: 7,
satisfactory disinfection of water
what dosage will be necessary at pH : 8' ro 13. The amountof er contamrng
20o/o avatlable to chlorinate
K:2.7 x 10-8 at20" C
a rural water supply covering a population
of of 10000 at 50 Lpcd at the tate of 2 ppm is
10. What is the correct sequence of formation
(ESE-01)
the following compounds during chlorination
(a) l kg (b) s (c) 0.2 kg (d) 20 kg
kg
of water in which ammonia is present.
(ESE - e6)
14. Chlorination with produces hypochlorous
C12
(1) NCL3 (2) NH2CL (3) NHCL2
acid (HOCL), which may further dissociate as
Select the correct answer using the codes
hypochlorination (OCLI depending upon pH
given below.
of the water. The reaction is represented as
(a) 1,2,3 (b)2,3,r
(c) 3,1,2 (d)2,1,3 HOCL= H++OCL-
(K: 2.5x10-8 moVL at20"C)
What is the fraction of HOCI in the water at
pH1.0? (ESE- 06)
(a) 0.e5 (b) 0.s0 (c) 0.20 (d) 0.0s
rnng :41 : Disinfection

,tf \l
)N of (\ t'rjit(r MLD of water is flowing through a2.5k'rrr t:
initially (u] 0). The volurnc ol'disint'ection
After hrng pipe of diameter 45 cm. The chlorine at unit (in m') required to achievc a 914"1, kill of
rc2 I llrc rate of 32kgld is applied at the entry of micro organism is (GA'r'E-14)
d log this pipe so that disinfected water is obtained
i irl the exit. These is a proposal to increase the
for
- 11) llow through the pipe to 22 MLD from 16
MLD. Assume the dilution coefficient n: l. 01. (c) 02. (c) 03. (b) 04. (b) 0s. (d)
l'hc minimum amount of chlorine (in kg per
06. (d) 07. (d) 08.3.2 min 09.0.56mgl1
tlty) to be applied to achieve the same degree
ol'disinfection for the enhanced flow will be 10. (b) 11. (c) 12.(a) 13. (a) 14. (b)
(GArE-14)
ltoa 15. (a) 16. 50.02 m3
(a) 60.5 (b) 4.4 (c) 38 (d)23.27
lorine
t"glL ltr. An effluent at a flow rate of 2670 m'/d frorn u
s the sewage treatment plant is to be disinfected.
n the 'fhe laboratory data of disinfection studied
led to with a chlorine doses in mg// yields the model
Nt : Noe-0145t where N1 : oufiIber of micro-
IOCL
organism surviving at time t (in min) and
- rl) = number of mi

mmg
'inate
ation
nis
l-01)
l0 kg

)rous
rte as
npH
ts

,et at
- 06)
.05

@ 1ll,,:.il*t'l,t,J
 Miscellaneous Water
Treqtment
Water Softening: Removal of hardness will be required
4. less quantity of coagulant
from water is known as Water Softening. for coagulation.
5. Removal of iron and manganese to some
extent.
0 Removal of Temporary
6. There is likelihood of killing of
1) by boiling 2) by adding lime
pathogenic bacteria in this process.
Removalofp thardness: 7. Better for excessivelv hard waters.
l. Lime Soda Process
2. ZeoliteProcess 1.3 Disadvantages of Lime-soda Process:
3. Demineralization Process (or) 1. A large quantity of sludge is formed in
Deionization Process this process which needs to be disposed
off by some suitable method
1. Lime Soda Process: Lime (Ca(OH)2) and
In this process recarbonation is required.
Sodium carbonate ;Na2COr1 (or soda ash)
By Lime soda process water of zero
are used to remove permanent hardness
hardness cannot be produced.
from water.
Quick lime CaO, or hydrated lime
2. Zeolite Process:
Ca(OH)z can be used for water softening.
Zeolite is a complex compound of
l.l Lime Soda Water Softening plant a
consists of thefollowing units:
Hard water is passed through a bed of ion-
i) Feeding and mixing devices
exchange material or ion exchanger
ii) Settling tank or settling basin.
commoniy known as Zeolite.
iii) Recarbonation plant.
iv) Filters Calcium and magnesium are removed
Recarbonation plant: Carbon dioxide from water as these are substituted bv
CO2 gas is diffused through the effluent so sodium by ion- exchange process.
that the insoluble calcium carbonate and By Zeolite process the hardness of water
magnesium hydroxide combine with is reduced almost to zero.
carbon dioxide to again form the soluble
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. 2.1 Advantages of Zeolite process:

1.2 Advantages of Lime-Soda Process: t. Sludge is not formed and there is no

1. Economical problem of sludge disposal.
2. pH value increases and corrosion of the 2. Does not require any skilled supervision.
distribution system decreases 3. It is possible to reduce hardness of water
3. The process is suitable for turbid, to zero. This is useful for softening of
chalybeate and acidic waters for which water to be used for boilers and certain
zeolite process cannot be used. textile industries.

HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhubmeswlBengalmllruknowlPanralChennailviiapmdalVizg lTnpati lGunorl K*aedbfiyd)

 I rrilYlIJ\r{, i) t [ax^&ar.aa-
""'d'-
Pettm,
odarrx,

q)r&-
l.l l)isadvantage of zeolite process: 4.3. Use of Copper Sulphate: Copper sulphate
( annot be adopted for highly turbid water CuSOa is used for
i) removal of colour, odour and taste from
.1. Demineralization Process (or) water
ired
Deionization Process: ii) control the growth of algac, bacteria and
It is similar to zeolite process with the some types of aquatic weeds It can be
fference that in deminerali zation process the
tl i
applied either in the distribution pipes or
metallic ions viz., c4gyq_rneg!!!19m, etc., in open reservoirs.
of
s. The ion
cxchanger is
prepared with carbonaceous 5. Iron and manganese:
rnaterial or resin. The effluent obtained in the Effects are as follows.
demineralization process is free from minerals 1. If water containing iron and manganese is
and it has a quality almost equal to that of used in a laundry, it will develop reddish
lin distilled water used for industries. or brownish stains on the clothes.
rsed 2. Deposited in distribution pipes and it
leads to the blocking of pipes, meters, etc.
1i) Removal of Colour, Odour and taste: 3. The water is coloured either red or brown.
red. 1. Aeration
rero 2.Treatment by activated carbon 4. Water required for certain industries such
3. Use of Copper sulphate. as paper-making, photographic film
manufacturing, ice-making, etc., must be
.1.1. Aeration: Aeration is a process in which entirely free from iron and manganese.
water is brought in intimate contact with When iron and manganesc ooour in water
atmospheric air to promote exchange of gases without combination with organic matter, Iron
between water and atmospheric air. and Manganese can be removed by aeration
ton-
(i) Carbon dioxide, hydrogen Sulphide and follow'ed by eoagulation, sedimentatlon--Ind
rger
other volatile substances imparting taste filtratitr'---
and odour to water are easily expelled
ved 6. Fluoridation and Defluoridation:
(ii) Iron and manganese present in water arp
by
oxidized to certain extent by aeration.
6.l.Fluoridation: The process of raising the
4.2.Treatment by activated carbon: Activated fluoride oontcnt of wator is known as
carbon is used to remove colour, taste and fluoridatio n. So tl i u rn, fi u o r i d e (N aF), is usually
odour from water.It is available in granular as
adoptcd lor lluoridation of public water
supplios.lt is bost to apply fluoride after other
well as powder form.
Activated carbon removes trcatmcnts, but at point where thorough
organic
rnixing of fluoride with water can take place
contaminants from water by the process of
boforr.: watcr leaves the treatment works.
adsorption. In adsorption high surface area is
the prime consideration.
6.2. Defluoridation: It is the process of reducing
Activated carbon can be applied for treatmcnt fluoride concentration in water.
of water in two ways: a) as filter media, ,ed
b) as fine powder feed. p

Ilydembad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pune I Bhuburesuar I Dengaluru | Lucknow I Patra I

Chemi Vijayamda \r%s Tirupati I Gmtrr I Kukapally(Hyd)
I I I
 ACE :442 Environmental

7.6. Solar evaporation: Solar energy is utili

6.3 Nalgonda technique: A new technique for
defluoridation. In this technique sodium to convert saline water to fresh water.
aluminate or lime, bleaching powder and
filter-alum are added to fluoride water in 8. Procedure to calculate Chemica
sequence. Water is then stined for ten requirement in Process:
minutes and settled for one hour. Water is
then withdrawn without disturbing the Method-I : APProximate Procedure
sediments. Sodium aluminate or
lime This procedure is used when hardness is gi
accelerates settlement of
precipitate and as CaCOr.
bleaching powder ensures disinfection. (a) Calculate lime requirement based on Total
It may be noted that the Nalgonda technique \Y Hardness (T.H).
includes coagulation - sedimentation,
Lime as CaO required (mg//) : TH !l
disinfection and defluoridation. " 100

Desalinization or Desalination : ) Soda required (mg/D a/ : NCH " y100

It is the process of converting saline water to
fresh water. Example 7:
1. Distillation 2. Reverse Osmosis
3. ElectrodialYsis 4.Fteezing Determine the amount of lime required for
5.Demineralization 6. Solar evaporation treatment per million litres of water, if raw
water contains 200 mg/l of Total Hardness.
7.1. Distillation: The most commonly used
method for converting saline water to fresh
water,saline water is boiled or evaporated Sol: Molecule weight of line (CaO):56 mol. wt
.The vapours are condensed which gives Alkalinity: mol'wt (as CaCO3)
100
fresh water. 100 mg of TH requires 56 mg of quick lime
200 mg of TH requires 56 mg of quick lime
7.2. Reverse Osmosis: Water is forced across a
200 x 56
semi-permeable membrane by mechanical =ll2mg llit
force.
= -
100
+ Total lime dose required: q x dose
7.3. Electrodialysis: Salt ions are removed from :1 x lI2:ll2kglday
saline water under the impetus of an electric
current. Method-Il: Exact Method
(a) Hydrated Lime required (m.eqv/lit)
7.4. Freezing: Temperature of saline water is : COr+Mg+HCO3
gradually lowered until ice crystals arc
(b) Soda required (m.eqv/lit)
formed. These are free of salt and can be : Ca * Mg - (OH + ggr+HCOr)
separated. The ice crystals when melted
gives fresh water.

7.5. Demineralization: Salts are removed from

water through the use of ion exchangers.
 Class Room Practice Questions
l,ist-l
P. I llrtlrrcss
Q. llnrckish water from sea
R. l{csirluul Ml'N form filters
(ll.Which of the following treatment reduce S.'l'urbitlily
salinity of water
(ESE_ e6) List-ll
given
1. Flashmixing and sedimentation l. Rovursc ( )sntosis
2. Electro dialysis
2. Chlorirtrrlion
3. Reverse osmosis
Iotal 3. Zcolitc l'r'crrlnront.
4. freezing
4. Coagulnliorr rrntl ltlocculation
5. Filtration
56 5. Coagu I rr I ior t. I i locorr lttion and Filtration
Select the correct answer using the codes
100 given below
Codes:
(a) 1,2,3 ,4 and 5 (b) 2,3 and4
PaRs P
(c) 1,3 and 5 (d) 1, 2 and (a)r 2 4.s (b)3 aRS
2 r 4
(c) 2 'l I (rl)3 I 2 5 .5
02. Match List - I with List - II and select the
correct answer using the codes given below
05. MatchLht-l (Wrrlcr/Wnslcr watcr parameter)
lists
the (ESE - 96) with Llst-ll ('l'cst) rrnd sr:loct the correct
List-I List-II answer using tho codcs givctr br:low the lists:
[Name of impurity [Removed byl (ESE _ 04)
& waterl List - I
A. Fluorides 1. Activated carbon
A. Potability ol'wntcr B. (lhloride
wt B. Manganese 2. Activated alumina
C. Residual chlorilrc D. lltrdncss of water
C. Taste and odour 3. Manganese zeolite
me
Codes
List - II
me
AB C AB C 1. Mohr's mctlrod 2. Orthotolidine test
(a)12 3 (b) 231 3. EDTA nrothod 4. Mlt tcchnique
(c)2 I 3 (d) 321 Codes:
ie
03. Hardness of water is achieved by
Atf(1 I) ABCD
lay (a)4 3 2 | (b) 2 | 4 3
(a) using lime soda process
(ESE-e7) (c)234 | (l)+ .t 2 3
(b) excess lime treatment 06. Considcr tho tbllowing unti process
(c) ion exchange method comnrorrly uscd in watcr treatment; rapid
(d) using excess alum dosage mixing (RM) lluoculation (F), primary
sedilrrcnlution ( ItS), socondary sedimentation
04. Match List-I (Type of water impurity) with (SS), clrlorirrution(C) and rapid sand filtration
List-II (Method of treatment) and select (RS[,). 'l'hc oldor of these u es (first
the correct answer using the codes given to lasl) in a convcntional water treatment
below the lists: (GATE-03) plant is (GArE-11)
 Codes:
(a) PS -+RSF-+F-+RM-+SS-+C
P AR S P ARS
(b) PS+F-+RM-+RSF-+SS-+C
(a)214 3 (b)4 | 2 3
(c) PS+F+SS-+RSF-+RM-+C
(c)241 3 (d)4 2 | 3
(d) PS-+RM-+F+SS-+RSF-+C
4Fr'\
lt.|
er the 09. The potable water is prepared form turbid
i\l ]tn a liquid-gas system, when surface water by adopting the following
o^V dispersed in ai
air, the absorption of gas
(GATE-I4)
.-ll> uY (ESE- 10) treatment sequence
(a) Turbid surface water -+ Coagulation ->
"Ple'eoted
3ffit"us"-Po Bulk liquid Flocculation -+ Sedimentation ->
(cr, eNS
(a) I-iquio ntm C.>C, (b) Filtration -+ disinfection -+ storage and
suPPlY
(b) Turbid surface water -+ Disinfection ->
Flocculation -+ Sedimentation -+
Filtration -+ Coagulation -+
Storage
and suPPlY
Gas film (c) Turbid surface water -+ Filtration -+
Sedimentation -) Disinfection -)
Bulk liquid (d) Flocculation + Coagulation
(c) Lituid film
C,<C, (d) Turbid surface water -+ Sedimentation
-) Flocculation + Coagulation -)
Disinfection + Filtration'

fffi\fn. hardness of a ground water sample was

'vi'f*nd to be 420 mg/L as CaCor' A softener
containing ion exchange resins was installed
to reduce the total hardness to 75 mg/L as
08. List-I contains some properties of CaCO: before supplying to 4 households'
water/waste water and List-II contains list of Each household gets treated water at a rate of
some tests on water/waste water' Match List-I 540 Llday' If the efficiency of the softener is
with List-II and select the correct answer l00oh, the bypass flow rate (expressed in
using the codes given below the lists: Lldal is-- (GArE-16)

List-I
P. Suspended solids concentration
Q. Metabolism of biodegradable
organics 01.(b) (b) 03. (c) 04. (d) 0s' (d)
02.

06. (d) 07. (b) 0s. (b) 0e. (a) 10' 38s'7
R. Bacterial concentration
S. Coagulant dose

List-II
1. BOD 2. MPN
3. Jar test 4. Turbidity

ulalViz:q I'l'irupati lGunturl Kulatpallv(Hvd)

HydembadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhubane
 Distribution System
Pipes -- mains, sub mains, branches and o Purrrps should be capable of being
laterals oportlcd at variable speeds to meet the
'bid Valves -- For controlling flow muxirnrrrn and minimum demand and
ing Hydrants-For releasing water during fire muinluin sulficient residual pressures at
D breakouts vuriuus points of consumption. This
-) Meters -- For measuring discharges systcnr is not commonly preferred.
Pumps -- For lifting water o Advantago is that during fire accidents,
rnd Service reservoir -- For storing the treated largo quantities of water at high pressures
water & stabilizing pressures. can bo pumpcd to put off the fire.

Importance : It involves 40 to 70o/o of the 2.3 Comblncd or dull systcms :

total cost of W.S. scheme.
"!umpln3 with rtoragc system" or "Direct-
-+ l. Recommendations: indircgt ryltcnr", In this system, the treated
-) Pressure for single storey buildings is 7 m for wator ir pumpcd at constant rate into an
two storey buildings is 12 m of water for three elovatod ttronoir as well as directlv into
on
storey buildings is 17 m of water dlrtfbuilon rystcm.
The fire hydrant's pressure should not be less
-)
than 1 kg/sq.cm. Thus it is u oombination of gravity system and
Minimumpipe size: 100 mm diroot pumping system. This is most widely
adoptod sytrtcrrr in water supply schemes for
as
er
2. Systems of Distribution : its obvious udvantages such as Pumps can be
1) Gravity System operatcd with uniform speed at their rated
ld capacitics.
2) Dir ect Pumping System
as
ls.
3) Combined System or Dual System. I, It is a rcliable system as there is always
sonrc rosorve water in elevated tanks to
rf 2.1 Gravity System : ruugrrrr:rrt the supply during peak demands,
is
Water is distributed by gravity only, to the 2. in cusc of fire accidents large quantities
tn
consumers points. It is suitable for situations ol'wrttor can be drawn
where the source of water is located at a 3. lt is nn cconomic and efficient system.
sufficiently higher level than the town. This
system is economical and reliable since no 3. Lnyout of Distribution systems:
pumping is involved at any stage. It needs a | . [)r:ud cnd or tree system
lake or storage reservoir as a source ofsupply 2. (irid iron system or Reticulation or
located at a sufficient higher level. Intorlaced system.
3. (lirclc or Ring system
2.2 Direct Pumping System: Treated water is 4. Iladial system
directly pumped into the distribution pipes by
means of high lift pumps without storing
anywhere.
HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhubmesuarlBcngnlurrrll.ur:knowlParnlChemaiivijayawadalvizag lTirupari lGunurl fuU4atty(llya)
I

Very small area gets affected in case of

3.1 Dead end system:
repairs.
Sub mains (S) Due to free circulation, water cannot be
-main (M) polluted.
More water can be diverted in case of fire
breakout. M

A supply main starting from the service

,.r.*oi, is laid along the main road' The
submains are connected to the main in both
the directions along the other roads' Submains
divide into several branch lines' Service
connections are taken form these branches to
Disadvantages:
the individual houses. of
More lengths of pipes and larger number
Suitability: For old towns and cities with valves
irregular and unplanned development Costlier
Design is difficult.
Advantages: Quite simple design ; Lesser
number of cutoff valves; Easier expansions; 3.3 Ring system:
Short pipe lengths are required Cheap and Main pipe is laid PeriPherallY.
economical . Laying of mains peripherally increase the
pressure at farthest Points.
Limitations: Considerable area gets affected
during repairs,
o Suitable for towns and cities having well
planned roads'
o Water stagnation at dead ends leads to
o Advantages and disadvantages are same
pollution
as Grid Iron sYstem'
o Water rate of supply cannot be increased
in case of fire breakouts'
o Less successful in
:- +L
maintaining
m^+a hqftc
I M
satlslautury PrsDI I

3.2. Grid system: Mains' submains and

iron +
I

----+
+
@ +_
branches are interconnected with each other'
Main line runs through the centre of the area' I
------+ <-
Suitability: Suitable for well planned cities' +

Advantages: <-
Since water reaches from
a:-^^+:^^. oio^o
(lllvvulvuor vr ninpc oef redrrced-
erzvu ^f
different

|
M T
I @ M

tly(Hyil)
 ACE
mg Engin€€dqgAcad€my :49: Disnibution System

- of 1.4. Radial system: The area is divided into

small distribution zones and in the center of Important Methods for An:rlysis of Pipe
each zone a distribution reservoir is provided. Networks: I .Equivalent pipe rnotlrotl.
be
Water from these reservoirs is supplied 2.Hardy -Cross method
fire through radially laid distribution pipes 4.2.Equivalent Pipe Method:
running towards the periphery of the zone.
For the purpose of analysis the entire network
o Ensures high pressure and efficient water of pipes is considered to be split up into two
distribution. portions viz., (l) pipes in series, and (ii) pipes
o Suitable for cities with radial roads. in parallel.

4.3.Hardy- Cross Method: It is a method of

successive approximations which involves a
trial and effor process. Hardy Cross method
may be carried out in the following two ways.
(a) Balancing heads by correcting assumed
flows; and
(b) Balancing flows by correcting assumed
heads.

Example I:
Find the flow in each pipe of a distribution
.1. Design of Distribution System: network given below. Take x:2
For head loss calculation. Hazen-Williams
formula is more commonly used.
he
Head loss by Hazen-Williams Formula :

ell ro.6gL Qtss2

hf=
c13s2 D4.87
where Cs: roughness coefficient
hl is proportional to Ql'8s2

^Sol.'Assume
flow in each pipe such that it satisff
4.l.Conditions to be satisfied:
the condition (flow)r, at any junction :
1. The inflow into each junction must be (flow)out
equal to the flow out of the junction, as 100
per principle of continuity.
2. In each loop, the loss of head due to flow
in clockwise direction must be equal to
the loss of head due to flow in
anticlockwise direction.(i.e the algebraic
sum of head loss in each closed loop must
be zero )

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubmesuar I

Bengalm I hcknow I
Panra I Chemi I
Vlja1am<fa I
Vizg Tirupati Gmnr I KukaOally(Hyd)
I I
 I

L]
:50: Environmental

Types: According to the situation with

Estimated by 6=-?{ respect to ground, the distribution reservoirs
.rlql are classified in the following three types.
tal (1) Surface reservoirs
And adjust it to the assumed flow. (2) Elevated reservoirs (3) Standpipes

5.1 Surface reservoirs : Constructed at ground

Pipe K Assumed H:KQ' H level or below ground level Surface reservoirs
a 0 should be located at high Points in
distribution system.
AB I +50 +2500 50
BC 2 +10 +200 200 5.2 Elevated reservoirs: Constructed at an
AC I -50 -2500 50 elevation from G L. Also called as overhead
tanks.

xH: * zoo, rlfrl : 3oo

5.3 Standpipes : They boost the pressure. A
standpipe is a vertical cylindrical tank resting
= - 0.333 just above the ground.
x 300
5.4. Sron-lcn cAPACITY oF DISTRTBUTIoN
RESERVOIR:
Corrected flows: The storage capacity of a distribution
: 50 - 0.33 :49.66 reservoir to be provided is bdsed on the
Qae
Qec:+10-0.33:+9.66 following requirements.

Qac:-50-0.33:-50.33 (i) Balancing storage ( or equalizing storage

or operating storage )
Note: (ii) Breakdown storage or emergency storage
1. Clock wise flows and their corresponding (iii)Fire storage
head losses are taken as *ve (i) Balancing storage ( or equalizing storage
2. Anti clock wise flows and their or operating storage ) :

corresponding head losses are taken as The quantity of water required to be

-ve
5. Distribution or Service Reservoirs:
These are used in a distribution system to
meet fluctuations in demand of water, to
provide storage for fire fighting and
emergencies such as breakdowns, repairs etc.,
and to stabilize pressures in the distribution
system.
stored in the reservoir for balancing or
equalizing the variable demand of water
against the constant rate of pumping is
known as balancing storage.
The balancing storage of a distribution
reservoir can be determined bY the
following tow methods
(a) Hydrograph method
(b) Mass curve method
 :51 : l)i,r['ihrtion Svstem

r with
a
D 1 Example 2:
ervoirs
)s. \a 6 A town of present population 50,000 lurvc average
per capita water demand of 160 /.p.c.d. wirtcr is
I
F pumped into an overhead tank at a unilirrrrr lrrtc
F.l
4 continuously for 24 hrs of the day. The dcnrarrd
pattern is shown below.
lround 1

)rvoirs z 2' Hours demand Demand in oh oI 24

n the rrl I hours
0
0-8 5

0 Time 8-10 40
-+
Fig: Hydrograph for determining storage 10-16 20

required for distribution reservoirs

16 -20 25
20 -24 l0
Determine the required balancing storage capacity
of the overhead tank.

Sol: Population:50,000
ITION Total water pumped : 50,000 x 160 /it
: 80,000,000litlday
rution
time :8MLD
24trs
r the
24 Hours Supply
Discharge of pump
I--
0rage = 0.333 MLlhr
24
Time Demand Cumulative Supply Cumulative
ruge
(hr) (ML) Demand (ML) Supply
(ML) rMI,)
)rage 5
ll 8 x 0.333
0-tl r00 04 :2.667 2.667
-x
lbe - 0.4
gor o
u 8AM
40
_x
vater
sAM 8PM 24 8-10 100
8
36
2x 0.333
:0.667 JJJ
12 Hours Supply :3.2
rg is
20
Totalstorage:A+B
_x g 4 x 0.333
l0-16 100
5.2 :2.0 5.33
A) surplus B) deficit = 1.6

25
Fig: Mass curve for determining storage 16- 20
8
72
4x0.333
667
100 =
required for distribution reservoirs -x 1.33
=2.0
10
8 4x0.333
20-24 100 80 8.00
-x = 1.33
:0.8

HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPrnelBhubaneswarlBengalmlLucknowlPatnalChemilviiayawdaivizg lTnupari lGunnul Kuka4allvfiyd)

 At the Cumulative Cumulative Surplus Difficult b) Butterfly valves: Used to regulate and
End of Demand Supply
stop the flow esPeciallY in large size

'8' o clock 0.4 2.667 2.267 (A) conduits.

l0 o clock 36 J.JJJ 0.267

16 o clock 5.2 s.333 0.133 c) Globe Valve: To regulate flow. These

0.53 (B) valves are normally used in pipes of small
20 o clock 7.2 6.67

80 8.00 diameter (less than 100 mm) and as water

24 o clock
Balancing storage : A+B
:2.267 + 0.53 :2.8 ML
(ii) Breakdown storage: It is the storage
required to be provided in a distribution
reservoir to take care of emergencies
which maY arise due to failure of
pumps, failure of electric supply, etc' For
ihis storage a lump sum provision of
about 25 Yo of the total siorage capacity of
the distribution reservoir is provided'
(iii) Fire storag€ : A provision of fire storage
in a distribution reservoir is required to be
made to provide water for fire fighting
purposes.
1 to 4 litlperlday for normal
conditions.
Total caPacitY of D.R
: Balancing storage+ Break down
Storage + Fire storage
6. Appurtenances in Distribution
system:
1. Valves 2' Manholes
3. Fire hydrants 4. Water meters
6.1.Valves: Valves are provided in the pipelines
to control the flow of water' to isolate and
drain sections for test, inspection, cleaning
and repairs, to regulate pressures and to
release or admit air.
a) Sluice Valves or Gate Valves: Used to
regulate the flow of water through the
pipelines.
taps.
d) Check V"lo..l,
valves or non-return valves. A Check
valve allows water to flow in one
direction onlv and the flow in the reverse
fliilai; is automatically stopped by it'
The reflux valve is invariably placed in a
pumping main so that if the pump fails or
stops, water is prevented from flowing
back to the PumP and thus PumPing
equipment is saved from possible damage'
e) e or Air-relief Valves: The air
valve helps to a nit air into the pipe when
the pipe is being emPtied or when
Indian
negative or vacuum pressure is created in
the pipe. Air valve operates automatically
while allowing air to escape from or to
enter a pipe. The air valves are usually
located at summits and also at changes in
grade to steePer sloPes.
f) Scour Valves or Blow-off Valves or
Drain Valves: Provided for completely
emptying or draining of the pipe for
removing sand or silt deposited in the pipe
and for inspection, repait, etc located at
dead ends and depressions or low points
in the PiPeline
Pressure-relief Valves: Also
called
overflow towers are provided to keep the
fJlf pressure in a PiPeline below a
\:;l predetermined value, and thus protec! it
l" r,.-l ',, ''

HyrlcnbadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhubaneswlBergalNllrcknowlPatnalchennailviiamuadalvizae lTirupati lGunn[l rukaoanvGtvd)

 :53 : l)irl r rl rrrlror r Svllr.rn

) and against the possible danger of bursting Sounding rods.' A metal rod is irrst.rtt.tl rrrlo
size due to excessive pressure. the ground at the suspected portiurr, ll tlrr.rt. rs
Thus these valves are often placed at low a leak in the pipe the sound ol' tlrt' wrrtcr
points where the pressures are high. escaping through the leak can be hcirrtl lry
Further a pressure relief valve is usually placing the ear against the rod, or by nrcurrs ol
provided on the upstream side of a sluice an amplifiting device such as aqua ph.rrc
valve so that the pipe lying on the sonoscope.
'r
upstream side of the valve is relieved of
water hammer pressure resulting from the Class Room Practice Questions
e
sudden closure of the sluice valve.
heck
one 6.2.Manholes: Provided at suitable intervals 01. In network of pipes (GATE-96)
re-Fe along the pipeline for inspection and repairs. (a) the algebraic sum of discharges around
v it. Usually spaced 300 to 600 m apart on large each circuit is zero
ina pipelines. (b) the algebraic sum of head losses around
ls or Their most useful positions are at summits each circuit is zero
ving and downstream of main valves. (c) the elevation of hydraulic grade line is
ping assumed for each junction point
age. 6.3.Fire hydrants: Hydrant is an outlet provided (d) elementary circuits are replaced by
in a pipeline for tapping water mainly for the equivalent pipes
ia,f purpose of fire fighting. Also be used for
rhen withdrawing water for certain other purposes 02.Match List-I with List-II and select the
,hen such a sprinkling on roads, flushing streets, correct answer using the codes given below
din etc. Generally fire hydrants are placed at all the lists:
ally important road junctions and at intervals not List-I ^^ra/\D
rto exceeding about 300 m. P. Release value zY
ally Q. Check value
sin 6.4.Water Meters: Installed in pipelines to R. Gate value
measure the quantity of water flowing S. Pilot value 69'
through them. "
or List-II
tely (i) Inferential type meters or velocity meters: l. Reduce high inlet pressure to lower outlet
for Used for large pipes. pressure
,ipe (ii) Displacement type meters: Used for small 2. Limit the flow of water to single direction
lat pipes and domestic connections. 3. Remove air from the pipeline
nts
Location of leaks: For locating leaks in water 4. Stopping the flow of water in the pipeline
supply pipes following methods may be used. Codes:
a) By direct observations P aRS
b) By using sounding rods (a)3 2 4 1

c) By plotting hydraulic grade line (b)4 2 I 3

d) By using waste (c)3 4 2 I
- detecting meters(Deacon's meter) (d)1 2 4 3,
I

03. A pipe network is shown in the figure furd out Codes:

the missing discharges Qs, Qz, Q+& Q5 and A BCD
pressure droops hf4 & hfs (a) 3 214
(b) 2 413
(c) 3 t24
(d) 2 t43
hfl=60

Qs:?
01. (b) 02. (d)

Hfz-- 40 03. Qr: 20, Qa:60, Q5:10, Qs : 50,

h5:20, h+ : 100

Qp:l Qc:30 0a. (a) 0s.(q)

04. Which one of the following pairs is not

correctly matched? (ESE - 96)
(a) Check value: To check water flow in all
directions
(b) Sluice value: To conhol flow of water
through pipe lines
(c) Air value: To release the accumulated air
(d) Scour value: To remove silt in a pipe
line /

05. Match List -I - II and select the

with List
correct answer using the codes given below
(ESE - 97)
Level - I *'T
A. Dead end system
.^j
B. Grid Iron system
- * tt"*
C. Ring system
D. Radial system

Level - II
1. Equal pressures and multiple flow paths
2. Both economy and reasonably equal
pressures.
3. Economy and simPlicitY
4. Zonaldistribution
 Introduction to waste Water Engg'
&Estimqtion of DWF &WWF

l. Fundamental Definitions: Suitability:

D In arcas of uneven rainfall in a year.
a) Refuse: All the material that is wasted. ii) In hilly areas with steep slopes
(Solid + liquid + Semisolid) iii) Whorc dcep excavations cannot be easily
clonc.
b) Garbage: Dry refuse, organic in nature.
E.g: Vegetables, Grass, Sweepings etc., (b) Comhlncd system: Both sanitary sewage
and storm water drainage are collected
c) Rubbish: Dry waste from offices, into tha same conduit.
residences, inorganic in nature. Itis
Sultnblllty:
combustible. E.g: PaPer, Rags, etc.,
l) Wherc ruirrlall is cvenly distributed
d) Sewage: A liquid waste of domestic or throttglt out thc Year.
Industrial origin. 'Foul' in nature. ll) tn plain areas where excavation is
Consists 99.9Vo water 'Domestic and casy und lcss costlY.
industrial sewages' are collectively called lll) Whcn ttrca is congested or for narrow
sanitary sewage. strcct$

e) Sullage: Waste water from bathrooms, (c) Partlrlly reparate system: Designed for
Washbasins. Kitchens. Less foul in carrying sewagc discharge plus part of the
nature. stonn drainage from the roofs and
courtYards,
f) Storm Water: The run-off from roads;
buildings and other catchment areas. 3. Classlflcatlon of Sewers:
Generally called 'Storm drainage' or
a) Houre sewer: Sewer PiPe
carrying
'Drainage'.
sewagc from a building to the point of its
immcdiate disposal. The sewerage system
g) D.W.F: Dry weather flow i.e. normal
originatcs from it.
flow available in any season. It is due to
'Sanitary sewage'. *D.W.F is generally sewer: A sewer
to l25th of max flow during b) l,atcral which
U20ft rcccivcs the discharge from a number of
monsoon.
intlcpendent houses. Also called branch
h) Sewer : A PiPe carrying sewage. scwers or sub mains.

i) Sewerage: The process of 'collection *

conveyance'of sewage.
c) Trunk or Main sewers: These are main
sewers to which lateral sewers are
connected.
2. Systems of Sewerage:
a) Separate system: Sanitary sewage and d) Out fall sewer: The sewer which
storm water ate collected, conveyed and transports the sewage to point of treatment
disposed off seParatelY. and from the T.P to disPosal Point.
4. As far as possible should be designed to flow 3. Minimum flow.' At minimum flow, velocity
under gravity with% or'/o'n full. reduces therefore silting occurs.
Slope at which sewer is to be laid is decided
5. Sewage treatment plant should generally be based on permissible minimum velocity at
located in a low-lying area. minimum flow
Minimum daily flow
Estimation of dry weather flow (sewage :213 x Average daily flow
discharge): Minimum hourly flow
:
ll2 x minimum daily flow
1. Quantity of sewage should be equal to the :
Il3 x Average daily flow
quantity of water supplied. But certain
additions and subtractions may take place. Sewers must for minimum
be checked
Generally , the Net quantity of sewage : 75 velocities at their minimum hourly flow.
to 80% of the water supplied. It is also known
as Dry weather flow 4. Design periods of different components:
a) Branches, mains and Trunk sewers
Qw.: Population x per capita water supply -- Generally 30 years
x factor b) Treatmentunits-- 15 to 20 years
c) Pumping plants 5 to 10 years --
Example I:
Estimation of wet weather flow(Storm Water):
Find the dry weather flow (sewage flow)
produced by the community with a population l. Estimating peak runofft
100000 supplied water at arate of 200 /pcd and
80% of which become as sewase. (a) By the use of rational formula:
: AIR
Sol: q*r : Population x per capita water supply x
-
Vwwp
360
factor
: x 200 x
-
Qwm : peak rate of runoff in cumec.
100000 0.8 lit/dav
:0.185 m3/sec I : Coefficient of runoff / Impermeable
coeffrcient
2. Variations of sewage flow: A: Catchments area contributing to
Max. daily flow :2 x Average daily flow runoff in hectares.
Max. hourly flow: 1.5 x Max.daily flow R : Critical rainfall intensity in mm/hr
:3 x average dialy flow corresponding to 'time of
concentration'
Peak flows for lateral sewers are much greater The period after which the entire area starts
than that of large trunk sewers because more contributing to the runoff is called the 'time
flow time for trunk sewers compared to of concentration' .or It is the maximum time
laterals. taken by a drop of water to travel from the
Sewers are designed for carrying the max. farthest point or remotest point to the outlet
hourly flow running 3/4m full. of the catchment.

Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopa.l I Prme I Bhubmew Bengalm

I I
Lucknow I Patra I
Chemi I
Viiayawada I
Vizg Tirupati cuur I KukaOallvftIvd)
I I
 Intoduction to Waste Water Engineering
=57:
-
The maximum runoff will be obtained from Sol:
the rain having a duration equal to the time of , XA,xI,
concentration and this is called 'Critical A
rainfall duration'. 1 : 20x0.9+20x0.85+5x0.8+15x0.4+3-5I(1,I_l -1!.0!
20+20+5+15+35+5
Coefficient of runoff (k):
Runoff
k: r:0.4815
Precipitation
'k' increases as imperviousness of the area A:36 ha : Pc:5cmftrr: 50 mm/hr
increases. AIR
: -:-=
For paved areas , k:
0.9 to 1 Qwwr
J6U
For Lawns and gardens, k : 0.15
t.:t.*q : (36x 0.487 x 50)/360 :2.43 -'/sec
where, (b) Empirical formulas:
t.: time of concentration
t.: time of entry or inlet time For larger catchment areas i.e. more than 400
t1: time of flow hectares, it
is advisable to use empirical
: time required to flow in the sewer from formula.
inlet to the point of concentration. i) Dicken's formulu :
25.4a For North Indian catchments
Empirical formula: R - tc +b 3/a
QP: Ca'A
a and b are constants A: Catchmentarcain Sq.km
a:30 : b 10 for if t": 5 to 20 min Qn: Peak discharge in cumec.
a: 40 b:20 t" > 20 min
:
Ca Constant depending on diffbrent
Example 2: factors
Assuming that the surface on which the rain
falls in a district is classified as follows: 11) Ryve's formula '.

For South Indian catchments

20o/oof the area consists roof for which runoff
ratio is 0.9, 20% of the area consists of QP: C'A2i3
pavements for which the runoff ratio is 0.85, 5% Where,
ofthe area consists ofpaved yards ofhouses for Qn, A and C,, have the same
which runoff ratio is 0.8, I5o/o of the area meanins as Dicken's formula.
consists of Macadam roads for which runoff
ratio is 0.4, 35% of the area consists of towns
gardens and vegetable plants for which runoff
ratio is 0.1 and the remaining 5% of the area is
wooded for w*rich runoff ratio is 0.05.
Determine the coefficient of runoff of the area.
If the total area of the district is 36 hectares and
the maximum runoff intensity is taken as
5 cm/hr. What is the total runoff for the district?

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Vizg Tirupati Gunr
I I I Kuka@ally(tlyd)
 Class Room Practice Questions 05. A town with an area 1 km2 with a population
density 1000 no/ha supplied water at a rate of
200 lpcd out of which 80% reach sewer as a
01. For the design of a storm sewer in a sewage. Te town receives an average rainfall
drainage area, if
the time of concentration is of intensity 1.2 cm in 24 hrs all_of which are
20 min, then the duration of rainfall will be runoff. Find DWF and W"WF resulting from
taken as (ESE -00) the community.
(a) l0 min (b) 20 min
(c) 30 min (d) 40 min 06. A residential area has an area of 50 Hectares
and its length is 2400m. A circular storm
02. The drainage discharge of a town of 16 water sewer is to be laid for the area. A
hectares area, consisting of 4|o/ohard paved velocity of lm/sec may be allowed when
(k:0.80), 30% unpaved (k:0.20), and discharging maximum rate. Time of enfiry
remaining as wooded (k:0.10), with a from the farthest area is l0 minutes. Calculate
maximum rain intensity of 5 cmllT , would be the storm discharge by assuming impervious
computed by Rational formula, as equal to factor as 0.8.
(a) 0.91 cumecs. (b) 0.091 cumecs
(c) 9.1 cumecs (d) None

03. A city with a population of 1,00,000 has an

01. (b) 02. (a)

area of 100 Ha. Rate of water supply : 200 03. 0.1736 m3lsec ,2.015 m'/sec
lpcd and average runoff coefficient for the
04.2.508m3/sec 05.0.323
entire area : 0.5 Time of concentration : 50
minutes. Assume 75% of water supplied 06. L6I mt/r""
reaches the sewer.
Fild dry Weather Flow, wet Weather Flow in
m'lsec will be

04. A population of 40,000 resides in a town

covering an area of 75 hectares. Calculate the
discharge for a c@lgd:ryslem of sewers.
Given (ESE -84)
i) Coeffrcient of run off :0.70,
ii) Rain concentration:40 minutes
iii) Water consumption: l20I I d I person and
iv) 70% of wastewater reaches the sewers.

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Vizg Tirupati I cunuu I n*apalyfifyd)
I
?
)

-
n
Design of Sewers
rf
a
I
e Design of sewers : 2. Minimum velocity to be generated in sowcls
n
to avoid silting is equal to self cloansirrg
1. Difference in the design of water velocity. It is taken as 0.75 m/sec generally.
supply pipes and sewer pipes:
l
I
3. Manning's formula is generally used to
a) Sewage contains solid particles either of design sewers. This formula gives mean
organic or inorganic nature. They may velocity of flow for a given slope and
I
settle down or clog. They may also cause dimensions of conduits.
wearing of pipe material. Hence the sewer 1 , ,2 , .r
pipes be of such a size and laid at such a
V=rx(R); x(S);
n
gradient so as to generate "Non silting and Where,
Non scouring Velocities" at different V: Mean velocity of flow.
possible discharges. N: Manning's coefficient or rugosity
coefficient.
b) Water pipes are generally 'Pressure Pipes' S: bed slope.
and hence they may be carried up and
down the hills and valleys. Sewer pipes 4. When flow is more than half fulI for partial
are 'Non pressure pipes'. Therefore they flow, the maximum velocity will be equal to
must be laid at a continuous downward or more than those occur in fuIl sectional
gradient up to out fall, from where it will
flow.
be lifted up, treated and disposed off.

5. Maximum velocity occurs when sewer flow

Self cleansing velocity: It is the velocity depth is 0.81 x tull depth.
which causes both floating and heavy solids
to get transported easily.
The diameter of the sewer shall not be less
than 150 mm.
Itmay be noted that ,larger the size of the
sewer, the higher is the velocity of flow.
'Sewer Construction And Appurtenances'
Self cleansing velocity,
Shapes of Sewer:-
\/
Yserr
_ flfL -.
r"i(E_l)gd
-IT
T
S: Specifrc gravity of sediment 1.5D

K: A sediment characteristic constant to be

determined by experiments.
d: Diameter of grain Circular
I
f : Friction factor
1.
2. Egg shaped
HydembadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhubansmlBengalmlLucknowlPatnlChennailviiayawadalVng
lTirupari lGmbnl hkapally(Hvrt)
 ACE : 60: Environmental Engineering
nngloeerinsAcadeny

Circular sewer: r Manufactured from clays and shales of

o Preferred for arate .sewerage system specified quality
because discharge doesn't vary too much o Offers good resistance to
Sulphide
and chances of sewer running at low corrosion
depths are less. Brick sewers:
o Utilises minimum quantities of materials o Particularly used for storm water drains
there fore economical
Cast lron sewers:
Egg Shaped Sewer:- . Structurally stronger hence used for out
o Preferred for combined sewe!4ge_qysllg_m fall sewers, rising mains at pumping
because low discharge (D. W. F) is about stations, for inverted syphons.
ll20 toIl25 times the maximum
discharge.
Testing of sewer pipes:
o The low discharges maintains hydraulic
1. Water test ----- for leakage
mean depth nearly uniform
2. Mirror test --- for straightress of sewer
line
o The hydraulic mean depth (R) of the egg
3. Ball test ------ to detect any obstruction
shaped sewers of equivalent section is
same as that of the circular sewers when
running full, but is higher for smaller
depths of flow and therefore higher
velocity.

Sewer materials:
1. Asbestos cement pipes:
o Cannot bear huge compressive stresses
there fore sed for bringing down rain
water from roofs or sullage from kitchens
. Simplex joint ---- flexible enough and
permits as much as I2o deflection. Sol: Q: AV
R. C. C. Pipes: e: A"1,.1n;3'(s)i
. Strong enough to be used for branch n
sewers and main sewers. When running help tull O:
. Bell and spigot joint +O'
o Crown corrosiorz: Easily get corroded R: D/4
2
by action of emanating gases such as
HzS. e- : *r, 1" f+.)t (s)i
. Vitrified clay lining to protect from 8 " n\4/ "
I crown corrosions.
:lb.zyx
g' xfg?)t"(o.oo+)i
3. Vitrified clay or stone ware sewers: \4 )
o Widely used for carrying sewage as -- 9.6x10-3 m3lsec
house connections and lateral sewers :9.6 liVsec

rI
tg

-
Of
06. Find the minimum velocity and grirtliont
Class Room Practice Questions required to transport sewage with sirncl
particles of I mm diameter and spocilic
01. The flow in a sewer ls gravity of 2.65 through a sewer of I rrr
(a) pressure flow (b) open channel flow diameter. Assume K:0.1. f :0.03. The scwr:r
(c) laminar flow (d) super-critical flow may be assumed to run half full. Takc
Manning's n:0.013.
02. Design the section of a combined circular
sewer for full flow from the data given below 07. Calculate the diameter of a circular vitrified
(ESE -88)
:
clay sewer (n 0.013), which will just carry
Area to be served :150 Hectares. 0.05 cumecs, when flowing fullat a slope of I
Population of the locality: 50,000 in 1000. If the flow were at 0.6 depth what
Maximum permissible velocity :
3.2mlsec would be the discharge and velocity in the
Time of entry :5 min. partially full sewer, given the lbllowing data :
Time of flow : 20 min. d/D q/Q vN
Rate of water supply : 270ltldlc: 0.1 0.02 0.3
Impermissibility factor : 0.45 0.5 0.39 0.8
Assume that 75% of water supplied converts 0.6 0.54 0.88
into sewage. 0.8 0.85 0.01
03. The slope of a 1.0 m diameter concrete sewer
08, A sewer has a diameter of 300 mm and slope
laid at a slope of I in 1000, develops a of 1 in 400 while running full if has a mean
velocity of I m/s when flowing full. The
velocity of 0.7 m/s. If both the diameter and
velocity of flow the sewer when it is flowing
slope are double (to respectively be 600 mm
half tull, will be
and t in 200) what wjll be the changed mean
(a) 0.5 m/s (b)J2 mls velocity when running half full use
(c) 1.0 m/s (d) 2.0 m/s Manning's Formula.
04. A circular sewer of 45 cm diameter was (a) 1.59m/s (b) 2.8 m/s
designed for a town of population of 30,000.
(c) 0.9 m/s (d) 1.00 n/s
The sewer was designed to carry 3.5 times of
the dry weather flow. What slope should be
09. A circular pipe has a diameter of lm, bed
slope of I in 1000, and Manning's roughness
provided to the sewer when running full?
coefficient equal to 0.01. It may be treated as
n:0.012 in Manning's equation. Assume 80
an open channel flow when it is flowing just
Yo of water supplied converts in to sewage
and,rate of water supply is 150 /pcd.(ESE-96)
full, i.e., the water level just touches the
crest. The discharge in this condition is
denoted by Qn n. Similarly, the discharge
05. Calculate the discharge of I.25 m circular
when the pipe is flowing half-full, i.e., with
sewer laid at a slope of I in 360, when it is
a flow depth of 0.5m, is denoted by Qr,uri.
running half full. Assume n in Manning's
The ratio Qn1/Qr,uuis: (GATE- ls)
formula as 0.011?
(a) 1 (b) ^tz (c)2 (d) 4

HydenbadlDelhilBhopallPmelBhubaneswlBengalmlhcknowlPatnlChemilvijayamdalvizg lTirupati lcunrl Kukatrally(tlyd)

'?rr ft;

0
 ACE
l

;T'nginaedngecaaeny :62: Environmental F,ngineering

10. An existing 300 mm diameter circular sewer

is laid at a slope of 1:280 and carries a peak
discharge of 1728 m3ld. Use the partial flow 01. (b) 02.1.31s m 03. (c) 04. I in 448
diagram shown in the figure below and
assume Manning's n : 0.015. At the peak
05. 1.353 m3/sec
discharge, the depth of flow and the velocity 06. 0.656 m/sec, I in 2160
are respectively. (GArE- 04)
07. 0.36 m,0.027 m3/sec, 0.43 m/sec
I
\ 08. (a) 09. (c) 10. (c)
0.9
0.8

0.7
Discharge /
- 0.6
tlIL-
0) 0.5
+i
0.4
/
0.3
/'velocitl
0.2
tl
0.1
/
0

0999PP9999-i-
NUJS(JiTct\-lOo\OO
VA/n u and q/Q1,x

Partial flow diasram for circular sewer

(a) 45mm &0.28 m/sec

?-"d s V
(b) 120mm & O.Sm/sec
(c) 150mm & 0.57 m/sec
d) 300 mm & 0.71 m/sec

Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubanew I Bengalm I Lucknow I Panra I Chennai I Vijayawada I
Vizg Tirupad Gutu | Kukaea\(I{yd)
I I
 Chqrqcteristics of Sew ag e

1 Decomposition of sewage : 4. Determination of solids:

i) Total solids(in mgll)z
. Occurs in the presence of o Determined by evaporating a known
Aerobic
oxvgen volume of sewage sample, and
D . End products are COz, weighing the dry residue left.
Sulphates. Nitrates o The mass of the residue divided by the
. Occurs in
the absence of volume of the sample evaporated, will
oxvgen represent total solids inmgll
ii) Anaerobic . End products are CO2, CHa, ii) Suspended solids:
HrS. NHr o Those solids retained by a filter of 1 p
pores
2. Physical characteristics: o glass fibre filter apparatus is used
l. Turbidity 2. Colour
3. Odour 4. Temperature
Colourz
Indicates the freshness of sewage
/Conical glass vessel
Yellowish, grey or light brown fresh sewage
Black or dark brown stale and septic sewage

Temperature z F
Has an effect on(i) biological activity
(ii) solubility of gases in sewage
iii) Dissolved and Colloidal solids:
3. Chemical characteristics: o Difference between the total solids
and suspended solids
-z Suspended -+ size upto lp
Total solids
iv) Volatile and fixed solids:
- Dissolved -+ < 10-3p Total suspended solids: Volatile + fixed
a) Volatile solids:

Organic matter
Inorganic Eg: Minerals,
salts, gravel, debris, sand
o Suspended solids are burnt and ignited
at about 550'C in an electric muffle
furnace for about 15 to 20 min.
Organic
o Loss of weight due to ignition
Organic matter: represents volatile solids.
i) Carbohydrates such as cellulose, fibre,
starch, sugar, etc.. b) The difference between the
ii) Fats and oils suspended solids and volatile solids
iii) Wastes from animals, urea fatty acids, gives fixed solids.
hydrocarbons.
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Vizg Tirupati cuuu I Kukrhelly(Hxl)
I I
 v) Settleable solids: conditions at a specified temperature and for a
Sewage is allowed to stand in this specified duration.
imhoff cone for a period of 2 hours Standard B.O.D. is reported at 20o C for 5
The quantity of solids settled in the days period.
bottom of the cone can be directly B.O.D. +
5 days at20oC+ 68% of the total
read as settle able solids. demand
C.O.D represents both biologically active and
5. Dissolved oxygen @.O): inactive organic matter
o To know the extent of pollution of sewage Where as B.O.D. gives biologically active
o At least 4 ppm of D.O- shollld b-e rnsured organic matter only
while harging sewage into river Therefore C.O.D. >B.O.D
stream. 1l.Test method:
. If the temperature of the sewage is more, l. Initial D.O measured in the beginning for
the D.O content is less. the sample diluted with water.
o Saturation D.O content at20"C-+ 9.2ppm 2. Sample incubated for 5 days at2}oC
o Determined by Winkler's method. 3. Final D.O of the sample measured after 5
days.
6. Types of Organic matter: B.O.D. : (Initial D.O - Final D.O) x Dilution
1. Biologically active (means bacteria can Factor
stabilize this organic matter)
2. Biologically inactive ( bacteria can not Example: I
act on this organic matter) In a BOD test the initial do of the 2Yo diluted
sample is 6 mgll and it's find after 5day
7. Oxygen Demand: It is the amount of incubation at 20"C is 2 mgll. The find 5-day
oxygen consumed by readily oxidizable BOD of sewage sample
organic matter for oxidation.
Sol: :y3o"t = flDo}*' -Do]*o)"
8. Chemical Oxygen Demand(C.O.D):
It is chemical oxidation with Potassium Dilution factor
permanganate or Potassium dichromate in an
acid solution. :[6- r]"ry=2oo mstt

9. Theoretical oxygen Demand: It is the Dilution factor: Number of times sewase is

oxygen demand that can be worked out diluted with distilled water.
theoretically. Eg: For 2 o/o solution, Dilution
(-o l. t\.aD) Factor : 10012: 50.
l0.Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(B.O.D): It is the amount of oxygen
required for biological decomposition of
biodegradable organic matter under aerobic

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Bhubmew Bengalm hcknow
I I I
Parna I Chemi \4jalarada Vizag Tirupati Gunu i Kuka4sllvfiyd)
| I I I
rg

-
ta
Example:2
If 5 day BOD at 20'C is 200 ntp,ll lirr<l 3tlay
Amount of organic Lt=L at t:0 BOD at 15"C and 8 day BOD at l0'( . I'll<t:
Matter present
Kzo: 0.23 d-1@ase C)

Sol: KT: Kzo (I.04Tr-20

t:0 t- Time in days (t) Kr5: 0.23 (l.o4T 15-20
- 0.182 d-l

K:o: 0.23 (r.o4T3o-20- 0.364 d-t

12. Rate of change of Organic matter with time is
directly proportional to the organic matter y?o?"' =L" |1 - .-"'l
present in the sewage at the time.
2oo: Lo; l-e-O 23'5 1

*
dt -L' 3 Lo: 292.67 mgll
Where.
L1: Amount of organic matter present at time
3 - day BOD at 15"C, yls' = L" Ll-.-*"'.1
'(tt'
K:
=292.671-
Rate constant, Kp: deoxygenation "-ortz"zf
constant :123.137 mgll
Lt:L e-Kr
: L .10 -ro't 8 day BOD at 30oC, y;0"" =L"h-e-*,otl

II stage B.O.D =292.67b-"-o:e+xt]

Nitrified demand
:276.758 mgll

13.
(a) Carbonaceous Demand.. The first
demand that occurs during the
I stage B.O.D due to the Oxidation of Organic
(carbonaceous demand)
matter is called Carbonaceous demand
0 Time in days (t)
(or) I stage demand .
-* o The term B.O.D. usually mean stage I
B.O.DI = L (1 -. -*' ') demand.
B.O.Dt : L (l - l0 -ro t) o Represented by "OAB" in the above
B.O.D' : ultimate B. O. D ; figure
when t : infinite, BOD': L b) Nitrogenous demand:
Kp changes with Temp. (T)
. The l?tter demand that occurs due to
;
ta.
Kt(zo) :0.23 I day 6'AC"
o Represented by in the above fig.tre.
Ko(r) : Ko(zo) [1.0471120 ;
Ko(zo) :O.Ilday
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14. B.O.D/C.O.D. Ratio:
Class Room Practice Questions
1. If BOD,/COD lies between 0.92 and, I,
then the waste water can be considered to
be fully biodegradable. 01. Determine the ultimate BOD of a waste water
2. If BOD5 / COD vary berween 0.63 and sample which was subjAed to the BOD
0.68 then the waste water can be determination as follows :
considered to be fully biodegradable 6 ml of waste water containing no dissolved
wastes. oxygen was mixed with 294 m/ of water
containing 8.6 m{l of D.O. After incubation
15. Relative Stability: at 20"C for 5 days, the D.O. of the mixture
Ratio of amount of oxygen available in the was 5.4 mgll. The BOD rate constant K to the
effluent (D.O) to the total oxygen required to base e is 0.25ld. (GArE-e6)
satisfz the first stage B.O.D. demand.
02.1n a BOD test using 5% dilution of the sample
16. Population Equivalent: (15 m/ of sample and 285 m/ of dilution
Industrial waste waters are generally water). D.O. values for the sample and
compared with per capita normal domestic dilution water blank bottles after five days
waste water so as to charge industries incubation at 20"C were 3.80 and g.g0 mg//,
properly. respectively D.O. originally present in the
Population equivalent
undiluted sample was 0.80 mg//. The 5 day
20'C BOD of the sample is (GATE_9S)
Total S tan dard BOD, of industrial
(a) rl6mg/l (b) 108 mg//
sewage per day
S tan dard BOD, of domestic
(c) 100 mg// (d) 92 mgil
sewage per person per day

Average standard BOD5 of domestic sewase

03. A waste water sample diluted to 100 times
is about 0.08 kg/daylperson.
with aeration water had an initial D.O. of
7.0 m{l and after 5 days of incubation at
20C, the D.O was zero. The BOD of waste
water is (GATE_96)
(a) 700mgll (b) 100 mg//
(c) cannot be determined (d) 7 mgll

04. The 5 day 30" C BOD of a sewage sample is

lI0 mg/l. Calculate its 5 day 20. C BOD .
:
Assume Ko(zo) O.Ilday (base l0)

05. The BOD of sewage incubated for one day at

30'C has been found to be ll0 mgll. What
will be 5 day 20"C BOD. Assume K12s1
:0.I/d (base 10)

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-
06.The average sewage flow from a city is 80 constant at other tempcralurc ntay bo
xl06 lld. If the average 5 day BOD is 2g5 estimated by K1 : K20(1.047)r ''0. Th.
mg/I. Compute the total daily 5 day oxygen temperafure at which the other pur.liolr ol'tlrc
er demand in kg, and population equivalent of sample should be tested, to exert tlrc srrrrrc
D sewage assuming per capita BOD of sewage BOD in 2.5 days, is (cA'l'lil-l)4)
per day :75 g. (a) 4.9"C (b) 24.9'C
:d
(c) 31.7"C (d) 35.0"c
)r 07. In a test conducted for determining the
n relative conductivity at 20 C, the period of l2.If the BOD3 of a wastewater sample is
incubation is found to be 12 days, Calculate
e 75mglL and reaction rate constant k (base e)
the percent of relative stability?
e is 0.345 per duy, the amount of BOD
) remaining in the given sample after 10 days is
08. The BODs of a waste has heen measured as
(cArE-10)
600 mg/l. If K:
0.231d (base e), what is its (a) 3.2ImglL (b) 3.4s mslL
I ultimate BOD' of the waste. What proportion (c) 3.69 mglL (d) 3.92 ms[t
I
of the BOD' would remain unoxidised after
20 days ?
t 13. A sample of domestic sewage is digested with
09. To determine the BODs of a waste water silver sulphate, sulphuric acid, potassium
* sample,5, 10 and 50m/ aliquots of the waste dichrornate and mercuric sulphate in chemical
water were diluted to 300m/ and incubated at oxygen demand (COD) test. The digested
20oC in BOD bottles for 5 days. The result sample is then titrated with standard ferrous
were as follows. Based on the data, the ammonium sulphate (FAS) to determine the
average BOD5 of the waste water is equal to un-reacted amount of (GATE -12)
(a) l39.5mgll (b) I265mgll (a) mercuric sulphate
(c) 109.8mg// (d)72.2mgll (b) potassium dichromate
(c) Silver sulphate
Waste water Initial DO, Do after 5 (d) sulphuric acid
volume m/ ms'll davs. ms//
5 9.2 6.9 14. For a waste the 5 day BOD at 20oC is found
t0 9.1 4.4 to be 200 mg/lFor the same waste 5 day BOD
50 8.4 0.0 at 30oC will be. (ESE -00)
(a) Less than200 mgll
10. The 5-day BOD of a wastewater sample is (b) more then200 mgll
obtained as 190 mgll with K: 0.01 h-r lbase (c) 200mgll
e), the ultimate oxygen demand (mglD of the
(d) zero as the bacteia can not with stand
sample will be
such a high temperature.
(a) 3800 (b) 47s (c) 27r (d) 1e0
15. The ultimate BOD value of a waste (ESE-00)
11. A portion ofwaste water sample was (a) increase with temperature
subjected to standard BOD test (5 days, (b) decrease with temperature
20'C), yielding a value of l80mg//. The (c) remains the same at all temperatures
reaction rate constant (to the base 'e') at20oC
(d) double with every 10oC rise in
was taken as 0.18 per day. The reaction rate
temperature
 Acad€my
Environmental
16. A 2% solution of a sewage sample is
kept at 22. Which one of the
an incu following pairs is not
DO (Di conectlymatched? - -(ESE_04)
(a) BOD/COD:0 : Waste_water
after 5 is toxic
and 5.5 mg/L respect (b) BOD/COD < 0.2: Acclimatizationof
be seed is necessary.
(ESE _00) (c) BOD/COD > 0.6 : Waste_water
(a) s0 mgL (b) 150 mg/L is non
biodegradable.
(c) 2s0 mstL (d) 350 mg/L (d) BOD: COD:0 : Waste_water is devoid
of organic matter
l7.In which one of the following tests is the
organic matter in the waste
watei used as food 23.rMhatis 5 days 2O.C BOD
by micro organisms. equal ro?(ESE_0s)
(a) 3 days 27"CBOD (b)
(a) BoD a days 30"C BOD
(b) MPN (c) 6 days 32"C BOD (d)
(c) CoD 7 days 35"C BOD
(d) Chlorine demand
24. The figure below shows,
18. A certain waste has a^BOD of 162 BOD curve when
its flow is 1000 mrlday if the mglt and the experiment was conducted
at 20"C. if the
domestic experiment is conducted at
sewage has a BOD of g0 gmlcapita, 30oC, then the
population equivalent of the
then the portion AB of the curye @SE-10)
*urt. would be
(ESE-0r)
(a) 20.2s (b) r2s6 (c) 2025 (d)12e60 +
I
19. A waste water sample of 2mlis
made up to Oxygen
300m1 in BOD bo*le with
distillei *ut.r. consumed
Initial DO of the sample is g
mglland after 5
days it is 2my't. What is its
BOb.
(a) 894 mgtt (b) 900mgil
(c) 300 mg/t (a) shifts to the left
(d) 1200 mgil
20. Which are of the following
(b) shifts to the right
tests employs (c) remains unchaneed
ferroin indicator
@sE- 11) (d) shrinks
d;'in#T:'*;., demand
(b) Ammonia nihogen
(c) nitrate nitrogen
25. A student began experiment for
(d) fluoride determination of 5-.!uy, ZO"C gOO
on
Monday. Since the.5s day fell
oo SurorAuy,
21. A sample of sewage is estimated to the final DO reading, *.r. tut.n"Jn
have a 5 Monday. On calculaiion, BOD (i.e.-
n.rt
day 20"C BOD of 250 mg/l. If
the test 20'C) was found to be 150 mglL.Ulhat
I aay,
be 30"C, in how many days would
::Tl*.", of BoD be obtainej
will be.the 5-day,20.C BOD
finWfli Assume
l|.,e:i-:
(a) "alue fild"_ ,rl values of BOD rate constant
1.5 days (b) 2.5 days 1e at standard
(c) 3.3 days temperature of 20oC as 0.23lday
(d) 7.5 days (base e).
(cArE-13)
E

not 26.Ultimate BOD of a river water sample is 20

04)
0r.2r2.r9 mglt 02. (d) 03. (c)
04. 90 mgll 05. 246.36 mgil 06. 304000

07.93.t2% 08.1% 09. (a) 10. (c)

(c) 65 and 35 (d) 75 and25 11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (b) ls. (c)

16. (b) r7.(a) ls. (c) te. (b) 20.(a)

2r. (c) 22. (c) 23. (a) 2a. @)

s)
)
25.128.1mgll 26. (c)
)

)n
le
te

,/
 Treatment of Sewqge

1. Treatment processes are classified Screen: Screen is a device with uniform

as: openings of size ranging from 3 mm to 50
(i) Preliminarytreatment mm used to retain. Separate large floating
(ii) Primary treatment substances present in waste water.
(iii) Secondary or biological treatment Design of screens :
(iv) Complete final treatment Screen's are designed based on approach
velocitli "Vu"
(i) Pretiminary Treatment: Vu:0.6 to 1.2 m/sec
Separating floating materials, heaqz
inorganic solids. cls areaofscreen device bxd= I
Processes used: v"
(a) Screening: Floating matter removal depth "d" 0.8 m to I m
(b) Grit chambers or detritus tanks: To c/sarea
Irx "b"
remove grit or sand depth
(c) Skimming tanks: To remove oils or Let n: number of openings
greases n+l : number of bars
(ii) Primary Treatment: .'.b:nxs*(n+l)$
Remo nic s: size of openings [ 25 mm]
solids Q: dia of bar [ 10 mm]
Processes used :
V: _V., I
Sedimentation tank: To remove Head loss through screen h, =--x-
suspended solids
29 0.7
V, : velocity through screen.
(iii) Secondary Treatment:
The effluent from sedimentation tank \,/ =
should be stabilized aerobically or
anaerobically to get clearer effluents sin 0
-XNXS
4 Boo Btt^t$tq!" Example:1
Aerobic biological units Design a screen to treat a waste water flow of
a) Filters: Trickling filters
25 MLD with approach velocity 0.8 m/sec
b) Aeration tanks: Activated sludge
assume depth of flow lm. If screen basis are
process
placed aI angle 60' inclination to horizontal
c) Oxidation ponds
with size of opening is 25 mm and dia of bar is
Anaerobic biological units
l0 mm. Also find load loss through screen.
a) Septic tank
b) Imhoff tank b:25 MLD:0.289mi/sec
c) Sludge digestion tank
Sol: C/s area b, d = {
(iv) Final or Tertiary treatment: To kill v"-0'289
0.9
= o.36lm2

pathogenic bacteria chlorination of d:1m

sewage.
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 ACE
&tdnecriDgAcadcmy :71 : Treatrnent ofSewage

,b - 0.361 = 0.361 Length of Grit chamber: Vs x DT

1' :0.3x1x100: l8 m
volume 13'88
b:nxs+(n+1)Q c/s area - - :o.77lm
Length 18
s:25 mm; d: l0 mm Depth, H:08
0.361 : nx(25x10-) + 1n+t) (10x10-3) 0.771
Width =
0.8
= 0.96m = lm
+ n: 10.0 .'. Dimension of Grit chamber by
Number of bars : n+l : 10*1 : II L:18m B:1mH:0.9m
(i) Preliminary treatment: 2) Detritus tanks:
l) Grit chambersz To separate out the grit, o To separate out not only larger grit
gravel, sand, egg sells etc of,'size 2 mm or but also very fine sand particle.
larger. It is a settling tank with lesser o Detention time should be kept
detention time of 1 min and flow velocity: between3to4min
0.2 to 0.3 rnlsec. The flow velocity
should neither be far low as to cause 3) Skimming tank: To remove greases and
settling of lighter organic matter nor oils grease. Greases and oils interfere
should it be so high as not to cause the with the activated sludge treatment
settlement of the entire silt and srit process and inhibit the biological growth
present in trickling filters

Design of Grit chambers:

Grit chambers are designed based on
I.D.T 2.Ys
3. SLR (or) SOR, 'Vo'
Volume of Grit chamber: Qx DT
0
Surface area of Grit chamber -
v"
air -/ o '
Cls area of Grit chamber:
VH
q compressed
-Z
o Efficiency of skimming tank can be

Example: 2
increased by passing chlorine gas
o Detention time should be 3 to 5 min.

Find the dimension's of Grit chamber to handle ii) Primary treatment:

a waste water flow of 20 MLD with Vs 0.3 : 1. Sedimentation tank: principles same
m/sec and DT 1 depth: 0.8 m explained in "water supply engineering"
2. Detention time :
Sol: Volume of Grit chamber: Q x DT
(Lx Bx H)
2 hours ( between I and2 hours )
o velocity of flow O.3m/min.
20x106
x1 :13.88m3 o Plain sedimentation tank removes 60 to
103 x24x60 65% suspended solids
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 ACE
Acadcmy Environmental

04. At . sewage treatment plan for flow of

Class Room Practice euestions
3m'/sec the cross sectional a of grit
chamber will be about (ESE - 02)
01. Match List-I (Terminology) with List-II (a) 3m2 (b) to m2 @) 2srrt, (d) 30 m2
(Definition/Brief Description) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below 05. Consider the following data in the design of
the lists: grit chambers sp. Gravity of grit:2.7, size of
List-I grit particularly: 0.2lmm (ESE - 03)
P. Primary treatment e. Secondary Viscosity of water: 1 x l0-2 cm2lsec. The
R. Unit operation S. Unit process settling velocity (cm/sec) of the grit particle
will be
List-II (a) 1 to2.5 (b) 2.6 -5.0
1. Contaminant removal by physical forces (c) s.1-7.8 (d) > 7.8
treatment
2. Involving biological and/or chemical 06. The following data are given for a channel-
reaction
type grit chamber of length 7.5m.
3. Conversion of soluble organic matter
1. flowthrough velocity : 0.3mls
to biomass
2. the depth of waste water at peak flow in
4. Removal of solid materials from incomins
the channel:0.9m
wastewater
3. specific gravi-ff of inorganic particles:2.5
4. g : 9.80 m/s', p: 1.002x10-'N-s/m2 at
Codes:
20oC, P*: 1000kg/m3
P AR S P ARS
@)a 3 2 (b)4 3 2
1
Assuming that the Stoke's law is valid, the
(c)3 4 2 1 (d)r 2 3 4
1
largest diameter particle that would be
removed with 100 percent efficiency is
(cArE_04)
02. A grit chamber of dimensions 12m x 1.50m (a) 0.04mm (b) 0.2lmm
1.50mx 0.8m liquid depth has a flow of 720 (c) 1.92mm (d) 6.64mm
m3lhr.It is surface loading rate and detention
times are respectively. (ESE-97)
07. A circular primary clarifier processes an
(a) 4000 m'lhrlm'and 1.2 min average flow of 5005mj/d of municipal waste
(b) 40000 litltltlnf and 40 min water. The overflow rate is 35m3/m2ld. The
(c) 40 m3lhrrn] and 12 min diameter of clarifier shall be
(d) 40000 litlhrlm2 and 1.2 min (a) 10.5m (b) il.5m
(c) 12.5m (d) 13.5m
03. The proportional flow weir at the effluent end
of a channel type grit removal unit is to
(a) provide easy passage of solid particles 01. (a) 02. (d) 03. (d) 04. (b) 0s. (b)
(b) measure the rate of flow in the channel
06. (b) 07. (d)
(c) keep the depth of flow in the channel
(d) maintain constant mean velocitv in the
channel.
rg

-
of Activated Sludg e Process
rit
)
:f
Activated sludge: It is a sludge containing a
)f 3. Components of ASp :
large concentration of highly active aerobic
)f a) Primary settling tanks:
micro organisms.
Lesser Detention time, i.e.. 1.5 to 2
hours
l. Principle: b) Aeration tank
Activated sludge is mixed with raw sewage
Detention time : 4 to 8 hours.
along with large quantity of air for about 4 to
The settled sludge c) Secondary sedimentation tank :
sludge. It is again detention time, 1.5 to 2 hours
eration tank to be
mixed with sewage being treated.
d) Sludge thickener and sludge digestion
tank:
2. Flow diagram: Sludge from a secondary settling tank
PST Aeration tank SST Chlorination contain too much of m.c. i.e., 9g to 99yo,
therefore bulky, the m.c. is first reduced
by sending it to 'sludge thickener,.
o m.c. will be reduced from 9g to 93 %.
o helps in reducing the capacity of
digestion tank.
o similar to circular settling tanks with
Dt of 12 to 24 hours.

Q = Rate of flow of sewage.

Q.: Rate of returned sludge 4. Bulking of sludge and its control :
Under sick conditions, the seffled sludge may
QB = Rate of sewage effluent
:
Qw Rate of wasted sludge.
contain more moisfure and thus resulting in
swelling of sludge volume. Due to sludge
X1: Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) bulking, it remains in suspension and carried
inmg I I in aeration tank in the effluent of secondary clarifiers.
Xp : Concentration of solids in the returned Remedial Measures :
sludge. i) Elimination of industrial wastage
XB: Concentration of solids in the effluent. ii) Chlorination of the sewage
Xw : Concentration of solids in the wasted iii) Increased aeration
effluent.
y1: BOD5 of the influent sewage
iv) Raising the pH of sewage to 8 by adding

y": BOD5 of the effluent sewage lime.

V : Aeration tank volume
 Environmental

5. Activated Sludge process variables : Volume of sludge settl einml

a) Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
SVI:
MLSSin gm
Volumeof thetank
Rateofsewageflowintothetank a Usually an SVI of 50 to 150 ml / gm is
V: Volume of aeration tank, adopted
Q: Sewage inflow rate excluding sludge
returned. 6. Usual values adopted in the
HRT is defined as an average time for conventional ASP:
which the sewage flowing into the F/ M:0.4 to 0.3
aeration tank remains in the aeration tank. Mean cell residence time :
5 to 15 days
:
Qn / Q 0.25 to 0.5, Efficiency 85 to 95 yo, :
b) Volumetric BOD loading or
(Volumetric Organic loading) (u): Example 1:
It is defined as BOD load applied per unit
volume of aeration tank. Statement for Common data Questions:
Q'Yt A completely mixed activated sludge process is
,r: used to treat a waste water flow of 1 million
V
liters per day (1 MLD) having a BODs of
(c) Food (F) to Micro Organism (M) 200m9l. The biomass concentration in the
Ratio:(F/M)ratio. aeration tank is 2000mgll and the concentration
It is also called Organic Loading. of the net biomass leaving the system is
It is defined as the ratio of kg of BOD 5}mgll. The aeration tank has a volume of
applied per day (representing microbial 200m'.
feed) to kg of MLSS in aeration tank
(micro organism). (D What is the hydraulic retention time of the
(Q.v) wastewater in aeration tank?
(F/M):
(v.x, ) (a) 0.2h (b) 4.8h (c) lOh (d)24h
F/ M ratio is main factor controlling the
(ii) What is the average time for which the
design.
biomass stays in the system?
Lower is the F/M ratio; higher is the
BOD removal in the plant.
(a) sh (b) 8h
(c) 2 days (d) 8 days

d) Sludge age or Mean cell residence time: (i). Ans:(b)

(0c) It is defined as Average Time for :
Sol:Q 1 MLD 4l.66mtlhr :
which particles of suspended solids Hydraulic retention time
Volumeof aerationtank 2oo :4.8
remain under aeration. - 4t.66 hr
o
e) Sludge Volume Index (SVI): It is the (ii). Ans: (d)
volume occupied in ml by one gm of Sol: Average time biomass stays in system
solids in the mixed liquor after settling for : MCRT
30 minutes Biomas in aeration tank
MCRT
Biomass leaving the system

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 ACE
lnnein€€dngAcade,my :75: Activalcr I Slufue Procell

V.X (v) mixed liquor suspended solitls (MLSS)

Q*Xu + (Q - Q* )x"
, 2,500mgll
(vi)effluent suspended solids - 30rrrg//
mis Q
: 1 MLD : 1000 m' lday,X: 2000 mgll (vii)waste sludge suspended solicls
:9,700 rrrg//
X":50 mgl/, Q*:0 ('.' Completely mixed) (viii) quantity of waste sludge
200x2000 :220 m'ltl
MCRT= :8 days
o+ (tooo o)x so Based on this information,
-
04. Aeration period is (hrs)
Class Room Practice Questions
@) a.s
(b) 6.4 (c) 7 .a7 (d) 8.43

01. A town produces sewage of 50 x 106//d with

05. Food to
microorganistn ratio F/M (kg/tl
BOD/kg MLSS) is
BOD of 180 mgll. Taking permissible
(a) 0.18 (b) 0.32 (c) 0.a8 (d) 0.s2
volumetric organic loading as 550 gm of
ts
BOD per 1 cu.m of volume, the volume of
n 06. Percentage efficiency of BOD removal is
aeration tank required is
,f
(a) 16363 m3 (b) 14360 m3
(a) 80 % (b) 88 %
(c)e2% (d)e6%
(c) 2800 m3 (d) 8423 m3
I 07. Sludge age in days is
l
02. A town produces sewage of 50 x t06 /d with
(a) 8.s8 (b) 10.42 (c) 12.86 (d) None
I
BOD of 180 me//. Takine I=O.sd'and 08. If the SVI is 88 ml/gm for an activated sludge,
M then the concentration of the returned sludse
MLSS as 1800 mg /l the volume of aeration ls
tank required is (a) 8800 mg// b) 970a mg /l
(a) 16363 m' (b) 14360 m' (c) r136amgll (d) zero
(c) 2800 m3 (d) 10000 m3
09. Assuming that the supernatant is clear of
03. The MLSS concentration in an aeration is suspended solids one liter of activated sludge
2000 mgll and the sludge vo . after 30 min of containing 1000 mgll MLSS occupies a
settling in
a 1,000 ml graduated cylinder is volume of 200 ml after settling for 30 minutes
176 mL then SVI is in a measuring cylinder, the value of SVI
(a) 88 ml/gm (b) 176 ml/gm will be
(c) 200 ml/gm (d) zero (a) s0 (b) 100 (c) 200 (d) 400

Common Data for Questions 04 & 05 10. An aeration basin with a volume of 400 m3
An average Operation data for conventional contains mixed liquor with suspended solid
activate sludge treatment plant is^as follows: concentration of 1000 mg/I. The amount of
(i) waste water flow:35,000 m'ld mixed liquor suspended solids in the tank is
(ii) vol. of aeration tank: 10,900 m3 (a) s00 kg (b) 2s0 kg
(iii)influent BOD :250 mgll (c) 6600 kg (d) a00 kg
(iv)effluent BOD 20 mgll :
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1l

11. For normal sludge, the value of sludge index

for Indian conditions is
(a) 0 to 50 (b) 50 to 150
(c) 150 to 350 (d) 350 to 500

12. An activated sludge aeration tank length:30m,

width l4m, effective liquid 4.3m has the
following parameters : (GArE-e8)
Flow:
0.0796 m3ls :
BOD after primary settling 130 mglt : 14. The food-to-biomass (F/IM) ratio (in kg BOD
Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) 2100 per kg biomass per day) for the aeration tank
mg ll;
is
Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (a),,O015 O) 0.210 (c)0.22s (d) 0.240
(MLVSS) 1,500 mgll;
30 minute settled sludge volume 230 ml ll and
ay) of solids wasted from
retum sludge concentration
9,100 mgll. Determine aeration period, food
to microorganism (F/M) ratio, sludge volume
index (SVD and return sludge rate.

13. Settling test on a sample drawn from Aeration

Tank liquor of ASP (MLSS :2800mg1/) was
carried out with 1 litre sample. The test
yielded a settled volume of 200m1. The value
of Sludge Volume Index shall be
(GATE_2003)
@) ru.o @)34.2 (c)7r.4 (d)27r 17.In a conventional ASP, MLSS is generally
kept in which range (ESE - 07)
Common Data for Questions 14 & 15 (a) < 1000 mg// (b) 1000-20}}mgil
(c) 2000-3000mgll (d) 3000-5000mg I
An act etched below)
is oper the following 18. The dominant micro-organisms in an
inform dalr;: activated sludge process reactor are
flow rate : 500 m'lhour, influent BOD:I50 (cArE-14)
mglL.effluent BOD _-- l0 mg/L. Aeration (a) aerobic heterotrophs
Tank related data: hydraulic retention time:g (b) anaerobic heterohophs
hours, mean-cell-residence time :240 hours. (c) auto trophs
:
volume 4000 m3, mixed liquor suspended (d) phototrophs
solids: 2000 mglL
19. The average operational data pertaining to a
ASP is given below.
Flow rate of waste water : 10000 m3 ldav
Influent BOD :150 mell
 ACE
; f,'.ngineering ecaaemy :77 : Activated Slufue Process

Effluent BOD :20 mgll

MLSS in aeration tank : 30000 mg//
MLSS in under flow : 10000 me// 01. (a) (d) 03. (s)
02. 0a. (c) 0s. (b)
06. (c) 07. (a) 08. (c) 09. (c)
I = 0.25d-' 10 days
10. (b)
M rr.@)b
Find the following 1,2054.3
12.6.3 hr, 109.5,0.33d m3lday
(i) Volume of aeration tank 13. (b or c) la. (c) ls. (d) 16. (c)
(ii) Aeration period r7. (a) 18. (a)
(iii) BOD removal efficiency 19. i. (2000 m') ii. (4.8 hrs)
(iv) Volumetric loading rate 1ii. (86.66%) iv. 0.75 kgldaylm3

Mass of solids wasted/dav v. 600kglday vi. 60 m3lday

Volume of solids wasted/day vii. 100 viii. 0.428

(vii) SVI ix. 4285.7|m'lduy

(viii) Recycling ratio

(ix) Rate of return sludge

HydembadlDelhilBhopalll'rmelBhubmeswarlBengalurullmknowlPatnlChemailvijayaw'adalVzg lTirupati]Gunml Ku({fuflyfiIyd)

l
 Trickling Filters
The effluent from primary settling tank which
BOD removal efficiency is 75 to g0%o.
contains unstable organic matter should be
converted into stable forms like nitrates &
Sulphates by oxidation ( aerobic process
)
Filtration: Influent should be sprinkled over
the open beds ofcoarse aggregate.
Effluent from filters again settled in
secondary settling tank.
Sludge in secondary clarifiers or
sedimentation tank is digested in sludge
digestion process, if required.
Types of Filters :
1. Intermittent sand filters
2. Contact beds
3. Low rate trickling filters o Suitability : Conventional trickline filter is
4. High rate trickling Filters very useful to medium town and iidustrial
cities requiring full treatment of sewase.
1) Intermittent Sand filters:
Used in special cases for treating sewage form
Operational Troubles :
Tuberculosis hospitals
BOD removal is 90 to 95 yo.
l) Fly nuisance : psychoda (Fly).
2) Odour nuisance : The remedv is
chlorination of sewase.
2) Contact beds(contact filters) : 3) Ponding troubles ,- pilt.., media gets
Filter media consists of Gravel, broken bricks clogged due to growth of algae and fungi
or stone. and this is called ponding.
. BOD will be removed to an extent of 60 to
7s%. Adding chlorine or Copper Sulphate to the
sewage kills algae there by ponding can be
avoided.
3) Low rate Trickling filters : They work
on the principle of ..Attached growth BODremoved
Erucrnucv(r1) = x 100
process". BODAPPLIED
a) Conventional or low rate trickling filters :
The purification of sewage is brought about Eprtcmxcy(I): loo
mainly by aerobic bacteria which forms a 1+0.004a"6 -
bacterial film around the particles of filtering
media.
q : Efficiency of filter in terms of percentage
Size of filter media 25 mm to 75 mm stone of applied B.O.D. removed.
aggregate, depth of filter is 2 to 3 m.
Provided with open top and there will be free u : Organic loading in kg/ ha. ml day applied
circulation of air through the medium. to the filter. (unit organic loading
)
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal I Prme Bhubaa
I
 ACE
,fr$ tr'.ngineqingAcademy :79: Trickling Filters

Iixample:I

l,'ind the diameter of standard trickling filter if

influent BOD is 150 mgll and desired effluent
BOD is 20 mgll, to handle 2 MLD of waste Itrcrent .Hnmary T.F Secondary Clarifier
water flow. Assume depth :2m. Clarifier

Yi - Y" ,100 = 100 i) Single Stage Re-circulation Process:

Sol: "4 -
!i r+ o.oo44.f o Recirculation helps in seeding the sewage
\lVF with bacteria and accelerating biological
'.' Standardrate TF > F:l oxidation process.
o Recirculation also helps in reducing
100
n=T#xloo= odours, fly nuisance.

ii)Efficiency of Iligh rate trickling Filters :

Y =0.245 ha.m a) Re- circulation Ratio(R / I ) : It is the ratio

=
of volume of sewage ( R) to the volume of
Y :0.245 x lOa m3 raw sewage (I).

Surface area of TF : ldt Volume

Filter Loading:
4 depth
Hydraulic Loading (hr): It is the amount of
0.245x104
sewage flow that can be applied per unit
surface area of the filter per day.
Diameter (d):39.5 m U; Organic Loading (u): It is the amount of
B.O;D. in kgs. applied on to the filter per unit
4) High Rate Trickling Filters : volume of the filter

o Same as low rate Trickling filters but re-

circulation of sewage is essential. In high
rate T.F the rate of filtration and
efficiency are high compared to the low
rate T.F
c Due to re-circulation, it is possible to pass
sewage at greater loading thus requiring
lesser space and lesser filter media.
o BOD removal efficiencv is 80 to 95 %.

HldenbadlDelhilBhopallPruelBhubaneswulBengalmllmknowlPanralChenmiiVijayawadal$zg lTirupati lGmuul f.uUOttly0{yt)

JiN, ACE
iilE,'Engineering ecaaemv :80: Environmental E ngineering

05. When the re-circulation ratio in a high rate

Class Room Practice Questions trickling filter is unity, then what is the value
of the re-circulation factor? (ESE - 05)
(a)1 (b)>1 (c)<l (d)Zero
01. The BOD of a sewage entering a T.F is 200
- the effluent of the sewage of TF is 40
mg/l.lf 06. In an aerobic affached-culture system, the
mg/l,thenthe efficiency of the TF is biomass at the biofilm-medium surface
@)a0% (b)85% (c)80% (d)0 interface experiences. (ESE - 10)
(a) aerobic and endogenous metabolism
02. A TF is designe-d with an unit organic loading (b) anaerobic and endogenous metabolism
of 0.175 kg / m' I day.If the influent BOD of (c) anaerobic and exogenous metabolism
the sewage is 150 mg/l,thenthe effluent BOD (d) aerobic and exogenous metabolism
is
(a) 43.35 mg/l (b)23.3 mg lt
(c) 126.7 msll (d) None
01. (c) 02. (b)
03. From a primary settling tank sewage flows to
03.2.14 m. 5142.85 nf , 8+.+S%,23.3 mgll
a standard trickling filter at a rate of 6 MLD
having a 5-day BOD of 150 mg//. Find 04.633 m3 os. (b) 06.(b)
(a) the depth and volume of the filter
adopting a surface loading of 2500
llnt'lday and an organic loading of 175
gm/m'lday.
(b) the efficiency of the filter unit using NRC
equation.
(c) the B.O.D of effluent

04. Calculate the volume of the stage [}6 au*l' W)

Trickling filter required to yield ent of
BODs of 2}mgll when heating settled
domestic sewage with BODs of 120 mgll.The
sewage flow is 2200 rrilday and the
recirculation is constant at 4000 m'/dav.

HydenbadlDelhilBhopatlPunelBhubanewlBengalurullrcknowlPanralChemilvijayawadalvizg lTirup?ti lGuntul KukaOally(tlyd)

mg

-
Sludge Digestion
rate
rlue
0s)
ro
o Sludge with drawn from the sedimentation It becomes foamy and scum forms at top duc
tank must be decomposed in a sludge to gases trapped.
the
digestion process.
lce o Decomposing: In the decomposition iii) Alkaline fermentation :
t0)
process, 40 to 60% of organic solids are During this stage, liquid, digested solids
converted by bacteria into COz, and gases get separated.
CFIa(anaerobically) Alkaline in nature
BOD falls rapidly
1. Sludge digestion process: Sludge gets Large volume of Methane gas along with
broken up into three following small amount of other gases is evolved.
forms:
3. Factors affecting sludge digestion:
D Digested sludge: Stable humus like (a) Temperature :
solid matter with tary black in colour Rate of digestion is more at higher
free of pathogenic bacteria may contain temperature Optimum: a) period : 30
cysts, eggs of bacteria etc., days
Vol.: vol. of undigested sludge
1/3
Temp: 29oC
Dried up and used as aferltlizer (Mesophilic bacteria will act )
iD Supernatant liquor:
Finely divided solid matter and liquid (b) pH value:
with BOD about 3000 ppm Alkaline conditions must prevail
Retreated in heatment plant along with (Optimum pH: 7.2 to 7.4) to encourage
raw sewage bacterial action.
To increase the pH, hydrated lime is
iii) Gases of decomposition: added.
Methane (65 to 70%), CO2(30%), other
gases like nitrogen, H2S are evolved (c) Seeding with digested sludge: Proper
methane gas is produced seeding helps in balance condition.

2. Stages of decomposition : (d) Mixing and stirring of raw sludge with

i) Acid fermentation digested sludge:
ii) Acid regression Bacterial etzymes present in digested
iii) Alkaline fermentation sludge should be mixed thoroughly for
better decomposition.
D Acid fermentation (or) Acid production
Under uncontrolled naturally condition,
stage: Acidic in nature.
sludge digestion takes about 4 Yz months.
ii) Acid regression: BOD remains high However if the factors are controlled.
during this stage duration can be shortened.
 :82: Environmental F,ngineering

4. Sludge and its moisture Sludge Digestion Tank

content(m.c):
a) Sludge from sed.tank
- 95yom.c
b) Secondary sludge from trickling filter_96 to
98Yom.c Supematant
liquor
c) Secondary sludge from A.S.p
- 9g to 99%
. 95Yo mc means 5 lit solid matter in 100 lit
sludge
. 90o/o mc means 10 lit solid matter in 100
lit sludge
The sludge with 90% m.c. will be half the
qnty as compared to that of sludge with 5. Detention time: Generallv
95Yom.c. I

Vl ( 100 -pr ): Vz ( 100-pz ) . u.

Volume of sludge disaster: lut ],
Where, l2j
Vr : volume of sludge at moisture content of Vr: Volume of fresh sludge added/day
V6: Volume of digested sludge added,lday
Vz:
Pro/o
volume of sludge at moisfure content
T: digesting period
of
Pzo/o '100M
' (100-Pr) er
tc:-7---a-

Example 1: 100 M
%=
The moisture content of a sludge in reduced
from 98o/o to 92Yo in a sludge digestion tank. M: Mass of solids in sludge in kg/day
Find the % decrease in volume of the sludge
Exumple 2:
(roo p,
-
5Ol: V, = i-----{V,
)
' (100-P, ) Find the capacity of digester from the
following data:
rr rob-qs
V' :- -:- x -V, =Q.25 y
'100-92 Q:2 MLD, SS in Waste water flow:200
mgl
o%Decreaseinvolume: I -% % of SS removed from clarifier:70
v, "t00 Moisture content of fresh sludge pt: ggyo
Vr -o.25Vr xloo :75o/o Moisture content of digested sludge pz:90o/o
Specific gravity of fresh sludge: 1.06
v,
Specific gravity of digested sludge 1.02 :
Digestion period = 60 days.

Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopal hrne Bhubane

I I
 ecademy :83 Sludge Digestion
-
l. Acidfermentation
Sol: M : 20x200*
70
=280ke/dav 2. Alkali fermentation
100 3. Acid regression
The correct sequence ofthese stages is
er =Sr xe* -1.06x1000=1060kg/m3 (ESE-e8)
nt
(a) 1,2,3 (b)2,3,r
ea =Sa xe* -1.02x1000=1020kg1m3
(c) 3,1,2 (d) r,3,2

! c :-a-
100 M
' 100-Pr 03. Fresh sludge has moisture content of 99%o and
er
after thickening its
moisture content is
reduced to 96%. The reduction in volume of
:_ 1oo r29l:13.20m3 rday sludge is (ESE-e8)
100-98 1060 (a)3% (b)s% (c)ts% (d)re7%
vr -_x_
100 M
" 100-P2 ed 04. The two main gases liberated from an
anaerobic sludge digestion tank would include
1oo , ?!9--2.745m3 (a) NH3 & CO2 (b) CO2 & CH4
- 100-90 1020
rdav
(c) CHa & H2S (d) NH3 &CHA
-l
capacity of digester - [v' t v' , 05. The correct sequence of the sludge digestion
12l " steps is
(a) Acid formation, hydrolysis, methane
:tIt:.zo +2.i45f
"''-" lx60 : 478.35m3
formation
t2l (b) Methane formation, acid formation,
hydrolysis
(c) Hydrolysis, methane formation, acid
Class Room Practice Questions formation
(d) Hydrolysis, acid formation, methane
formation
01. A sedimentation tank is treating 4.5 MLD of
sewage containing 275 ppm of suspended
06. Which one of the following is considered as
solids. The tank removes 55% the of the thcrmophilic range of sludge digestion.
suspended solids. Calculate
(a) 66"C to 7o"c (b) 50"C to 57oC
D weight of sludge produced per day (c) 29"C to 40oC (d) 20"C to 30oC
assuming moisture content of the sludge
as96%
Statement for Linked Answer Q 07 & 08
iD ifsp. gravrty of the sludge is 1.02,
calculate sludge quantity in bulk
The sludge from the aeration tank of the
(volume)
activated sludge process (ASP) has solids
content (by weight) of 2%. This sludge is put
02. The following th,ree stages utt iioo*o to occur
in a sludge thickener, where sludge volume is
in the biological action involved in the
reduced to half. Assume that the fmount of
procoss of sludge digestion
solids in the supernatant from the thickener is

Hyd€rabad I Delhi I Bhopal I

hrre I
Bhubnnesrmr I Bengaft:ru I Lucknow I Patra I Oennai I Vijalawada I Vizag I
Tlrup4i I GfiuIx | ,lt{Iffiotly.ftBA)
 negligible, the specific gravity of sludge
solids is 2.2 and the density of water is 1000 Codes:
kgtm3 (cATE-II) P aRS P aRS
07. What is the density of the sludge removed (a)4 3 I 2 (b) 3241
from the aeration tank? (c)4321(d) 2134
(a) 990 kgl^t (b) 1000 uet^|
(c) 1011kg/m3 (d) 1022 kg/m'
11. Column I (GATE-0e)
08. What is the solids content (by weight) of the P. Grit chamber
thickened sludge? Q. Secondary settling tank
(a) 3.e6% (b) 4.00% R. Activated sludge process
@) a.04% (d) 4.r0% S. Trickling filter

09. An industry has asewage treatment plant Column II

which produces sludge with a moisture l.Zone seffling 2. Stoke's law
content af
98%. With the solid contenr 3. Aerobic 4. Contact stabilization
remaining the same, the sludge is thickened
so that the moisfure content now is 96%. If The conect match of Column I with Column
the original quantity of sludge is p, what is II is
the quantity of the thickened sludee? Codes:
- iESE_ 2oos)
P aRS P aRS
(a) 0.e8 P (b)3P14 (c)2pt3 (d)pt2 (a)1234(b) 2434
(c)1243(d) 2143
10. Match List-I with List-II and select the
12. A Sludge with 2% solids containing 70o/o
correct answer (GATE - 05) volatile with S:2.2 and remaining non
List-I volatile with S:2.7 find specific gravity and
mass density of sludge.
P. Thickening of sludge
' Q. Stabilization of sludge.
R. Conditioning of sludge
S. Reduction of sludge
01. 1 70 1 5.6 2 kgl day, 1 6.68 m3/day
List-II 02. (d) 03. (c) 04.(b) 0s. (d) 06. (b)
1. Decrease in volume of by chemical
oxidation 07. (c) 08. (b) 0e. (d) 10.,(c) 11. (d)
2. Separation of water by heat or chemical 12.1.011, 1011 kg/m3
treatment
3. Digestion of sludge.
4. Separation of
water by floatation or
gravity
 Septic Tanks

1. Septic tank: Disposal of effluents from septic tank :

Provided in areas where sewers have not The effluent of septic tank will have BOD ol'
been laid and for isolated communities, 100 to 200 mgll and hence it can not be
schools, hospitals, other public institutions disposed of into water courses.
etc..
o It is a sedimentation tank with longer Methods of Septic tank effluent disposal:
detention time i.e., 12 to 36 hours a) Absorption trenches
o Both sedimentation and sludge digestion b) Soak pit
takes place in this tank. c) Leaching cess Pool
o Effluents should be disposed off either
for sub surface inigation or in cess pools Sub surface irrigation methods using
or soak pits or treated inlet in trickling absorption trenches: The suspended
filter before disposed off in water course. organic matter present in the effluent will be
. Sludge collected at the bottom gets absorbed in the absorption hench filled with
digested anaerobically. The digested gravel.
sludge is periodically removed.

,o

I
I Open jointed pipes

ii) Soak pit: The effluent is allowed to be

soaked or absorbed into the surrounding soil.
* Pit is filled with qravel brick bats etc..
Brick work

Design Criteria :

1) Capacity of tank :
sewage stored in
detention time * volume of sludse stored
during period of cleaning
o Sludge : 30 litlperson/year
a Period of clearing 6 months to 3 years
(generally 1 year) iii) Cess pool: The top portion acts a absorption
Detention time : 12 to 36 hours trench and bottom portion acts as a septic
(generally 24 hours) tank used when subsoil is porous and when
there is no well nearbv.
Hydenlad I Delhi I Bhopal I Pme I Bhubanesw I Bengaluru I hcknow I Patn I Chennai I Viiayamda lvizg I Tirupati I Gunr I Kukatpallvfivd)
 : 86: Environmental Engineering

Volume of soak plt required

: Q :_l2,ooo n.
9'6m3
Allowable loading rate ffi=
Imhoff tank:
o Incoming sludge is not allowed to
mixed up with sludge suitable for sma
treatment plants where
sedimentation tank and sludge digesti
Brick masonry with cement joint tank can not be constructed.
. Depth of tank is more, cc
construction
o Obsolete these days.
o Its is a anaerobic unit.
o The upper chamber is used
sedimentation of solids and the I
chamber is meant for digestion and
storase.

Sewage flow rate , A: 100 x 120

^Sol.'
: 12,000 litlday : 12 m3lhr: 0.5m3/hr
D1= 36 hrs
Sludge Accumulation rate , gsl: 100 x 30
: 3000 lit I yr:3 m3lyr
t.:1yf.
Volume(V):Q*D,+q"xt"
:0.5 x36+3xl:21m3

V:A xD. :L xBxD

2I:48.B x1.5 Sludge chamber
B: 1.87 m IMHOF'F'TANK
Say B: 1.9 m
andL :7.5 m
 Class Room Practice Questions (a) Volume of sludge produced between the
cleaning if the rate of sludge production
.6m3
is 40 litl person/ year and cleaning period
0l. Find the size of septic tank required for 200 is 2 years.
users with per capita DWF of 150 lpcd if the
detention period is 24 hrs and liquid depth is
(b) Volume of soak pit if percolation
capacity ofpit is 1500 lit/ m3l day.
1.5 m L/B ratio may be kept as2: l.

02. In the above problem if the rate of sludge

production is 30 litl person/ year and 01.6.12 m x 3.16 m 02. 0.6 m
cleaning period is 2 year find the depth of
03. (a). 9.6m3 (b). t2 m3
zone of septic tank.
*dt.
03. A septic tank of mx 2 m is designed
size 4
for with per capita sewage flow of
120 users
150 /pcd and the liquid depth is 1.5 m find
the following Detention period.
 Oxidation Ponds
Oxidation ponds : These are open flow through
Clearing of settled sludge -- Generally once in
earthen basins specifically designed for treating
6 years
sewage with the combined action of aleae and
To stimulate algae growth, sodium nitrate
aerobic bacteria.
may be added. It is a plant food and oxidizins
agent also.
1) Principle and operation :
o Raw sewage or primary settled sewage is
allowed to be collected in the pond. Example 1:
r Stabilization of organic matter is carried
Design an oxidation pond for a residential
out by combined action of algae and
golony 5000 persons contributing sewage at 120
other micro organisms by symbiotic
relationship.
litlcapita/day. The 5 day BOD of sewage is 300
. Symbiotic relationship exists between qpm. Take organic loading as 300 kg/halday.
:
algae and microorganisms in the sense,
Assume L:B 1:2. Also find detention time lf
depth ofpond is I m.
algae produce oxygen while growing in
the presence of sunlight and that oxygen
is utilized by the micro organism.
o End products of the process are CO2,
Sol: Q: population x percapita sewage flow
:5000 x I20liters/day = 0.6 MLD
Ammonia and phosphates. These are
utilized by algae. Surface area of pon4: -QL
. Effluents of oxidation pond can be used OLR
o'6 x 3oo
for land irrigation. - : 0.6 Ha
300
2) Construction details: It
is a shallow
earthen pond made below the ground and LxB:0.6xl0am3,L:28
surrounded on all four sides by high
embankment. .'.g="/o'6110. :
\z 54.77 m

3) Design criteria : L: 109.54 m

o Organic loading :
For hot countries : 150 300 ke I hect I p1: Volume=O.trrl0ax1
- =lodaYs
day a 0'6-" 1d
For cold countries : 60 - 90 kg lhect I day
. Each unit may have an area0.5 to I hect.
103

o Depth may be kept between 1 to 1.5 m

o Detention time : 20 to 30 days (varies
with the local temperature).
Results : BOD removal upto __ g0 %

f
Oii"r*"a"f Vlr* lTirupari IGun'l KukaealbffIyd)
 :89: Oxidation Ponds

04. Eutrophication of water bodies is caused bv

Class Room Practice the tD
(ESE - 96)
euestions (a) discharge of toxic substances
(b) excessive discharge of nutrients
01. Design an oxidation pond to treat waste water
(c) excessive discharge ofsuspended solids
from a communify of 10,000 people with a (d) excusive discharge of chlorides

whether the effluent is suitable for irrigation if

80% of BOD removal is achieved in the pond.
rl
(GATE-e6)
0 (ESE _ ee)
Assume: (a) 0.2 hectares
0 (b) t hectare
(a) ponds L:B:: 4:l (c) 2hectare (d) 6 hectares
(b) Depth of the pond :2m
f (c) permissible BOD < 100 mglt for irrigation
water
(d) The permissible BOD loading rarc to 0l.L:282.84 m,B=70.71 m, D.T : 50 days
oxidation pond is 200 kgBOD/hectld.
02.L:244.9 n1, B: 61.23 m,D: I m
02. Design an oxidation pond for the followins 03. (d) 04. (b) 0s. (c)
data:
Population served :10,000, sewage flow :150
lpcd, Influent BOD :300 mglt, Effluent BOD
desired :30 mgll, Organic loading rate :300
kglhecld, Pond removal constant Ko:0.23 d-l
(base e), L:B:: 4:1

(c)racurtative ltll;lffih:,.

Hydembad l Dethi l Bhopal pme j Bhubuew Bengaluru l Lucknow l parra Chem" Vrj"
l l l l
 Disposal of Sewage Effluents

General methods of disposing of the sewage o The BOD5 of industrial effluents discharged
effluents: in public sewers, shall not exceed 500mg// as
(a) Dilution i.e. disposal in water; and per BIS.
(b) Effluent Inigation or Broad Irrigation or
Sewage Farming, i.e. disposal on land
o The BODs of industrial effluents discharged
into Marine Coasts shall not exceed l}}mgll
as per BIS.
1. Disposal by Dilution:
o Discharged into a river stream, or a large
o The BODs of effluents used for sewase
farming shall not exceed 500mg// .
body of water, such as a lake or sea.
o It is purified by "self purification process"
of natural waters. 3. Various natural forces of Self
o The degree of treatment to be given to raw purification:
sewage before disposing depends on Physical forces are:
quality of raw sewage, the self (i) Dilution and dispersion
purification capacity of the river stream (ii) Sedimentation
and the intended use of its water. (iii)Sunlight
Chemical forces aided by biological forces
The ratio of the quantity of the diluting water (i) Oxidation
to that of the sewase is known as the dilution (ii) Reduction
factor.
4. Dilution and Dispersion:
2. Standard of Dilution for discharge of When sewage of concentration C. flows at a
rate Q, in to a river stream with concentration
Waste waters into Rivers:
Cp flowing at a rate Qp, the concentration C
Dilution Standards of purification of the resulting mixture is given by
factor required . (CtQr + C*Q* )
-
Above 500 No treatment is required (e, +e*)
Between Primary treatment such as plain
300 - 500 sedimentation is to be siven.
The above equation is applicable to the
concentrations of D.O., B.O.D. etc.
Between Treatments such as sedimentation,
150 -300 screening and essentially chemical
precipitation are required. 5. Sedimentation:
Less than Complete thorough treatment Settleable Solids will settle down into bed of
the river
i50 should be given to sewaqe.
6. Sun-light: Algae Plants by absorbing
i The BOD5 of sewage effluents discharged carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen by a
into surface waters, shall not exceed 2}ms.ll process as Photo Synthesis.
as per BIS.

HvdenbadlDelhilBhopallPunelBhuberresrrulBmgalmlLucknowlPatnlChemilvijnvzrlradzlVizg lTirupati lcunnrl Xutapalffiva)

 ACE
nuginoerinsAcademy :91 : Disposal of Sewage Effluents

7. Oxidation: 10.3 Zone of recovery: Stream tries to recover

Oxidation will continue till the organic matter
II
has been completely oxidized. This is the
d
most important action responsible for
effecting self purification of rivers.
s
8. Reduction:
Anaerobic bacteria at the bottom of river bed
will help in splitting the complex organic
constituents of sewage into liquids and gases,
and thus paving the way for their ultimate
stabilization by oxidation.
B.O.D falls down and D.O. content rises
above 40% of the saturation value. The
organic material will be mineralized to form
nitrates, sulphates, phosphates, carbonates,
etc.
10.4 Zone of cleaner water: The river attains its
original conditions with D.O. rising up to the
saturation value. Fish ( requires at least 4
mg// of D.O) and usual aquatic life prevails.

9. The various factors on which these 11. Disposal of waste Water in Sea Water: Sea
natural forces of purification depend water normally contains 20% less oxygen
are: than that contained in fresh water of a river
Temperature, furbulence, hydrography, stream.
dissolved oxygen, rate ofre aeration etc.
At higher temperatures, the capacity to 11.1 Sludge banks :Sewage solids thrown into
maintain the D.O concentration is low; while sea water, chemically react with the dissolved
the rate of biological and chemical activities matter of sea water, resulting in precipitating
are high, causing thereby rapid deletion of some of the sewage solids, giving a milky
D.O at higher temp. appearance to sea water and forming sludge
banks.
10. Zones of pollution in a River- The specifrc gravity of sea water is greater
Stream: than that of sewage, and temperature of sea
(D Zone of desradation water is lower than that of sewase.
(ii) Zone of active decomposition
(iii) Zone of recovery; and
(iv) I 1.2 Sleek: The lighter and the warrner sewage
Zone of cleaner water
will rise up to the surface when thrown into
l0.lZone of degradation or zone of pollution: the sea water and will result in spreading of
This zone is found for a certain length just the sewage at the top surface of sea in a thin
below the point where sewage is discharged. film of 'sleek'.
Water becomes dark and turbid with
formation of sludge deposits at the bottom.
12. Disposal of Sewage Effluents on Land for
D.O. is reduced to about 40%o of the
Inigation
saturation value.
Disposing of the sewage, may help in
10.2 Zone of active decomposition: This zone is increasing crop yields (by 33% or so)
marked by heavy pollution. D.O The BODs of effluents used for sewaqe
concentration falls down to
zero. and farming shall not exceed 500mgll .
anaerobic conditions may set in. Fish life will
be absent.
13. The oxygen Defrcit of a Polluted River- Dt: The D.O. deficit of the mixture in mg/l
sffeam. after't' days
Oxygen deficit(D) : saturation D.O. - Actual L: Ultimate first stage B.O.D. of mixture at
D.O the point of waste discharge in mg/l
De: Initial oxygen deficit of mixture in mg/l
at the mixing point
9^yg"n Sag Curve D6: Critical or maximum oxygen deficit
Where.

t.=
'"'[{'-(r-',?}']
='['-c-')+]
or

r= I
" K, -K, ul\.(r-o*,-*,)-l
" K,Lo ))
Re oxygenation: Oxygen is absorbed from LK, [
the atmosphere to counteract the depletion of
D.O. content.
Exumple 1:
14. Oxygen Deficit Curve: (Oxygen Sag
The minimum flow of a river is 50m3/s having a
Curve):
D.O content of 7.0 mgll (80% saturation) and
o Obtained by algebraically adding the B.O.D5 of 8.0 mg//. It receives a waste water
deoxygenation and reoxygenation curves.
discharge of 5 m'ls with B.O.D 5 of 200 mgll
o Deoxygenation Rate
and no D.O. If
the rate constants of de
Rate -+ Deficit increases.
Oxygenetion and re-aeration (both base e) are
o When both the rates are equal -+ Critical 0.5/d and 1.0/d, respectively and velocif of
deficit occurs. river flow is 0.8 m/s, calculate the distance in
. Reoxygenation > Deoxygenation Rate --> kilometers d/s from the point of waste water
Deficit decreases. discharge where min. D.O. occurs?
(GATE-e8)
15.Self Purification constant,f : KnA(o
Kp :Deoxygenation Rate ; Sol: Q,: 5 m3/ sec Qn: 50 *3/ sec

Kp= Reoxygenation Rate y,: 200 mg llit yn: 8 mg/ lit

Streeter - Phelps equation: DO,:0 DOn: 7 mgllit
K1 :0.5 /day K2: 1.0 / day
p, : xl.L- , ,]* ,]
-KR [o-*" - r o-r* [o, to-*-
-Fo'
HydenbadlDelhiiBhopallPunelBhubmesmlBurgalmllrcknowlPannlChemilvliayawadalVizag lTirupati lGmurl Kukagally(Ilvd)
nng
:93: Disposal of Sewage Efiluens
-
ln TofindDo:L:
rcat DO,n=
5oxT tilo -"',
50+S -:6.36mgllit
ngl : + = 0.75ms/ li
Saturation DO 01. A druin carrying sewage of BOD: 200 mglL
U.E and flow rate of 50 m3/s joins a river
whose
Interval difficult; Do: saturation DO _ DOo, upstream BOD is g mg/L and flow rate
is 500
:2.39 mg/li m'ls. Assume immidiate and complete
mixing of drain with the river. What is the
estimated downstream BOD of the river
50x8 +5x200
Ym:
50+5
:25.45 m{lit flow?
(a) 20.4 myL t'
@) 25.41"r:J-
BODs:L[l-.-*t] (c) l0a. 4mgtL (d)70.4^gtr
25.45:L[1-.-os,sJ 02.Match List-I (Characteristics of sewage
Lo:27.73 mgllit discharged into inland water) with List_II
(Allowable limit, mglt)and seiect the correct

'"=,.,1,"f*['-'"H;] answer using the given below the lists:

(GArE-03)
: I.2 days
List-I
P. BOD5
Q. COD
Distance: Velocity x time R. Oil and Grease
0.8 x 1.2 x24x60x60 S. Total Suspended Solids
82.94 km List-II
1.250 2.30
6. Sewage Sickness :
3.20 4. t0
5.5 6.3
Codes:
P aRS P aRS
(a)2s42(b) 4164
(c)3142(d) 2t63

Waste water DO : 2.00mgll

Discharge rate: l.l0m3 / s
River water DO: g3mgll
Flow rate: 8.70m3 / s
Temperature :20 C
ati lcuu:rl Kukaqr;rlty(Uyd)
 Initial amount of Do in the mixture of waste 08. Effluent from a waste water treatment plant
and river shall be (flow rate :8640 m3/d), temperature 25oC) :
(a) s.3mgll (b) 65mslt is discharged to a surface stream (flow rate
(c) 7.6mgll @) s.amgll
: 1.2 m3ls, temperature :
15oC). What is the
temperature of the stream after mixing?
04. Secondary effluent from a municipal waste (ESE- 0e)
water plant is discharged into a stream at a (a) 10'C (b) 15.77.C
rate of 12,000 m'ld at 20"C with a BODs of (c) 20"C (d)24.99"C
50mgll, a D.O. concentration of 2mgll. The
stream flow is estimated to be 40,000m'/d and :
,r99.A waste water stream (flow 2 m3ls) with
the water quality parameters in the stream U/S v ultimate BOD : !0 m{l is joining a small
of effluent outfall are B.O.D5 of 3mg// and river (flow:I2 m'ls), ultimate BOD:5 mg//.
D.O. 7mg/l at 20oC. Assume a decay const. Both water streams get mixed up
:
for the mixture to be K 0.23 (to the base in instaneously. Cross sectional area at the river
decay curve). is 50 nl.Assuming the de-oxygenation
Estimate constant K: 0.25lday, the BOD (in mgll) of
(a) B.O.D. of the mixture the river water, 10 kfiownstream of the
(b) Ultimate B.O.D mlxmg pomr 1s (GArE-14)
(c) D.O of the mixture (GATE -97) (a) 1.68 (b) 12.63 (c) 1s.46
(d) r.37

05. Which one of the following sets of process is

apart of self purification of streams (b)
(a) Settling, biodegrading , and desalination
01. 02. (c) 03. (c

(b) Settling , biodegradation and aeration 04. 13.85 mg|4,20.27 mgl 1,5.85 mg/ /
(c) Flotation, ion exchange and desalination
(d) Desalination, ion exchange, and reverse
0s. (b) 06. 100 ha

osmosis. 07.45000 lit/halday

06. A town disposing 8 MLD of of effluent on 08. (b) 0e. (c)

land capable of consuming 80000 litlhalday
of sewage. Find area of land required?

07. A town disposes sewage by land treatment. It

has a sewage farm of area I40 ha. The area
includes an extra provision of 40To for rest
and rotation. It produces 4.5 MLD of waste
water. Find consuming capacity of soil ?
rng

-
ilant Solid Waste Mlanag ement
;'c)
rate
the
methane and carbon dioxide. In large sizecl
0e) landfills, the
gases evolved du. to
decomposition of refuse may be collected
Garbage: It includes all sorts of through installing gas recovery wells.
puhescible organic wastes.
b) Rubbish: 1.2 Disposal of refuse by Incineration and
ith Includes all non-putrescible
ill wastes, includes all combustible and non_
thermal Pyrolysis: It consists of buming of
combustible wastes such as rags, paper refuse at high temperatures in furnace, called
lt.
rp pieces, broken pieces of glass and incinerators. Large sized incinerators are
furniture, card-boards etc. called destructors.
9r
In
Pyrolysis: Upon heating in an oxygen free
rf l.Disposal of Refuse: Various methods are as atmosphere, most of the organic substances
e follows.
can be split through a combination of thermal
(i) Sanitary land filling
cracking and condensation reactions into
(ii) Burning or incineration
gaseous, liquid and solid fractions. This
(iii)Barging it out into the sea
process is known as pyrolysis or Thermal
(iv)Pulverization and
(v) Composting, i.e., digestion
Pyrolysis. This process is also known as
by bacterial des tructive distillation.
agency.
Yftrl the organic solid waste is pyrolysed,
the following three types of products are
1.1 Disposal of Refuse by Sanitary Land
Filling: Refuse is carried and dumped into the produced at different stages or temperatures.
low lying arca andit is covered by good earth i) A gas stream, primarily contains
layer, so that the refuse is not directly hydrogen, methane, CO, COz
exposed. The waste is stabilized by aerobic ii) A liquid fraction, consisting of a tar and I
as
well as anaerobic bacterial processes.The or an oil steam.
t.ry:_9, in managed landfills, may usually get iii) A solid fraction, consisting of charcoal
stabilized, generally within a period of 2 to 4 like product of almost pure carbon.
months. About 90% of Indian refuse is 1.3 Disposal of Refuse by Barging it out into the
disposed of in this manner.
sea at reasonable distance from the coast
Leachate: During rainy season, when excess 1.4 Disposal of Refuse by pulverization:
water seeping through the area, may come out Refuse is pulverized in grinding machines, so
9f the dump, as a coloured liquid, called
leachate. This is highly poisonous and
as to reduce its volume and to change its
physical character. It has, therefore, to be
polluted. further disposed of by filling in trenches, or
digested in open windows or closed digestors.
Gas Production: In most cases, over 90yo of
the gas volume produced from the 1.5 Disposal of Refuse by Composting: This
decomposition of solid wastes, consists of decomposition can be effected either under
aerobic condition,
Hydembad I
Delhi I Bhopal I pme I Bhubanes
ffiru condition or both. The final end product, is a
: 96: Environmental E

sunlight stimulate the growth of algae and

ngineering

manure, called compost or humus, as fertilizer other aquatic plants. Both treated and
for farms. Composting is considered to be an untreated domestic sewage have high
aerobic process. concentration of these fertllizing elements and
In India, the composting is practiced in rural contribute materially to the rate of
areas on the mixture of night soil and refuse. Eutrophication of waters into which they are
Two methods, which are generally adopted discharged.
here are:
i) Indore Process and ii) Bangalore process Energy content: Energy values may be
converted to a dry basis by the following
1.5.1. Indore Method: It uses manual turning of equation.
piled up mass (refuse + night soil), for its kJ / kg(dry basis)
decomposition under aerobic conditions. : -----' ----l!9--
kJ/kg (as discarded) ,.
l.5.2.Bangalore Method: It is primarily 0oo -%mc)
anaerobic in nature, and does not involve The corresponding equation on an ash - free
any turning or handling of the mass, and is dry basis is: kJ/kg (ash free dry basis)
hence more clean than the indore method. : kJlkg (as described) x
100
This rnethod is, therefore, widely adopted by 100-%ash -o/om.c
municipal authorities throughout the country.
The refuse and night soil, in this method, are
Example 1:
therefore pilled up in layers in an
underground earthen trench. This mass is If energy content of solid waste as discarded is
covered at its top by layer of earth of about 15
20000 kJ/kg. Find energy content on dry basis if
cm depth, and is finally left ovsr for moisture contents of solid waste is 10%, Also
decomposition. After about 4 to 5 months the
find energy content as ash free dry basis if ash
refuse gets fully stabilized and changes into a
content is 5o/o.
brown coloured odourless innocuous powdery
mass, called humus.
Sol: Energy content on dry basis
Additional Terms Related to Sanitarv
:
Engineering: 2oooo, --]!9--
100 l0
22222kJl kg
-
Energy content on ash free dry basis
2. Elutriation:
Elutriation which literally means washing. It : 2oooo, ..r to,o, , =23530kJ/kg
is a unit operation in which a solid or a solid- 100_10_5
liquid mixture is intimately mixed with a
liquid for the purpose of transferring certain
components to the liquid.

3. Eutrophication: Eutrophication results

from the enrichment of a body of water with
fertilizing elements when in the presence of
"rg :97: Solid Waste Management
-and
Class Room Practice euestions
and
righ
and 01. The following composition of a solid waste
is
of glven:
are
Component % Energy
by mass kJikg
Food waste 15 4,650
Paper 45
be 16,750
Card board l0 16,300
ng
Plastics l0 32,600
Garden trimmings l0 6,500
Wood 5 19,600
Tin cans 5 700

the unit energy content (as

06. Which one of the following methods
can be
the employed for plastic and rubber waste
a dry
(ESE-e8)
(a)composting (b) incineration
fill
(c) sanitary land (d) pyralosis

07. Aerobic method of composting practiced in

02.The composition of a certain MSW India is called (ESE-10)
and specific weights of its
(a) Banglore method (b) Nagpur method
components are given below. (c) Delhi method (d) Indore method.

Percent 08. Which one of the following comprehensive

Component ,,, bYt
classification used for different types of solid
Weisht
Food waste i 50 300
waste. @SE-01)
Dirt and Ash 30 500
(a) Residential, commercial and treatment
Plastics l0 65 plant waste
lVood and Yard waste '10 125 (b) Food, demolition and construction waste
(c) Municipal, Industri al, and hazardous
The specific weight d- ') of the MSW wastes
sample is (cArE-06) (d) Rubbish, special wastes and wastes from
(a) 31e (b)217 (c)20e (d) lee open areas

03. Two biodegradable components of municipal

09. The description of solid waste collected is
solid waste are (GATE-O7| follows.
as
(ESE-00)
(a) plastic and wood
(b) cardboard andglass
Night soil -35t, Rubbish-4O t.
Debris-25t. Garbage - 40t
(c) leather and tin cans
The organic solids in the above composition
(d) food wastes and garden trimmings
(a) 3st (b) 60t (c)l00t io) zst

Hydenbad I Delhi | I *" I |

"Ooo" "n"** "**
 ',ytr.nginecri4gecaasny
ACE
:98: Environmental Engineering

10. The term refuse generally does not include

Pz
(ESE-03) @;roofer* ]
\ct cz )
(a) putrescible solid waste
(b) excreta
(c) non putricscible solid waste (c) 100(c1p iczpz) (d)trol",rffir]
(d) ashes

11. A solid waste sample has been segregated and

14. A landfill is to be designed to serve a
population of 200000 for a period of 25
one of the components has been subjected to
years. The solid waste (SW) generation is 2
elemental analysis. The result of analysis in
kglperson/day. The density of the un-
percent by mass revealed C(40%) H(6%)
compacted SW is 100 kg/-' and a
0(44%) N (0.3%) what is the likely waste
co$Pqg1iq!-mtio of 4 is suggested. The ratio
component (ESE-0s)
(a) food waste
of compacted fill (i.e, SW+ cover) to
compacted SW is 1.5. The landfill volume (in
(b) paper and cardboard waste
million m') required is _ (GATE-ls)
(c) plastic waste
(d) leather waste

12. A colony having a population 65000

generates solid waste at the rate of 2
01.14740 kJ/kg, 18658.2 Hkg,l99l8.9 kJ/kg
kglcapitalday. The compacted specific weight 02. (b) 03. (d) 04. (d) 0s. (b) 06. (d)
of solid waste in landfill is 650 kg/m3 and 07. (d) 08. (c) 0e. (d) 10.(b) 11. (a)
average depth of compacted solid waste in
landfrll is 5 m. Determine the area of landfill 12.l.46ha 13. (a) 14. 13.6875
required per annum.

13. Solid waste generated from an industry

contains only two components, X and y as
OE*fq"l'F RoifD "
shown in the table below
Component Composition Density
$
( %weight) (kg/m3)
Xclpr
C2
Assuming (c1+c2) : 100, the composite
density of the solid waste(p) is given by:
(GATE-Is)
 Air Pollution and Control
Air pollution is defined as the excessive (iv) Automobiles: Exhaust contains carbon
concentration of foreign matter in the air
monoxide (CO), methane, un-burnt
yly! adversely affects the well being of
carbon. CO is the main source of air
a individual or causes damage to the property.
pollution in congested cities.
)5 It also affects plants, animals and buildings.
(v) Agricultural activities: Crop spraying and
2
1- l. Sources of Air pollution: field burning.
(vi)Nuclear Power plants: Emit various
a 1. Natural sources of air pollution
2. radioactive substances
) Man-made sources of airpollution
)
Natural sources of air pollution:
2. Classification of Air pollutants:
I According to the manner in which they are
i. Products from atmospheric reactions formed they are classified as:
(i) Primary air pollutants, and
(ii) Secondary air pollutants
2.1. Primary air pollutants are those which
are
emitted directly from the identifiable sources.
Eg:
(a) Particul ate matter such as dust and
aerosols,
corrosron etc. (b) Pollens
The various types of aerosols are (a) compounds(SOz, SOr, HzS)
dust, (b) smoke, (c) mists, (d) fog, !:l lYlphur
(d) Nitrogen compounds (NO, NOz, NHr)
iej
haze, (f) fumes. (e) Carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon
iiD Micro-organisms: Infect plants and dioxide (COz)
animals. (f) Photochemical oxidants
iu) Pollens: pollens are the small grains (g) lead
from the anthers of flowers which may (h) Hydrocarbons
cause allergic reactions. (i) Radioactive materials
v) Radioactiveminerals fi) Halogen compounds
vi) Volcanic ash and sases (Hydrogen fluoride, hydrochloric acid)
vii) Gases and odoui from swamps and
marshy lands. 2.2. Secondary air pollutants are those which
are formed in the atmosphere as a result of
Man-made sources of air pollution:
interaction between two or more primary air
pollutants or by reactions with ihe normal
atmospheric constituents with or without
photo activation. These are more harmful.
eg. l. Sulphuric acid
(iii)Thermal Power plants: Mainly they emit
2. Ozone
Sulphur dioxide.
3. Formaldehvde
 4. Peroxy-acetyl- nitrate(PAN)
5. Photochemical smog
Sulphuric acid (HzSOa) is formed by simple
chemical reaction between sulphur dioxide
(SOt and water (HzO) vapour. It causes acid
rains.
Ozone, formaldehyde, peroxy-acetyl-nitrate
(PAN), etc., are formed by photochemical
reactions caused by sunlight between two
primary pollutants.
3. Characteristics of air pollutants:
3.1 Sulphur dioxide (SOz): It is one of the
most important air pollutant and exists
where ever fossil fuels are burnt. Thermal
plants produce the largest quantity of SOz.
3.2 Carbon Monoxide (CO): The automobile
exhausts are the main contributors CO.
The (CO) causes asphyxia i,e., loss of
consciousness as a result of too little
g,xygen an{ tqg.. ryuch carbon afriiae in
the human blood.
3.3 Hydrocarbons and . Photoehemical
oxidants: Hydrocarbons are mainly
released into the atmosphere by
automobile exhausts.
3.4Lead,: It is mainly injected into the
atmosphere from the automobile exhausts,
particularly by the automobiles running on
petrol. They cause irritation of mucous
membranes of nose, throat and lungs.
3.5 Oxides of Nitrogen: These are the second
most abundant pollutants of air in many
cities ranking next to SOz. The oxides of
nitrogen are produced from air oxidation,
electrical discharge and solar radiations,
incineration plants, welding operation etc.
4. Effects of Air Pollution:
4.1. Effect on human health
(i) Bronchitis, asthma, eIc., are aggravated by
high concentrations of sulphur dioxide
(SOz), nitrogen dioxide (NOz), photo
chemical Smog.
(ii) Pollens cause asthma
(iii)Lead poisoning is caused by the entry of
lead into the lungs.
(iv)Hydrogen fluoride causes bone fluorosis
and mottling of teeth
(v) Carbon monoxide (CO) may cause death
by asphyxiation.
(vi)Radioactive radiations may cause (a)
cancer, (b) shortening of life span, and (c)
genetic defects.
(xi)Oxides of Nitrogen: Causes eye and nasal
irritation, respiratory discomfort.
Respiratory illness among children is very
common due to this.
4.1.a) Effect on trees and plants: the an
pollutants affecting trees and plants are
sulphur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, etc.
4.1.b) Effect on animals :Fluorine, arsenic and
lead may cause contamination of
vegetation and affecting the animals when
they eat it.
4.2. Effect on physical features of the
atmosphere:
(i) Effect on visibility
(ii) Effect on atmospheric constituents
(iii) Green-house effect
(iv) Ozone layer depletion
(v) Acid rain
(vi) Global warming
 Acadcmy
Air Pollution and Control
4.2.1.Effects on visibility: Fog and
photochemical smog reduce ihe visibilitv
considerably.
;d by
,xide 4.2.2.Effects on atmospheric constituent:
hoto Carbon dioxide CO2 is ionsidered as
a factor
responsible for rise in ambient temperafure.

4.2.3 .Gr een-house effect:

rof Cause; Gases like COz, nitrogen oxide,
ozone
and chemicals likechlorofluoiocarbon (CFC)
)srs
are responsible for green house effect.
Carbon
dioxide COz is the chief gas responsible
for
the Green-house effect.
Effectz It causes appreciable rise in
temperature of earths surface.
c)
"a) Remedy: Green house effect can be tackled
by reducing the rate at which the fossil
al fuels
like coal are burnt.
t.
v 4.2.4 Ozone layer depletion:
4.2.6.Global warming: Global warming
is
considered to be the outcome of
the air
pollution caused by the man_made
sources.
The global warming may lead to burnine
of
crops and may also cause forest fires.

5. Methods of controlling air pollution;

l. Control of air pollution by zining
concentration in the atmosphere. In 2. Dilution of source discharge by use of
consequence, more ultraviolet tall stacks (Chimnevs)
radiation
reaches the earth. 3. Control by using source correction
methods (By changing raw materials,
Process methods, equipment etc.,)
Effects:
1. Damage of immune system,
4. Reduction of pollutanf discharse at
source by use of controlling eq-uipment
2. Disturbance in ecosystem
3. Effect on crop yield
5.1. Control of air pollution by zoning:
4. Increase of skin cancer and eye ailments
By proper zoning, the city ihould 6e planned
5. Shorter life of paints and plastics
in such a way that residential areas uni
h.ur.y
Remedy: For protecting the ozone layer, the industries are not lo:ated too close to
each
emission of chlorofluoroiarbon (CFC) other.
should
be restricted.

Providing a green belt between the industries
a1d the township, will reduce the impact of
air pollution.
5.2. Equipment for control of particulate
pollutants from the gas stream.
1. Gravity settling chambers
2. Cyclonic separators or cyclones
3. Fabric filters
4. Electrostatic precipitators
5. Scrubbers or wet collectors
Electrostatic precipitators: They utllize
electrical energy for removal of the
particulate matter from gaseous stream.
Particles as small as 0.1 p size can be
removed by these devices. Generally used to
separate fly ash particles from flue gases in
thermal power plants
Scrubbers or wet collectors:
Scrubbers are the devices which utilize a
liquid to
from the
is used a
than0.2 p can also be removed.
6. Control of gaseous pollutants:
The emission of gaseous pollutants can
controlled by the following methods:
(i) Absorption,
(ii) Adsorption,
(iii)Combustion or incineration
6.1. Absorption: It is a process that involves the
transfer of the pollutants from the gas phase
to the liquid phase across the interface in
on this principle are spray towers, packed
towers, venturi
- scrubbers.
HvdenbadlDelhilBhopallPunelBhubmeswarlBenealurullffknowlPatr'lchemitvU"t*"a"tu-*
: 102: Environmental
6.2. Adsorption: It is the process of
and retention of gas molecules from the
phase by the surface of the solid adsorber
adsorbent. The commonly used adsorbers
adsorbents are activated carbon. acti
alumina, molecular sieves such as
zeolites, silical gel, etc.
6.3. Combustion or incineration: It may be
when the pollutants in the gas stream
oxidizable to an inert gas. pollutants li
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxides can
easily burnt, oxidized and removed.
7. Smoke and its Control:
Smoke is a product of incomplete combusti
of fuel and hence smoke contains mainl
carbon particles. For estimating the densi
of smoke, the most commonly used method i
the Ringlemann chart method.
8. Meteorological factors influencing
air pollution:
8.1. Wind direction and speed: The higher the
wind speed, the more rapidly the pollutants
would be carried away from the source and
concentration of the pollutants will set
decreased.
be
8.2. Atmospheric stabilify and temperature
inversions: The degree of stability of the
atmosphere depends upon the rate of change
of hmperature of the air with altitude.
a) Lapse Rate: The rate of change of
temperature of air with altitude is known as
Lapse rate" (Environmental Lapse Rate,
ELR). In the lower atmosphere (known as
troposphere) upto a distance of about ll km
above the earths surface, the temperature
decreases linearly with increases in altitude.
In the upper region of the atmosphere. which
is know as stratosphere which extends from
about 1l km to 32 km, constant temperature
prevails.
lrirupari lcmnrl Kulatraly(Hyd)
 Air Pollution and Conhol

Normal Air Layers

foooler air
luool ar
lw4'iyl
Thermal fnversion

Cool air

walm ar

G*-, o
o

Stopping of air circulation due

to thermal
d) Sub - Adiabatic Lapse Rate: When inversion
the
al lapse rate (ELR) is 8.3 Inversion: It is an atmospheric
condition in
the ELR is known as which a layer of warm aiitraps
cool air near
the surface of the^ earth thus preventing
parcer of air i,iii TJ11l"i.?'.;:l: the
'srns normal rising of surface iir. Therefore
quickly than its surroundings and hence it will pollutants will not disperse in
not be able to rise up to greater the air. Inverse
altifudes. Such is a frequent occurrence in the winter
a1 atmospheric condition is said
to bg ,stable, aufumn seasons. During inversion and
which is however, not favorable the
for effective atmosphere is said to be siable.
dispersion of the pollutants. It results in
It results in more pollution
more pollution.
8.4._ Precipitation:It cleans the atmosphere.
Rainfall removes the particulate
matter from
the atmosphere und also reduces the
concentration of gaseous pollutants
which one
soluble in water.
8.5. Humidity: It influences the
corrosive action
of the air pollutants and also fog
formation.
8.6. Plume: It is defined as the path taken by
gaseous effluents emitted
continuously from a
specific outlet such as chimney
or stack or
vent.

$:.
9. Suspended particulates and gaseous .'. Molecular weight of SOz,
contaminants.
Units: mass per unit volume
M: 32 + (2 x 16): 64
...micrograms perm3 (pg I m')or in ppm.
For gases, the ppm can be converted to
I us.lm3 =Mx10'
'2'4 ^ rPM
pg I m3 by the following formula
2oopglm3of so,' =22 !',?oro = o.oTPPm
pglri : ppmxgmolmassx 10' 64x10'
L/mol
2oopglm3of So, -22'4x2oo = o.35Ppb
Avogadro's law :
One mole of any one gas "64
occupies the same volume as one mole of any
other gas at the same temperature and Indian Air quality standards (8 hr exposure)
pressure.

At 273 I
"K (0 "C) and atm pressure (760
mm of Hg), the volume of gas
is22.4 L /mol.

To convert to litres per mole at other

Class Room Practice Questions
vrPr v2P2
conditions the formula is -
lT2 01. Most of the weather phenomenon take place
in the
Where Vr, Pr, and Tr relate to the above (a) Stratosphere (b) Mesosphere
conditions of 22.4 L /mol at 273 and 'K (c) Troposphere (d) Ionosphere
760mm of Hg.
02. The following is not an air pollution
Yz, Pz and Tz relate to the actual conditions equipment
being considered.
(a) Cyclone separators
(b) Electrostatic precipitators
(c) Venturi scrubbers
(d) Trickling filters

03. The dispersion of pollutants in atmosphere is

maximum when (GArE-07)
(a) environmental lapse rate is greater than
STP: adiabatic laps rate
^Sal.'At
(b) environmental lapse rate is less than
I PPM: +x103 pglm3 adiabatic laps rate
22.4
(c) environmental lapse rate equal to is
tppe=Ax pglm3 adiabatic laps rate
22.4 (d) maximum mixing depth is equal to zero.

HyderabadlDelhilBhopallhrnelBhubmeswlBengalmlLucknowlPatralChemilVifayawadalVizg lfnrpari lcunorl

 Acadcmy
Air Follution and Conhol
04. Two primary airpollutants are (GATE-07)
The correct match of Column I with Column
(a) sulphur oxide and ozone
II is
(b) nitrogen oxide and peroxyacetyl nihate.
Codes:
(c) sulphur oxide and hydrocarbon
(d) ozone and perodyacetyl nitrate
P aRS P aRS
(a)2 | 4 3 (b) 2134
05. Two electrostatic precipitators (ESps) are m
(c)13 2 4 (d) t342
series.The fractional efficiencies rf
the upstream and downstream ESps
for size
do are 80o/o and 650/o respectively.
What is the overall efficiency of the system
for the same do?
(a)r00% (b)e3% (c)80% (d)6s%
06. The mean indoor airborne Chloroform
(CHCI3) concentration in a room was

H - l, Cl : 35.5. This concentration

07. Particulate matter (fly ash) carried in effluent

gases from the furnaces burning fossil
fuels
are better removed by (GATE-09)
(a) Cotton bag house filter
(b) Electrostatic precipitator (ESp) (a) se 2 ttstm3^ (b) I ls.6 p[:#rE-ll)
(c) Cyclone (c) 237.s pstm3 @) s74.4 plekf
(d) Wet scrubber

08. Column I (cArE-0e)

P. Coriolis effect
Q. Fumigation
R. Ozone layer
S. Maximum mixing depth (mixing height) 12. Which one of the following pollutant
Column II (or)
pairs of , pollutants is formed due to
1. Rotation of earth
photochemical reactions. (ESE-10)
2. Lapse rate and vertical temperafure profile
(a) CO alone (b) Og and PAN
3.Inversion
4. Dobson
(c) PAN & NH3 (d) NH: & Co
 : 106: Environmental

13. Which one of the following plume behavior 17.The graph shows the relationship of
I
occur when atmospheric inversion begins lapse rates to the dry adiabiatic lapse
from the sround level and continues. under different conditions of stability. Ma
(ESE-10) stability situations A, B, C and D (as given
(a) Looping (b) Fumigation the graph) with the classes of stability
(c) Coning (d) Fanning follows:
1. Super adiabatic
14. Match List - I unity List - II and select the 2.Dry adiabatic
correct answer (ESE-02) 3. Sub adiabatic
List - I 4. Inversion
(Air pollution)
1.5
.9 ,^
A. SPM B. NO cdtr
>-v
C) \'
C. CO D. SOz fY\
1.0

List - II (harmful effect ion)

0.5
1. Blood hemoglobin
2. Vegetation
3. Respiratory system 9.8'C Temperature(oC)
4. Building materials
Select the correct answer using the
Codes: siven below. (ES
ABCD Codes:
(a)3 4 2 | AB CD
(b)4 3 2 1 (a)34 t2
(c)3 2 I 4 (b) 4 3 21
(d)r 4 3 2 (c)34 21
15.In urban air pollution the most poisonous gas (d)43 t2
is supposed to be CO it is hazardous because
(ESE-03) 18. Which one of the following palrs rs
(a) it affects our sense of smell currently matched? (ESE-05
(b) it is carcinogenic in nature Plume Atmospheric
(c) it combines with hemoglobin Behaviour Condition
(d) it causes blindness (a)Looping :Stable
(b)Fumigation : Inversion above and
16. Assuming annual travel for each vehicle to
- lapse below the stack
be 20000 km what is the quantity of NOx (c)Fanning : Inversion
produced from 50,000 vehicles with emission (d) Trapping :Inversion above and
rate of 2 gmlkslvehicle. below the stack with lapse
(a) 1800t (b) 1900 t in between.
(c) 2000t (d) 2100 t
 :107: Air Pollution and Contol

19. Which type of plume may occur during

winter nights? (ESE- 07)
(a) Looping (b) Inversion
(c) Coning (d) Lofting

20. Match List -I (Air pollutant) with List II

-
(Effect) and select the correct answer using
gas constant; Molecular Weight of SOr:64.
the codes given below the lists. (ESE- 08)
List - I (cArE-ls)
A. CO B. CO2 24.It was decided to construct a fabric filter.
c. so2 D. NO* using bags of 0.45 m diameter and 7.5 m
long, for removing industrial stack
List - II gas
particulates. The expected rate of
l. Acidrain 2. Acute toxicity 3^;Vontaining
airflow into the filter is l0 m3/s. rf the
10 m3lo Ifrho
3. Ozone liberation 4. Greenhouse efflect filtering velocify is 2.0 m/min, the minimum
Codes:
ABCD
(a)4 3 1 2
(b)4 3 21
(c)2 413
(d)3 4 r 2
. Elevation and temperafure data for a place are
tabulated below:

Elevation, m

4 21.25

444 ls.70

Based on the above data, lapse rate can be

referred as: (cArE_13)
(a) Super-adiabatic (b) Neutral
(c) Sub-adiabatic (d) Inversion

22. The two air pollution conhol devices that are

usually used to remove very fine particles
from the gas are (GATE_l4)
(a) Cyclone and venture scrubber
(b) Cyclone and scrubber
(c) Electrostatic precipitator and Fabric
filter
(d) Setting camber and tray
trav Scrubber
Scnrhher
Hydenbad I Delhi I Bhopal pune Bhubme
I I
 ACE
Eogin€cringAcad€my : 108: Environmental Engineering |'
28. It was decided to construct a fabric filter,
using bags of 0.45 m diameter and 7.5 m
long, for removing industrial stack gas
01. (c) (d)
02. (a) 0a. (c) 0s. (b)
03.
containing particulates. The expected rate of 06. (d) 07. (b) 08. (d) 0e. (a) 10. (c)
airflow into the filter is 10 m3/s. If the
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (d) la. (c) ts. (c)
filtering velocity is 2.0 m/min, the minimum
number of bags (rounded to nearest higher 16. (c) 17.(b) ls. (a) le. (b) 20. (c)
integer) required for continuous cleaning
operation is 2r. (a) 22. (c) 23.0.011268 24. (b)
(a)27 2e
(b) 31
(c) (d) 32 25.8012.38 26. 55.55 27.8012.38
(GATE -2016')
 Nore Pollution
a from 0.000OZN/# to 200N/m2. The sound
becomes louder as the pressure increases.
Characteristics of sound pressure at which the sound first becomes
The
measurement:
audible is known as threshold of hearing or
Sound
changes H::H
beginning of feeling of sound, which for a
normal healthy ear is about 0.00002
Sound form of (20 pPa).
N/m2
sinusoidal path as shown in the fig.
itude o2 P > cPOrtFa,
Ujtt/ The ratio of two pressures is known as sound
LI
E
f tt't'g
o ine PL= 20lo916 (P/P,"i)
o
E
o-
ttc Where, SPL : sound pressure level in
J decibel(dB);
oo-
The amplitude of the sound wave is measured
in units of pressure such as N/m2.
The equivalent pressure of the above sine
wave is represented by root mean square usually taken as the standaid--reference
pressure, pms. pressure.

When the sound

Example 1:
and of long durat
effect and such a
sound. When the sound waves are non_
and of short duration. thev
ing effect and such u ,ouni

The noises that pose the greatest threat to the Sol:1 pbar: 105 FPa
humal body are those with high pitch, high .'. 800 p bar: 800 x 105 ppa
amplitude and longest duration.
SPL in dB: 20 ton,^
-'"
I
Measurement of Sound: P"
The sound is measured in units called
dgbfugD. One db unit is approximately = 2ologro8ool<-105 = l32dB
ZU
the smallest change of sound intensitv which
the human ear is able to appreciate.
*
The pressure waves which our ears detect,
and thus classified as audible sound. ranse
Hyderabad I Delhi I Bhopa.l j pune Bhubanes
]
 Lp : The average value of various recorded The Leq concept: The parameter Leq
sound pressure levels at a pafircular place represents the sound pressure level (or noise
over a given period. level) which is equivalent to a number of
different sound pressure levels produced at a
ptacp.fot diffelenJ time intervals.
, r

Thus L.n is defined as that uniform value of

sound pressure level which over a given time,
will produce the same effect as is produced by
the flucfuating sound pressure levels over the
same time.

Sol: L, =2oros,,1f,o# +ro# .,0#l L"o: to r"c,, x ti)

JL I [irolt/,'
Where,
=91.36dB
L*: Equivalent sound pressure level in dB
n: total number of sound pressure levels
Some Typical Sound Levels: recorded
S.No. Source oflocation Sound Li: values of sound pressure levels recorded in
level in dB dB with i:1,2,3...... n
I City traffrc in busy street 70 ti : time duration of the different sound pressure
- levels expressed as a fraction of the total
2 Loud noise accompanying 120 measuring or recording time.
lighting
Effects of Noise:
a
J Aero plane noise at a 130 l. Noise has an influence on blood pressure, in
distance of 3 metres muscular strain
(paintul) It
2. leads to fatigue and consequently the
efficiency of persons decreases considerably.
The combined effect of different sound 3. Prolonged exposure to the noise may result
pressures lasting for different periods is
worked out by using some statistical measures
into temporary deafness or nervous
breakdowns.
such as LN and L.n systems.
4. Cardiac disturbances in human beings.
The L1,{ concept: The parameter LN
represents the sound pressure level
(or noise Effect of Noise In Human Beings:
level) that will be equaled or exceeded for No. Noise level Effect observed
N% of the measuring time. For example, if a in dB
sound pressure level (or noise level) of70 dB I 0 Threshold of audibilitv
is equaled or exceeded fbr 6A% of the 2 r2a Pain threshold
measuring time, the parameter Lr is 3 Major Permanent damage, if
represented as L66 and its value is 70 dB. i.e 190
prolonged
L6s:70 dB.
rng

- Acceptabte
Acceptable Noise
Noise Levels for different
L.q Structures:
rise 'l'?wts
No Type of building a )f r "rl,
of Acceptable noise d..0 ooo </fu
Lta level in dB
01. A.69 dB re: 20 1Fu n&j.oi"'llr##*ictlrr,r,,,0r{1l,l''?
- Auditoriums and withlnother 60 di rc: : Z.O,py"-;;#il;; t(ll,n

music rooms 35 to 40 the total noise level in dB re: , ZO prfu i,

of L
^ Small offices,
-court
(a) r20 @) 6) (c) 8a.ss (d) 60
l€, rooms,libraries 40 to 45
o
)y
;J. Schools 80 dB and other .,"ini"?: 1rrlt"'rt)
a,\'l;;ii
1e 4. Lafgp,,pr+plig gffices,
45 to 50 *::r*e
91t 60dB if put:nlitrTs
in the same location will producE ?ru.\^
banks and stores 50to60 I cf, a noise of
, (a) 1a0 dB
duo11/
5. Factories 60to65 I
(b) 80 dB
*7t
!"tqiUootr*
.{_tr.wl i ' u-'(c) 70 dB (d) 60 dB
eA
u\ 1
/
Depending upon the duration, the noises
ian sodP'
also be groupcd in the following three
types:

t. Continuous noise: It is an unintemrpted

sound level that varies less than 5 dB
during
the entire period of observation. A running level is t6/^rQt/'o
l+e%o+
fan is an exarnple of such a noise (a) s6.8 dB (b) 46 dB" 16 +2B+f;.3 +,ol''I
(c) 66 dB
l. Intermittent noise: It is a noise which
(d) none
continues for more than one second
and is 04. A noise level of
S0 dB lasting for llminutes
then intemrptcd for more than one second.
A r!; is followed by 60 dB for S0;inures and 100
drilling machine used by a dentist produces (r,'dB for 5gminutes
such type of noise one ater ttri other. What is
the equivalent continuous equal energy
. Impulse noise: It characteized by a change
L"q for the 95 minutes periodi
level
of sound pressure of at least 40 db within
0.50 - ",-i'.1-.l:'
. il
r 1...
. -.,io$
second with a duration of less than
one )5. The sound pressure level for a jet.plane
05
second. Noise produced from firing on the
of a ground with sound pressure of 2000p
weapon would indicate such type of bar
noise. shouldbe .,..,i;\'L
Following measures may be taken to have (a) 60 dB "1.,n't,,
(b) 100 dB r'
an effective control on the noise pollution: (c) 1a0 dB (d) 180 dB lf "
1. Design of doors and win^clows: The
excellent sound insulation is obtained
bv
06 What type of noise can be abated by
constructing glazed windows with doubll providing lining on walls and ceiling
with
or triple panes nf glass sound absorbing materials. (ESE-Os)
2. Enclosures: provide enclosures, shields (a) source noise
and barriers" so that some of the sound (b) reflection noise
waves are cut off from propagating (c) structural noise
3. Planting of trees: The piesenJ. oft., u.t (d) direct airborne noise.
barriers.
]

as noise I
 Eryirogq:ntal Engineering
07. Which one of the following is
the correct 10. A generator emitting g0 dB noise at a
sound intensity expression with usual distance
20 m away from it. If the distance is
notations (EsE -0s) doubled
noise level atthatlocation is ?
(a) dB: 10log1e (Il\)2
(b) dB: 10log1s (UIo)
(c) dB: l0lo916 (I-I"),
(d) dB: l0lo916 (I-Io) or.(b) 02.(b)@san
08. For nolse measurement
0s. (c) 06. (b) 07.(a) 0s. (a) 0e. (c)
formula for sound
P p 10.74 dB
pressure level (SpL) is 20loe,^ ",g1, :r'
oto .' e6
P..,
'
*4 tf,t-nt ..t S AC/ .r-r. ,-.".,rn
fr.o*-
What will be the resultant noise in dB p
if is ' .sg c{g,6'9 da q 66 d6' ,r!r. fild
0.0002 p bar.
(^)) 60 eo fuTftt,
(b) (c) nuto3.o,ut),i ','!(1-?.,',,
;
66-->65 - '(r-t''.
n,
61 *____. . ) ,
+oldihil, *f oln' 'gDooovb

i
-t1

o 0
-,.-. ..!N

L:
,tt t
lCen
^ F
'l -- ',i rtr / l'" /' .';!d
ttl i;6;4,,.,
.Ye I
;
!+
,r I
J,o,"l
= e(, " !,
90
?.
'lU
t

: 'r'g I lt"