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Impacts of 2 species of predatory Reduviidae on bagworms in oil palm

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 Insect Science (2016) 00, 1–10, DOI 10.1111/1744-7917.12309

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Impacts of 2 species of predatory Reduviidae on bagworms

in oil palm plantations

Syari Jamian1 , Ahmad Norhisham2 , Amal Ghazali3 , Azlina Zakaria4 and Badrul Azhar3,5
1 Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 2 Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff,
Wales, UK; 3 Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; 4 Sime Darby Research Sdn. Bhd., Banting,
Selangor, Malaysia and 5 Biodiversity Unit, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Abstract Integrated pest management (IPM) is widely practiced in commercial oil palm
agriculture. This management system is intended to minimize the number of attacks by pest
insects such as bagworms on crops, as well as curb economic loss with less dependency
on chemical pesticides. One practice in IPM is the use of biological control agents such
as predatory insects. In this study, we assessed the response of predatory natural enemies
to pest outbreak and water stress, and document the habitat associations of potential pest
predators. The abundances of 2 predatory insect species, namely Sycanus dichotomus and
Cosmolestes picticeps (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), were compared bagworm outbreak sites
and nonoutbreak sites within oil palm plantations. We also examined habitat characteristics
that influence the abundances of both predatory species. We found that the abundance of
C. picticeps was significantly higher in bagworm outbreak sites than in nonoutbreak sites.
There were no significant differences in the abundance of S. dichotomus among outbreak
and non-outbreak sites. Both species responded negatively to water stress in oil palm
plantations. Concerning the relationship between predatory insect abundance and in situ
habitat quality characteristics, our models explained 46.36% of variation for C. picticeps
and 23.17% of variation for S. dichotomus. Both species of predatory insects thrived from
the planting of multiple beneficial plants in oil palm plantations. The results suggest that
C. picticeps can be used as a biological agent to control bagworm populations in oil palm
plantations, but S. dichotomus has no or little potential for such ecosystem service.
Key words bagworms; beneficial plants; biological control; habitat quality; integrated
pest management; oil palm; predatory insects

Introduction 55% between 2001 and 2006 (see http://faostat.fao.org).

Rising global demand for palm oil has promoted oil palm
(Elaeis guineensis) as the world’s most rapidly expanding
crop (Laurance et al., 2010). Oil palm provides an
efficient and inexpensive resource for vegetable oil and
biofuel in the world market today (Fitzherbert et al., 2008;
Lam et al., 2009), with an increase in global production of
Correspondence: Badrul Azhar, Biodiversity Unit, Institute
of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor
43400, Malaysia. Tel: +603 8946 7206; fax: +603 8943 2514;
email: b_azhar@upm.edu.my

C 2015 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences
Due to this, commercial oil palm cultivation has
transformed many areas of arable lands into oil palm
plantation. In Malaysia alone, the area planted with oil
palm has increased from 1.8 million ha to 5.2 million ha
between 1990 and 2013 (see http://www.mpob.gov.my).
As the second largest producer of palm oil after Indonesia,
Malaysia contributed to 80.5% of global production, with
an export value of US$6.3 billion in 2004 (Koh & Wilcove,
2007). Apart from its importance for economy and food
security, oil palm plantations also show farmland biodi-
versity in terms of flora and fauna (Rice & Greenberg,
2000), although this may be limited to a small number of
species (Turner & Foster, 2009; Azhar et al., 2011).
1
2 S. Jamian et al.
With the increasing rate of oil palm expansion, insect
pest infestation such as bagworms (such as Metisa plana
Walker and Pteroma pendula Joannis), nettle caterpillars
(Setora nitens), and the rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes spp.)
in oil palm plantation has become a primary concern
among stakeholders (Foster et al., 2011). Bagworms have
been recognized as the most destructive insect pest in the
oil palm plantations of Peninsular Malaysia (Basri et al.,
2001; Rhainds et al., 2002; Norman & Basri, 2010).
Infestations of early instar larvae cause defoliation,
becoming worse as the larvae grow. Larger populations
cause more extensive damage and infestations become
more intense in oil palm monocultures (Ho, 2002).
The use of chemical pesticides has proven to be
ineffective as they promote pest resistance and eliminates
beneficial insects such as pollinators and predators
(Cheong et al., 2010). Predatory insects are known to be
an excellent tool for the biological control of insect pests
(Pimentel et al., 1992; Cardinale et al., 2003; Fazal et al.,
2012). Insects such as parasitoids and hemipterans serve
an important role in regulating bagworm and caterpillar
populations in oil palm plantations (Basri et al., 1995;
Norman & Basri, 2007; Cheong et al., 2010). Currently, 6
hemipteran species have been reported as potential preda-
tors in oil palm plantations in Peninsular Malaysia, namely
Cosmolestes picticeps (Yusdayati, 2008), Callimerus
arcufer (Basri et al., 1996), Sycanus dichotomus (Jamian
et al., 2011), Andrallus spinidens, Platynopus melachan-
tus, and Cantheconidea furcellata (Khoo & Chan, 2000).
Integrated pest management (IPM) is a series of
essential strategies which provide a long-term prevention
of pests while limiting environmental damage (Kogan,
1998). IPM systems keep pest populations below
damaging levels via insects or other animal and plant
management tactics with minimal environmental impacts
(Romoser & Stoffolano, 1998; Wood, 2002). Successful
implementation of IPM systems in oil palm plantations
has been reported by Caudwell (2000). Preserving
beneficial and nontarget organisms is an important part
of the system. However, propagation and establishment
of natural enemies such as predators and parasitoids
are dependent on flowering plants, as flowering plants
support higher biodiversity and provide an important
source for insect foraging activity (Donald, 2004; Ellis
et al., 2005). With regard to this, to increase predatory
insect populations such as C. picticeps and S. dichotomus,
beneficial plants such as Turnera subulata, Cassia coba-
nensis, Antigonon leptopus, and Euphorbia heterophylla
are commonly planted alongside roads within oil palm
plantations.
Diversity of crop plants and proper strategies can influ-
ence species richness in agricultural landscapes (Donald,
2004). Populations of predatory insects maybe increased

C 2015 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 00, 1–10
by introducing flowering plants at the edges of oil palm
plantations (Wilcove & Koh, 2010). However, there is no
clear evidence that the presence of beneficial plants im-
proves the population abundance of predatory insects in
oil palm plantations. Previous studies have shown that the
presence of beneficial flowering plants in tropical agroe-
cosystems can increase the abundance of natural enemies,
including parasitoids (Wratten et al., 2002). A study by
Basri et al. (1999) reported that flowering plants may pro-
long adult parasitoid life spans. Efforts are being made to
quantify the usefulness of nectariferous plants in encour-
aging natural predatory insect populations, but results are
thus far inconsistent (Ho & Teh, 1999). Little is known
about the response of predatory insect populations to fluc-
tuations in potential prey species. It is thus important to
determine the benefits of flowering plants for predatory
insects so that efforts maybe more focused on their use in
oil palm plantations.
Maintenance of predatory insect populations as biolog-
ical control agents requires assessment of habitat quality
to distinguish which characteristics support higher pop-
ulations of predatory insects. Thus, this study proposes
the 3 following research questions to investigate the pop-
ulation response and habitat associations of predatory in-
sects in oil palm plantations: (i) how do the abundances of
predatory insects respond to non-outbreak and bagworm
outbreak areas? We predicted that predatory insect abun-
dance might be greater in bagworm outbreak areas than
in nonoutbreak areas because the population outbreaks
of bagworms would increase the abundance of predatory
insects; (ii) how do the abundances of predatory insects
respond to water stress? We predicted that predatory insect
abundance might be lower at sites without standing water;
and (iii) to what extent does habitat quality characteristics
influence predator abundance in oil palm plantations? We
predicted that predatory insect abundance might be influ-
enced by aspects of particular vegetation structures, such
as ground vegetation coverage and number of beneficial
plant species.
Materials and methods
Study site
We surveyed 4 oil palm plantations, namely South-
ern Perak estate (3797.27 ha) in the state of Perak
(N 03°48 45.09 , E 101°00 56.01 ), Bukit Talang estate
(4 428 ha) in the state of Selangor (N 03°23 58.4 , E
101°18 94.2 ), Bukit Senorang estate (1628.10 ha), and
South East Pahang estate in the state of Pahang (N 03°07
04.3 , E 102°24 48.0 and N 03°05 23.5 , E 102°24
53.7 ) (Fig. 1). Plantations were defined as large-scale oil

Fig. 1 Map showing location of the study areas and 100 tran-
sects in the states of Perak (A), Selangor (B), and Pahang (C).
palm cultivation areas covering more than 50 ha each, and
were managed by private businesses (Azhar et al., 2011).
To maintain high yield of oil palm fruit bunch, agrochem-
icals such as pesticides and fertilizers are commonly used
by managers in oil palm plantations. In addition, conven-
tional plantations are characterized by modern facilities
and infrastructure, such as paved roads, perimeter fences,
worker settlements and mills.
Outbreak sites were defined by the presence of at least
10 bagworm larvae per frond (Wood, 2002). This is the
pest population density at which control measures should
be initiated to prevent an increasing pest population from
reaching the level of economic injury (Stern et al., 1973).
Southern Perak and South East Pahang estates were identi-
fied as outbreak sites. These estates were typically sprayed
with chemical pesticides (i.e., Cypermethrin) to control
bagworm populations. However, there was no insecticide
intervention throughout this study period.
Insect sampling
We conducted sampling on clear days (without rains
or heavy clouds) from 0700 to 1100 h and again from
1500 to 1800 h by traversing slowly along straight line-
transects that spanned 100 m. We established 100 tran-
sects alongside plantation roads, with 50 transects at
each treatment (outbreak sites versus nonoutbreak sites).
Each transect was spaced 100 m apart to ensure inde-
pendence of observations. We surveyed each transect
3 times. There were 40, 10, 10, and 40 transects at South-
ern Perak estate, Bukit Senorang estate, South East Pa-
hang estate and Bukit Talang estate, respectively (Fig. 1).
To sample adult predatory insects, we used a sweep net

C 2015 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 00, 1–10
Predatory insects in oil palm agriculture 3
and visual identification. Sweep netting was standardized
using a set number of back-and-forth sweeps (between 10
and 20) approximately 1 m in length taken every other
pace while walking at a consistent speed through the veg-
etation (Ausden & Drake, 2006). Predator species were
identified based on their morphological characteristics,
while the number of each species was recorded. This study
was carried out from September 2013 to Jun 2014.
Water stress, vegetation characteristics, and beneficial
plants
Water stress was determined based on the presence
or absence of standing water on sites. Standing water
was characterized as any man-made source of water of
greater than 50 cm depth, including ponds, drain wa-
ter, and reservoirs. We measured and counted 4 local
habitat quality characteristics at each transect. We com-
pared these factors among outbreak and nonoutbreak sites
as well as among sites with standing water and with-
out standing water. We counted the number of beneficial
plants planted by plantation management. The coverage
of ground vegetation was estimated in a rectangle plot of
100 m2 (length × width = 100 m × 1 m) on all tran-
sects. The height of ground vegetation was measured,
taking 4 measurements per transect. In terms of floristic
composition, ground vegetation cover comprised benefi-
cial plants (e.g., Antigonon leptopus, Turnera subulata,
Asystasia gigantica, Cassia cobanensis, and Euphorbia
heterophylla), grasses (e.g., Paspalum conjugatum and
Centosteca lappacea), broadleaves (e.g., Croton hirtus
and Mikania micrantha), ferns (e.g., Nephrolepis biser-
rata and Dicnopteris linearis), and woody shrubs (e.g.,
Clidemia hirta, Lantana camara, and Melastoma mala-
bathricum). The number of beneficial plant species at
each transect was recorded.
Oil palms may grow to heights of 18 m or greater. The
trunks of young and mature palms are overgrown with
epiphytes. On the other hand, the older palms are charac-
terized by smoother trunks. We used a laser rangefinder
to determine the height of palm trees. Height measure-
ment was determined from the base of oil palm to the top
(base of fronds). The height of oil palm stand was taken
at intervals of 25 m. Water stress was determined by the
presence or absence of standing water at study sites. This
categorical variable was determined in the surrounding
area of transect (within the radius of 10 m).
Statistical analysis
We performed a Shapiro–Wilk’s test to check for nor-
mality in the abundance of predatory insects. Abundance
4 S. Jamian et al.
Table 1 Statistical summary of habitat variables that were measured or counted from 100 transects (50 in each type of site) and each
repeated 3 times. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the variables between outbreak sites and nonoutbreak sites. Visit was used as
a block.
Outbreak site
Habitat variable
Mean SD
Ground vegetation coverage (%) 77.33 15.40
Height of ground vegetation (cm) 128.6 21.39
Height of oil palm stand (m) 3.388 1.004
Richness of beneficial plant 2.373 0.909
data were square-root transformed prior to inferential
analysis. To answer our first and second hypothesis, we
performed one-way ANOVA to compare the abundance of
predatory insects among bagworm outbreak and nonout-
break plantations (Zar, 1999; Quinn & Keough, 2002).
We used different visits as blocks in the analysis. We
also used unbalanced design ANOVA to compare the ef-
fects of different times of day (morning survey = 191
times; afternoon survey = 109 times) and water availabil-
ity (absence of water = 126 times; presence of water =
174 times) on predator abundance. The means of abun-
dance were predicted using regression models. To test for
the interaction between water availability and outbreak
status, we performed a two-way ANOVA test.
To address the second hypothesis, we used General
Linear Models (GLMs) (Schall, 1991). We developed
a predictive model for each species of predatory insect.
In each model, insect abundance was used as dependent
variable. The independent variables were richness of ben-
eficial plants, mean height of ground vegetation, mean
height of oil palm, and coverage of ground vegetation.
To deal with collinearity, we removed predictor variables
from the models if correlations were strong (|r|> 0.7,
where r is the coefficient of correlation) (Dormann et al.,
2013). We used Poisson distribution and log-link function
to fit the data. Visit month was used as an absorbing
factor in the analysis. The best models were selected
based on R2 . All statistical analyses were conducted in
GenStat 12 (VSNI Hemel, Hempstead, UK).
Results
Habitat quality at sites with different levels of outbreak
status and water availability
There was a significant difference in each habitat
variable among outbreak sites and non-outbreak sites
(Table 1). All habitat variables, with the exception of

C 2015 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 00, 1–10
Nonoutbreak site
F value P value
Mean SD
52.25 22.61 96.67 <0.001
85.04 27.60 227.12 <0.001
6.414 1.430 313.82 <0.001
1.78 0.850 36.09 <0.001
oil palm stand height, differed significantly among sites
with and without standing water (Table 2).
Predatory insect populations in outbreak sites
and nonoutbreak sites
We recorded a total of 1230 individuals belong-
ing to 2 species of predatory insects, namely Cosmo-
lestes picticeps (n = 1045) and Sycanus dichotomus
(n = 185). As expected, we found that the abundance
of C. picticeps was significantly higher (df = 1; F =
28.49; P < 0.001) in bagworm outbreak sites (mean ±
SE = 4.96 ± 0.472 individuals) than nonoutbreak sites
(mean ± SE = 2.007 ± 0.240 individuals) (Fig. 2). Dif-
ferent visits had no effect on the species abundance (df =
2; F = 1.35; P = 0.261). However, our results revealed
that the abundance of S. dichotomus (df = 1; F = 2.34;
P = 0.127) in bagworm outbreak sites (mean ± SE =
0.673 ± 0.0833 individuals) did not differ significantly
with nonoutbreak sites (mean ± SE = 0.56 ± 0.0919 indi-
viduals) (Fig. 2). The species abundance was significantly
affected by different visits (df = 2; F = 20.95; P < 0.001).
The abundances of C. picticeps and S. dichotomus were
not influenced by different times of day (df = 1; F =
2.83; P = 0.094 and df = 1; F = 2.90; P = 0.090, re-
spectively). Our analysis indicated that the presence of
standing water was important to C. picticeps (df = 1; F =
178.01; P < 0.001). The abundance of C. picticeps was
greater at sites with no water stress (mean ± SE = 4.052 ±
0.006 individuals) than at those with water stress (mean ±
SE = 0.160 ± 0.008 individuals). Similarly, the abun-
dance of S. dichotomus was significantly greater (df =
1; F = 176.97; P < 0.001) at sites with no water stress
(mean ± SE = 0.612 ± 0.001 individuals) than those with
water stress (mean ± SE = 0.004 ± 0.002 individuals).
The interaction between the explanatory variables
water availability and outbreak status was significant
(df = 1; F = 18.51; P < 0.001); hence, that water
 Predatory insects in oil palm agriculture 5

Table 2 Statistical summary of habitat variables that were measured or counted from 126 dried sites and 174 water-available sites.
Unbalanced design ANOVA was used to compare the variables between sites with standing water and without standing water. Visit was
used as a block.

Dried site Water-available site

Habitat variable F value P value
Mean SD Mean SD

Ground vegetation coverage (%) 64.80 11.82 64.79 28.57 5.72 0.017†
Height of ground vegetation (cm) 88.97 31.94 119.7 27.11 91.13 <0.001‡
Height of oil palm stand (m) 5.085 2.264 4.768 1.689 0.06 0.814§
Richness of beneficial plant 1.373 0.517 2.586 0.820 224.36 <0.001¶
†
Predicted means ± SE for site without standing water and site with standing water are 63.68% ± 1.047% and 55.21% ± 1.039%,
respectively (computed from regression model).
‡
Predicted means ± SE for site without standing water and site with standing water are 82.98% ± 1.027% and 116.68% ± 1.023%,
respectively (computed from regression model).
§
Predicted means ± SE for site without standing water and site with standing water are 4.496 ± 1.043 m and 4.438 ± 1.036 m,
respectively (computed from regression model).
¶
Predicted means ± SE for site without standing water and site with standing water are 1.332 ± 0.0005 and 2.509 ± 0.0003, respectively
(computed from regression model).

availability effects on the abundances of C. picticeps

were not the same for both outbreak status levels, and
outbreak status effects on the abundances of C. picticeps
were not the same for the 2 levels of water availability. In
contrast, the interaction between the explanatory variables
water availability and outbreak status was not significant
for S. dichotomus (df = 1; F = 3.65; P = 0.057).

Important habitat quality characteristics for determining

predatory insect abundance

For C. picticeps, our model explained 46.36% of vari-

Fig. 2 Abundances of Sycanus dichotomus were similar in non-
outbreak and outbreak sites. In contrast, abundances of Cosmo-
lestes picticeps differed significantly among non-outbreak and
outbreak sites.
ations in the data. All predictor variables were important
for maintaining populations of C. picticeps in oil palm
plantations (Fig. 3). Specifically, we found that the abun-
dance of C. picticeps increased with increasing height
of ground vegetation (slope = 0.02125; Wald = 261.1;
P < 0.001). Richness of beneficial plants increased the
abundance of C. picticeps (slope = 0.3668; Wald = 103.4;
P < 0.001). Site with tall oil palm had lower C. picticeps
abundance (slope = -0.1354; Wald = 57.1; P < 0.001).
The abundance of C. picticeps increased with increasing
ground vegetation coverage (slope = 0.00860; Wald =
24.7; P < 0.001).
The second model accounted for 23.17% of the
variations that explained the relationships between S. di-
chotomus and predictor variables. Similar to C. picticeps,
population levels of S. dichotomus in oil palm plantations
were determined by 4 predictor variables (Fig. 3). We


C 2015 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 00, 1–10
6 S. Jamian et al.

Fig. 3 Responses of Sycanus dichotomus and Cosmolestes picticeps to multiple vegetation structure characteristics. Both predatory
insects require similar habitat qualities in oil palm plantations.


C 2015 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 00, 1–10

found that the richness of beneficial plants increased the
abundance of S. dichotomus (slope = 0.4538; Wald =
43.71; P < 0.001). Similar to C. picticeps, the abundance
of S. dichotomus decreased with increasing height of oil
palm (slope = -0.3399; Wald = 31.97; P < 0.001). The
abundance of S. dichotomus increased with increasing
height of ground vegetation (slope = 0.004056; Wald
= 10.73; P = 0.001). We also found that the abundance
of S. dichotomus increased with increasing ground
vegetation coverage (slope = 0.002089; Wald = 6.42;
P = 0.011).
Discussion
Responses of predatory insect populations to bagworm
infestations
Our study has indicated that abundance of C. picti-
ceps was higher in bagworm outbreak sites than non-
outbreak sites. There was also no significant difference in
S. dichotomus among bagworm outbreak sites and non-
outbreak sites. This reflects the fact that C. picticeps is
a major predatory insect for bagworm infestation in oil
palm plantations. Similar results were also discussed in a
study by Cheong et al. (2010), the C. picticeps proved to
be a significant predator of bagworms as it was observed
attacking P. pendula.
Both species of predatory insects responded negatively
to water stress. This stress occurred due to the absence
of standing water in oil palm plantations. The natural
source of water in most plantations is typically rainfall.
The demand for water may exceed the available amount
during a certain period or when poor quality restricts its
use. Water stress may affect the growth of the plants, in-
directly affecting the insect community. Hence, rainfall
might influence the abundances of both C. picticeps and
S. dichotomus. Our analysis has confirmed that the avail-
ability of standing water in oil palm plantations is vital for
predatory insects. Similar results were shown in a study
by Zhu et al. (2014), in which changes in the amount
of rainfall significantly affected the diversity, abundance,
and trophic structure of the insect community in the stud-
ied area. The abundance of C. picticeps was significantly
lower at water stressed sites as predicted. The results are
also consistent with studies conducted by Cheong et al.
(2010) and Chung and Sim (1991), in which the num-
ber of outbreak cases of bagworms showed a significant
increase in a relatively high rainfall period and not nec-
essarily in dry months. Greater amount of food equals a
greater number of predatory insects, as their prey resource
is plentiful. Nonetheless, water management is one of the

C 2015 Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 00, 1–10
Predatory insects in oil palm agriculture 7
most critical aspects of oil palm plantation management.
Oil palms require a lot of water to ensure good growth
and fruit yield; hence, an unstable supply of water can
create unnecessary stress to the oil palms and adversely
affect their productivity. Moreover, pest insects may attack
drought-stressed oil palms.
Effects of in situ habitat quality characteristics on
predatory insect abundance
Our results have indicated that the abundances of C. pic-
ticeps and S. dichotomus increased with the richness of
beneficial plants. The findings seem to be consistent with
other research which found beneficial flowering plants
such as C. cobanensis and T. subulata are able to attract
natural enemies of bagworm (Ho, 2002; Yusdayati et al.,
2014). These host plants provide refuge and nectar for nat-
ural enemies. By planting various beneficial plants in oil
palm plantations, oil palm growers will be less dependent
on chemical pesticides to control bagworm populations.
Because some of the beneficial plants are not perennial
species (e.g., C. cobanensis), such plants require continu-
ous replanting. Alternative host plants (e.g., T. subulata)
should be planted as well during the absence of annual
species (Yusdayati et al., 2014).
The abundances of C. picticeps and S. dichotomus de-
creased with height of oil palm stands. It is likely that
some individuals were captured around ground vegetation
while others escaped into oil palm canopy. Similar results
have been shown in a study conducted by Pierre and Idris
(2013), in which the weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina,
was used instead of hemipterans to reduce bagworm infes-
tation. Based on their results, field surveys carried out on
oil palm plantations in Peninsular Malaysia have shown
the presence of ants in short and young palms. This is
also supported by a study (Lowman, 1985), in which trees
with young leaf situated closer to the ground experienced
a higher herbivory activity by insects in the rainforest of
Australia. In addition, both predatory insects mostly con-
trol bagworm populations in shorter oil palms. Height of
oil palm tree indeed plays a major role in determining the
abundance of predatory insects in oil palm plantations.
This study also indicates that shorter oil palms have a
greater chance of surviving bagworm infestation, as the
abundance of predatory hemipterans was higher near such
trees than the taller oil palms.
Both hemipteran species also show increased abun-
dance with increasing coverage of ground vegetation.
Ground vegetation cover can provide predatory insects
with alternative sources of food, shelter, and oviposition
sites (McEwan et al., 2005). Therefore, ground vegetation
8 S. Jamian et al.
cover is essential for maintaining predatory insect abun-
dance. Habitat quality characteristics such as ground veg-
etation coverage, height of oil palm stands, and number
of beneficial plant species influence the predatory insect
abundance in oil palm plantations. These habitat quality
characteristics must be considered by oil palm growers
for maintaining a steady number of predatory insects in
the plantations.
Our study is the first to have investigated the responses
of predatory insects to bagworm outbreak and water
stress in oil palm plantations. We also examined habitat
characteristics, particularly vegetation structures, which
may be important for maintaining the populations of
predatory insects in these plantations. The study find-
ings have improved understanding of predatory insects
and their role for keeping oil palm plantations free from
bagworm outbreaks. Our findings provide new insights
into how to maintain predatory insect levels in oil palm
plantations. In order to use natural predatory insects as
biological control of pest insect populations, the main-
tenance of local habitat complexity and farmland biodi-
versity are is in plantation management as well as IPM.
Stakeholders should manage oil palm plantations so that
the plantations become more favorable to agents of bio-
logical control such as predatory insects.
Acknowledgments
We wish to thank A. Jambari, N. L. Ibrahim, and M.
Syafiq from Universiti Putra Malaysia for assisting this
project at the study sites. This project was supported by
the RUGS Initiative 6 scheme (Project no. 9327100). We
are also grateful to the estate managers and staffs of Sime
Darby Plantation, Southern Perak, and United Malacca
Berhad for permitting us to access study sites within the
oil palm estates. S. Jamian and B. Azhar conceived the
research idea, designed the study, and performed analyses.
S. Jamian collected data at the study sites. All authors
discussed the study results and wrote the manuscript. We
also thank J. Vafidis for revising the final draft.
Disclosure
The authors have declared that no competing interests
exist.
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Accepted December 2, 2015