TECTO-126746; No of Pages 15

Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Tectonophysics

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The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active
faulting in a low-deformation region within a major river environment
Carolina Canora a, Susana P. Vilanova a,⁎, Glenda M. Besana-Ostman a,1, João Carvalho b,
Sandra Heleno a, Joao Fonseca a
a
Centro de Recursos Naturais e Ambiente (CERENA), Instituto Superior Técnico (IST), Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1., 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
b
Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia, Estrada da Portela, Bairro do Zambujal Apartado 7586-Alfragide, 2610-999 Amadora, Portugal

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Active faulting in the Lower Tagus Valley, Central Portugal, poses a significant seismic hazard that is not well
Received 6 January 2015 understood. Although the area has been affected by damaging earthquakes during historical times, only recently
Received in revised form 13 August 2015 has definitive evidence of Quaternary surface faulting been found along the western side of the Tagus River. The
Accepted 15 August 2015
location, geometry and kinematics of active faults along the eastern side of the Tagus valley have not been
Available online xxxx
previously studied. We present the first results of mapping and paleoseismic analysis of the eastern strand of
Keywords:
the Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone (LTVFZ). Geomorphological, paleoseismological, and seismic reflection studies
Active faulting indicate that the Eastern LTVFZ is a left-lateral strike-slip fault. The detailed mapping of geomorphic features and
Paleoseismology studies in two paleoseismic trenches show that surface fault rupture has occurred at least six times during the
Intraplate region past 10 ka. The river offsets indicate a minimum slip rate on the order of 0.14–0.24 mm/yr for the fault zone.
Reflection seismology Fault trace mapping, geomorphic analysis, and paleoseismic studies suggest a maximum magnitude for the
Iberian Peninsula Eastern LTVFZ of Mw ~ 7.3 with a recurrence interval for surface ruptures ~1.7 ka. At least two events occurred
after 1175 ± 95 cal yr BP. Single-event displacements are unlikely to be resolved in the paleoseismic trenches,
thus our observations most probably represent the minimum number of events identified in the trenches.
© 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction
Active faulting within major river valleys poses a seismic hazard
which, given the concentration of both infrastructure and population typ-
ically located in such environments, is often associated with a significant
seismic risk.
The Lower Tagus Valley (LTV) is an NNE–SSE trending valley located
in the southwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula. It includes part of
the Lisbon Greater Area — the most developed and densely populated
region of Portugal. According to the most recent studies, the LTV dis-
plays the highest levels of both seismic hazard (e.g., Vilanova and
Fonseca, 2007; Giardini et al., 2014) and seismic risk (Silva et al.,
2014) in Portugal.
Several destructive earthquakes have affected the valley during his-
torical times. Some of the earthquakes that caused serious damage and
many casualties along the valley have been associated with the Lower
Tagus Valley Fault Zone (LTVFZ). However, both the location and the ki-
nematics of the LTVFZ remained elusive and controversial for decades:
the fault has been considered a left-lateral fault by Fonseca (1989) and
Fonseca and Long (1991), a thrust fault by Cabral (1993), and a normal
fault by Ribeiro et al. (1996). Recently, Besana-Ostman et al. (2012) pro-
vided the first compelling evidence of active left-lateral faulting along
the western side of the Tagus River, herein called the Western LTVFZ.
The current paper extends the results of Besana-Ostman et al. (2012)
to the eastern side of the Tagus River and aims to shed some light into
the nature of the fault zone and its characteristics.
We describe the deformational style and paleoseismic history of the
newly mapped eastern fault traces, herein called the Eastern LTVFZ. This
study involved 1) geomorphic mapping of active fault scarps and offset
landforms; 2) paleoseismic trenching across fault scarps in order to
establish the timing of past surface fault displacements; and 3) acquisi-
tion of P-wave seismic reflection data to study the fault geometry at
depth. Both fault traces and data from the trenches were used to
evaluate possible rupture scenarios and earthquake magnitude and re-
currence. We have also analyzed offsets observed along the drainage
network in order to obtain a minimum slip rate for the fault. Our
study contributes new data that are essential for the evaluation of
seismic hazard in the region.

2. Overview of the regional tectonic setting

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 218419214.
E-mail address: susana.vilanova@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (S.P. Vilanova).
1
Present address: Seismology, Geomorphology and Geophysics Group, Bureau of The Iberian Peninsula is located within the Eurasian plate, close to its
Reclamation, US Department of the Interior, Denver, Colorado 80225, United States. southern boundary with the African plate (Fig. 1a). While the central

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
0040-1951/© 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
2 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. a) General tectonic setting showing the location of the study area. The major intraplate faults depicted are: PRVF — Penacova–Régua–Verin Fault; MVBF — Manteigas–Vilariça–
Bragança Fault; NF — Nazaré Fault; LTVF — Lower Tagus Valley Fault; MF — Messejana Fault; b) instrumental seismicity since 1960 showing magnitudes ML ≥ 1 according to Carrilho
et al. (2004), updated up to 2013 with data from Instituto Português do Mar e Atmosfera; and c) high intensity datapoints (intensities larger than VIII–IX) for 1531 earthquake
(MSK scale; diamonds) and 1909 earthquake (MM scale; circles) according to Justo and Salwa (1998) and Teves-Costa and Batlló (2011), respectively.

portion of the Azores-Gibraltar plate boundary is well defined by the
Gloria dextral transform fault, west of 14°E the boundary becomes com-
plex and diffuse and exhibits transpressional tectonics. The present-day
convergence rate between the Eurasian and African plates has been es-
timated as 4–5 mm/yr (e.g., DeMets et al., 2010; Fernandes et al., 2003).
Continuous geodetic data show that Iberia behaves as a rigid-block with
respect to Eurasia, with mean-root-square misfit of site velocities of
0.85 mm/yr (Fernandes et al., 2007).
The basement of Iberia, known as the Iberian Massif, is composed of
Precambrian and Paleozoic rocks, accreted together due to the
Hercynian orogenic processes that took place during the Carboniferous
(e.g., Ribeiro et al., 1979). A dense network of long NNE–SSW to NE–SW
trending faults, formed during the Late Carboniferous, dissects the
Western Iberian Massif (e.g., Arthaud and Matte, 1977). These faults
have been reactivated in subsequent tectonic regimes. During the
extensive tectonics associated with the Atlantic rifting event in the
Mesozoic, the Hercynian faults controlled the location of the basins
(e.g., Wilson, 1975; Masson and Miles, 1984). This set of basins includes
the Lusitanian Basin and The Lower Tagus Basin, the latter of which
comprises our study area. The Lusitanian basin was structurally inverted
in the Cenozoic during compressive tectonics related to Eocene Alpine
orogenic processes and again during Africa–Eurasia convergence from
Late Miocene onwards (Curtis, 1993, 1999).
Some of the inherited basement faults in western Iberia are consid-
ered to be active in the current stress regime. Active tectonic studies in-
dicate that the Manteigas–Vilariça–Bragança fault, a 250 km-long
sinistral strike-slip structure located in NE Portugal (Fig. 1a) is active;
using a 3-D trenching technique Rockwell et al. (2009) estimated a

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3

long-term slip rate of 0.3–0.5 mm/yr for the central segment of the fault.
Custódio et al. (2015) show that some basement faults are clearly
delineated by present-day low magnitude seismicity.
Jimenez-Munt et al. (2001) included major strike-slip faults within
western Iberia (including the Nazaré fault, LTV fault and Messejana
fault; see locations in Fig. 1a) in a thin-sheet neotectonic model of the
Azores Gibraltar plate boundary. Although the faults have been inaccu-
rately represented in the model, Jimenez-Munt et al. (2001) estimate
that such structures could accommodate 0.1–0.2 mm/yr of left-lateral
slip. In a more detailed model of the Ibero-Magrebian region, Negredo
et al. (2002) obtained left-lateral slip rates on the order of 1 mm/yr for
the same set of faults.
3. Geology and seismotectonics of the LTV
The LTV, depicted in Fig. 2, is part of the Lower Tagus Cenozoic Basin
(LTCB). The LTCB is located on the southeastern flank of the Lusitanian
Basin, a NNE–SSW-striking inverted Mesozoic trough with Jurassic
rocks that reach a maximum thickness of 5 km (Curtis, 1993; Curtis,
1999). The LTCB is composed of Tertiary sediments (Paleogene to
Pliocene), Pleistocene fluvial terraces and Upper Pleistocene to
Holocene alluvial cover (e.g., Cabral et al., 2013).
The LTV area has experienced significant seismicity, characterized
by a few large historical earthquakes such as the poorly documented
1344 Mw 6.7 earthquake, the 1531 Mw 6.9 earthquake, and the

Fig. 2. Regional geology and active fault traces of the LTV. Geologic map adapted from Serviços Geológicos de Portugal (1992). The rectangular area indicates the location of Fig. 3.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
4 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

1909 Mw 6.0–6.3 Benavente earthquake (Mezcua, 1982; Moreira, 1985,
1991; Oliveira, 1986; Vilanova and Fonseca, 2007). The 1531 earth-
quake is assumed to be located within the LTV based on damage distri-
bution (Fig. 1c). It caused severe damage and many casualties along the
LTV, with maximum Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) IX spanning
over 70 km (e.g., Moreira, 1979, 1984; Mezcua, 1982; Oliveira, 1986;
Henriques et al., 1988; Justo and Salwa, 1998). The most recent signifi-
cant earthquake in the region occurred on April 23, 1909 (Choffat and
Bensaude, 1912; Fonseca and Vilanova, 2010; Teves-Costa and Batlló,
2011). A maximum MMI intensity of X was reported for this event
(Teves-Costa and Batlló, 2011), and the damage was concentrated in
the vicinity of Benavente town, located 40 km NE of Lisbon (Fig. 1c).
The earthquake caused 47 fatalities, serious property damage in three
villages, and extensive liquefaction within the Tagus alluvial sediments.
Based on the limited number of instrumental records available, the pre-
ferred moment tensor solution for the 1909 earthquake was a reverse-
fault mechanism with a NE–SW strike and a magnitude of Mw 6.0
(Stich et al., 2005).

Fig. 3. Local geology overlaid onto five-meter resolution Digital Terrain Model (DTM). Black thick lines represent active traces mapped in the Almeirim section and red hachures indicate
downthrown side. Black thin lines represent the present drainage network. Rectangular area indicates the location of Fig. 4. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Geologic map adapted from Serviços Geológicos de Portugal (1952).

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

The LTV experienced no significant seismic activity during the last
five decades when modern seismic instrumental recording was avail-
able (Fig. 1b). Notably, most of the dispersed seismicity in the region
is located around the LTV region (Vilanova and Fonseca, 2004) with
only a few micro-earthquakes located within the valley and down to a
depth of 20 km (Fonseca and Long, 1991).
4. The Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone
Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone (LTVFZ) traditionally refers to a NNE–
SSW trending tectonic structure loosely located within the LTV (Fig. 2)
associated with at least two historical events: the 1531 Lisbon earth-
quake and the 1909 Benavente earthquake (Fig. 1c). Deep seismic
data show the existence of a major fault that affects the Moho under
the LTV (Mendes-Victor et al., 1980). The fault zone is considered to
be the reactivation of a major structure that was formed during the
Laurasia and Gondwana collision during the Carboniferous (Arthaud
and Matte, 1977). Interestingly, published local geological maps in this
region (e.g., Serviços Geológicos de Portugal, 1952, 1977, 1999) do not
show any tectonic structure along the LTV except for NE–SW trending
faults that cut through Jurassic and Miocene lithologies in the vicinities
of Vila Franca de Xira, Azambuja, and Santarem. On the other hand, the
neotectonic map of Ribeiro and Cabral (1988) includes a long and recti-
linear NNE–SSW fault along the LTV with an unknown dip and a
downthrown northwest block. This lineament was interpreted in
Landsat images and was not confirmed on higher resolution satellite
images. However, the index map of the 1:500,000-scale geologic map
shows an outline of a probable Quaternary active thrust fault
transecting the LTV (Serviços Geológicos de Portugal, 1992).
Geomorphological evidence for faulting in the LTV has been previ-
ously explored using a neotectonic approach (Cabral, 1995; Cunha
et al., 2005). Despite these efforts, the location, fault parameters, and
kinematics for the LTVFZ remained controversial and poorly
constrained. Recent investigation by Besana-Ostman et al. (2012)
supported the idea that active faulting controls the relatively linear val-
ley along the Lower Tagus River. Besana-Ostman et al. (2012), using
geomorphological techniques, produced the first map of active fault
traces within the LTV. In that work the Western LTVFZ is mapped as
an approximately 80-kilometer long strike-slip structure that transects
Miocene to late Quaternary deposits. Geomorphic features mainly

Fig. 4. Fault traces and the paleoseismic trench sites at the central Almeirim section along the Eastern LTVFZ over the five-meter resolution DTM. Also shown are the fault traces (red lines)
and the approximate location of the acquired seismic profile (black line) shown in Fig. 13. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
6 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

observed on Quaternary and Holocene alluvial deposits indicate recent
faulting and left-lateral displacements.
4.1. The Eastern LTVFZ
The newly mapped fault traces of the Eastern LTVFZ are shown in
Fig. 2. These are the first Holocene fault features identified on the east-
ern side of the LTV. The identified geomorphic features that are associ-
ated with active faulting include fault scarps, tectonic bulges, tectonic
depressions, and laterally displaced streams. The Eastern LTVFZ has a
trend more or less parallel to that of the faults previously mapped by
Besana-Ostman et al. (2012) for the Western LTVFZ. The Eastern
LTVFZ traces also exhibit left-lateral strike-slip movements based on
their morphological expressions (Fig. 2).
The Eastern LTVFZ was mapped and identified in the following
areas: Chamusca, Vale de Cavalos, Alpiarça, Almeirim, Gloria, Salvaterra,
and Benavente (Fig. 2). The analysis presented in this paper will focus
on the central Almeirim section.
4.2. Central Almeirim section
At the Almeirim section, the active fault trace is about 8 km long and
trends N10°E to almost NS in the southern portion with scarps and
scarplets that predominantly face west. Fault displacements were ob-
served on both Holocene and Pleistocene age river terraces and alluvial
deposits (Fig. 3). These deposits overlie Mio-Pliocene formations (Serra
da Almeirim sandstone and conglomerates and Fazendas de Almeirim
Complex, Zbyszewski, 1953), which are probably the supply materials
of the fluvial terraces. Some secondary traces were also suspected to
contribute to strain accommodation. Despite both the high-level of an-
thropogenic modification in the area and the low slip rate of the fault
that hinder the preservation of morphotectonic markers, several subtle
geomorphic features indicative of Quaternary fault activity were identi-
fied along this section. These features include ponded areas, fault scarps,
triangular facets, shutter ridges, and offset river channels as highlighted
in Figs. 3 to 6 and 9. In the study area we recognize the formation of
V-shaped valleys and triangular facets in the Pleistocene materials,
due to erosion and fault displacement (Fig. 4). The left lateral movement
along the fault has resulted in a shutter ridge morphology that has
blocked the fluvial drainage, causing it to deviate, and producing a
ponded area on the northern side of the ridge (Fig. 5). In addition, the
drainage network that crosses the fault is systematically offset by left
lateral movement (Fig. 12), and several present-day valley floors were
identified as potential sites for paleoseismic investigations, due to a
moderate rate of sediment deposition that facilitates the preservation
of paleoseismic evidence.
5. Data and methods
We have performed a detailed study of the geomorphology and
structure of the Almeirim section using 1:30,000 scale aerial photos
from 1946 to 1950 coupled with field reconnaissance and mapping
using 1:25,000 scale topographic maps. We mapped the fluvial network
along the Almeirim section of the fault using stereoscopic analysis of
1:18,000 scale aerial photographs. We compared our geomorphological
maps with both published 1:50,000 scale geologic maps, and the
neotectonic map of Cabral (2012). Field investigations were mainly un-
dertaken on selected sites in order to 1) confirm the presence of
geomorphotectonic features, and 2) perform detailed mapping of the
local geology (Fig. 3). Two trenches located at the Almeirim section
were analyzed with paleoseimological methods. The 2 m-deep trenches
varied in length from 13 m to 20 m and were excavated perpendicular
to the fault trace. We installed a 1-m grid on the walls of the trenches,
marked the materials and structures with colored pins and then logged
the deformation recorded at the trenches at a scale of 1:20. We also
photographed the walls of the trenches and created a photomosaic to
assist the paleoseismic interpretation.
Dating deformed units is essential for constraining the age of the
paleoearthquakes. We used an absolute dating method – radiocarbon
dating of organic materials – to constrain the age of geologic units
exposed in the trenches and hence the age of past earthquake displace-
ments. The results, methodology and laboratory used for the radiocar-
bon analysis are summarized in Table 1.
In order to investigate the fault geometry at depth a P-wave seismic
reflection profile was acquired in the vicinity of the Alorna trench (see
Fig. 4 for location). The profile was oriented approximately perpendicu-
lar to the fault trace, on a small road with a very hard, compacted surface
covered by pebbles. An accelerated 250 kg weight-drop was used as
seismic source, and 48 sensors spaced 3.5 m apart were used to record
the wavefield. The nearest receiver was 4 m away from the source, as

Fig. 5. a) Aerial photograph for a small area of the southern Almeirim section. The left-lateral horizontal movement of the fault offset a local fluvial channel (white line), and produces a
ponded area. b) Photo showing the same area as Fig. 5a, facing NE. The fault displacement produces the rising of the southern block and forms a shutter ridge.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

Fig. 6. a) Photo showing the location of Alorna paleoseismic trench and the fault scarp, facing E. b) The fault and the trench site are indicated.

determined by walk-away noise testing. Source and receiver move-up
was 3.5 m, providing a nominal fold of 18. The data were sampled at
0.5 ms during 1000 ms.
Out of the 48 receivers, only 36 receivers were used during process-
ing in order to simulate an end-on common-midpoint (CMP) geometry
with a constant fold along the line. The fold represents the multiplicity
of coverage for a stacked seismic section. This procedure prevented ar-
tifacts related to fold variations that might be misinterpreted as fault
during the analysis. Seismic data preprocessing consisted of frequency
filtering and muting, which was followed by main processing that
involved FK filtering, spectral whitening, residual statics correction,
velocity analysis, CMP stacking, integral dip-moveout (Hale, 1984) and
post-stack time migration. For stacking and depth conversion, a 1D ve-
locity function was used based on a detailed velocity analysis in order to
avoid artifacts generated by the velocity field across the fault plane.
6. Paleoseismic investigations
The objectives of the paleoseismic investigations at the Almeirim
section were twofold: 1) to determine the recent earthquake history
of the fault, and 2) to characterize the deformation style of the fault.
During the trenching activities, one major difficulty was the presence
of a shallow water table, probably due to Almeirim's proximity to the
Tagus River and other tributaries. The shallow water table affected the
sites even during dry season, and limited the depth of the excavated
trenches. The trench sites selected for the paleoseismic studies along
the Almeirim section are shown in Fig. 4. These sites were selected
based on the identified river offsets and geomorphological features
like shutter-ridges, ponded areas and fault scarps on Holocene deposits.
The recent rupture history along this fault was ascertained using the in-
formation obtained in those trenches. The timing of the earthquakes
was constrained by identifying and dating stratigraphic units that
have been displaced along the fault. The age of stratigraphic units
present in the trenches was obtained by radiocarbon dating of organic
samples (Table 1). The age of both non-displaced and displaced
stratigraphic units associated with each surface rupture event was
used to resolve the possible age range of the fault rupture(s).
6.1. Trenching analysis
6.1.1. The Alorna trench
The Alorna trench (located at 8°36′20″W, 39°9′46″N) was excavated
at the base of a hill, across a ~ 0.5 m scarp and parallel to a small stream
channel (Fig. 6). The fault activity at this site interfered with the stream
drainage and created the scarp and a related triangular facet and low
ponded area. The 20 m-long and 2 m-deep trench exposed a set of frac-
tures consisting of three main vertical fault planes (faults 6, 7 and 16 in
Fig. 7) with multiple secondary planes (Figs. 7, 8). Most of the faults
have nearly vertical planes, with the exception of faults 5 and 8, which
display dip angles of ~ 45° (see Fig. 7). This structure is typical for
strike-slip faults where moderately dipping structures connect two ver-
tical fault planes. Most faults cut through the oldest materials (Units A to
E1) but do not affect Unit E. Only faults 6, 7 and 14 cross through Unit E
and, of those, only faults 6 and 7 affect Unit F. The movement of some of
the faults displaces and rotates the pebbles in Unit E (faults 2, 7, 14 and
16, Fig. 7). The faults in the Alorna trench have a vertical displacement of
about 10 cm.
The stratigraphy exposed at the Alorna trench (Figs. 7 and 8) in-
cludes fluvial Tagus deposits (units A, B1, B2 and B3). This formation is
correlated with that described as “Facies unit 2” by Vis and Kasse
(2009) and includes fine-grained well-sorted sandy clays interbedded
with unsorted gravels with clay matrix. These sediments have been in-
termittently deposited under subaerial conditions in low energy envi-
ronments. Sedimentation started in a proximal floodbasin that
gradually transformed into a levee, in a single-channel fluvial system.
Radiocarbon dating of this formation indicates deposition before
10190–9740 cal BP (Vis and Kasse, 2009). Above these deposits are
the sands and gravels of the Tagus river terraces (Units C and D), unsort-
ed coarse sands and gravels with planar morphology that have been de-
posited in high-energy environments corresponding to the river

Table 1
Radiocarbon sample ages for the trenches units from this study.

Sample Laboratory N° 13C/12C ratio Convectional radiocarbon age (yr BP) 2σ cal yr BP Calibrated age 2σ cal yr BP

S2 Beta-367295 −25.4 7160 ± 40 8020–7940 6070–5980 BC

S3 Beta-367296 −26.1 7390 ± 40 8330–8160 6380–6210 BC
S5 Beta-367297 −24.0 1510 ± 30 1510–1340 AD 440–610
S7 Beta-367298 −25.7 3980 ± 30 4520–4410 2570–2460 BC
S8 Beta-373600 −24.6 1250 ± 30 1275–1080 AD 675–870

Conventional radiocarbon ages before present (AD 1950). Ages are mid-point 2σ range. Laboratory: Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
 8
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation

C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 7. Alorna trench logs. The log of the North Wall is mirrored. See text for description and Figs. 4 and 6 for location. S2, S3, S5, S7 and S8 correspond to samples processed for C-14 dating. Red numbered lines indicate the mapped traces on the trench
walls, dashed when inferred. Q2, Q3, Q4 and Q5 correspond to paleo-earthquakes identified in the trench (see text for details). Identified portions of the trench walls are shown in photos in Fig. 8. (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 9

channel bars. These units are overlain by unsorted gravels and coarse
sands, which become slightly thinner towards the top (Unit E1). The
base of this sediment has been deposited in a high-energy environment
with sloping angles. Towards the top, there are interbedded fine sands
and wet levels suggesting an increased sedimentation rate (Unit E).
There is evidence of periods of sub-aerial deposition in low energy envi-
ronments. Sedimentation probably took place by overflow deposits ag-
gradation. Above this fine sand one paleosol (Unit F) has been
developed with apparent colluvium (Unit F1). Charcoal samples from
Unit E yielded an age of 8245 ± 85 cal yr BP at the base and 7980 ±
40 cal yr BP towards the top. The colluvium, on the other hand, yielded
an age of 4465 ± 55 cal yr BP. Unit F was dated using a charcoal sample
that indicates an age of 1425 ± 85 cal yr BP. In the middle of the trench
and probably associated with fault ruptures, Unit F yielded an age of
1175 ± 95 cal yr BP. The topmost and youngest units in the trench include
a gravel deposit (Unit G) on top of the paleosol F and Unit H that represents
the current topsoil with apparent disturbance from agricultural activities.
6.1.2. The Alorna-South trench
The Alorna-South trench site (Fig. 9), located at 8°36′34″W,
39°9′19″N, has similar characteristics to that of the Alorna trench
site. The Alorna-South trench was excavated at the base of a hill fronting
a triangular facet and crossing a small fault scarp about a half meter high
(Fig. 9). The trench was 14 m long and ~2 m deep and exposed a large
number of vertical fault planes over a wide zone that displace the
whole exposed stratigraphic sequence (Figs. 10, 11). Some of the faults
coalesce into a single plane with depth. A small number of faults affect
only the fluvial Tagus deposits (faults 26, 27 and 29 in Fig. 10). Another
set of faults affect both fluvial Tagus deposits and the Tagus river ter-
races sediments (faults 7, 17, 18, 23, 24 and 25 in Fig. 10). The remaining
faults (Fig. 10) affect all stratigraphic layers observed in the trench, in-
cluding the topsoil. It seems that the most recent deformation is located
to the west in the Alorna-South trench.
The stratigraphy found in the Alorna-South trench is very similar to
that exposed in the Alorna trench and most of the units are directly cor-
related (Figs. 10 and 11): both A and B units belong to the fluvial Tagus
deposits while Units C1 to C4 are Tagus river terraces deposits. More
gravels were observed in the Alorna-South trench than in the Alorna
trench, which suggests that the former is cutting though higher energy
fluvial terrace channels. Units D and E of the Alorna-South trench can be
directly correlated with Units E and G of the Alorna trench, respectively.
The vertical displacements observed in the Alorna-South trench are
about 40 cm.
6.2. Fault style and earthquake history
The trenches show several vertical fault planes that extend over a
wide area (Figs. 7, 8, 10 and 11). The vertical displacement is on the
order of tens of cm, which is relatively small and indicates that the
LTVFZ has a predominantly strike-slip component of displacement.
However, due to limited age information and a lack of other trenches
for comparison, it is difficult to determine individual rupture events
and the rupture characteristics of each earthquake. Therefore, it is not
possible to obtain slip rate from these two trenches.
We develop a composite rupture history for the Eastern LTVFZ based
on the Alorna and Alorna-South trench interpretations. We identify six
ruptures in the last ~ 10 Ka. Based on the information from the trench
logs the oldest event (Q1), shown in Fig. 10, displaces the fluvial Tagus
deposits. Q1 is dated shortly after the deposition of this unit,
10190–9740 cal BP. The second event (Q2) affects the fluvial Tagus de-
posits and Tagus river terrace deposits. The timing of the Q2 event is
older than the Aeolian sand (8245 ± 85 cal yr BP) and younger than
the fluvial Tagus deposits (10190–9740 cal BP). The third event (Q3)
is best constrained in the Alorna trench and is represented by displace-
ments in the Aeolian sand. The timing of the event is younger than the
age of the Aeolian sand (8245 ± 85 cal yr BP) and older than the collu-
vium Unit F1 in the Alorna trench with an age of 4465 ± 55 cal yr BP. The
next event (Q4) is observed on the south wall of the Alorna trench. Q4
displaced the Aeolian sand creating the colluvium (Unit F1), which con-
strains the age of this event. The fifth event (Q5) is identified in the
Alorna trench by displacements in the paleosol (Unit F). The age of
this event is younger than the paleosol unit (post-1175 ±
95 cal yr BP). The most recent event (Q6) is represented by displace-
ments of all the units exposed in the Alorna-South trench including
the topsoil (Figs. 10 and 11). The timing of this event could be very
young, most probably the nineteenth or twentieth century. The topsoil
(Unit F) was dated but unfortunately the results indicate that the ana-
lyzed material had more 14C age than the modern reference standard;
therefore the dating of this unit is unreliable and was not used in this
study.
6.3. Slip rate
Fault slip-rate estimates for the Eastern LTVFZ were determined
from the Almeirim section on the basis of river and stream offsets.
This analysis provides horizontal displacements of the fault over long
time periods. Lateral offsets of streams along the fault trace were

Fig. 8. Photos showing details of the deformation at the Alorna trench (see Fig. 7 for the approximate location on the log); a) South Wall: the deformation includes several displaced units,
standing pebbles, and an apparent colluvium (upper left and the unit F1 in Fig. 7) that represents paleoearthquake Q4; b) North Wall: the deformation includes several displaced units, a
truncated gravel layer (Unit E1 in Fig. 7) and a fault plane defined by standing pebbles. The photo of the North Wall is mirrored to facilitate the comparison with the corresponding log in
Fig. 7. The grid size is 1 m × 1 m.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
10 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

identified through aerial photo analysis and using a 5 meter resolution
DEM. In addition, we have conducted field investigations at Almeirim
in order to verify the geologic and geomorphic interpretations of the ae-
rial photos. The geometry of streams across a strike-slip fault zone is
often complex and to measure the offsets it is necessary to match the
upstream and downstream channels correctly. The fault mainly dis-
places the drainage network developed on the Tagus river terraces.
These Quaternary materials are dated to be approximately 300 ka in
the vicinity of Chamusca (Martins et al., 2009) and between ca. 150
and 100 ka BP in the vicinity of Alpiarça (Mozzi et al., 2000). However,
Mozzi et al. (2000) are not very confident in the ages obtained because
they are close to the upper dating limit for the methodology used. As-
suming that these dated materials are comparable to those at Almeirim,
which is likely considering the similar environmental conditions and
the proximity, we have two different possibilities for calculating the
slip rate for the Almeirim fault trace depending on the age.
We developed two different potential scenarios to account for
fault displacement. In the first scenario, the streams transected by the
Eastern LTVFZ in Almeirim show left-lateral horizontal displacements
of ~40 m (Fig. 12b). These offsets, together with the age of the river ter-
races on which the drainage network was developed, yield a minimum
slip rate of ~0.14 mm/yr, if we consider the Martins et al. (2009) data.
Assuming the age reported by Mozzi et al. (2000) for the river terraces
sediments, the slip rate would be ~0.27–0.4 mm/yr. The second scenario
involves displaced streams with lateral offsets of ~ 75 m (depicted in
Fig. 12c), which would yield an approximate slip rate value of

Fig. 9. a) Photo showing the location of Alorna-South paleoseismic trench, facing E. b) Photo showing the fault scarp in the vicinity of the Alorna-South trench, facing NNW. c) Same as b but
the fault scarp is indicated.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 11

Fig. 10. Alorna-South trench log at the Almeirim section of the Eastern LTVFZ. The log of the South Wall is mirrored. See text for description and Figs. 4 and 9 for location. Red numbered
lines indicate the mapped traces on the trench walls, dashed when inferred. Q6 probably corresponds to the most recent paleoearthquake identified in the trench. Identified portions of the
trench walls are shown in photos in Fig. 11. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

~0.24 mm/yr considering the Martins et al. (2009) age of the river de-
posits, and a slip rate of ~ 0.5–0.75 mm/yr if we consider the Mozzi
et al. (2000) data.
It should be noted that these slip rate calculations correspond to
minimum values and are based on small portions of the Eastern
LTVFZ. The faults in the Iberian Peninsula are typically in the range
of 0.05 to 0.3 mm/yr (Bell et al., 1997; Martínez-Díaz and
Hernández-Enrile, 2001; Cabral et al., 2004; Masana et al., 2004;
Booth-Rea et al., 2004; Carvalho et al., 2006; Silva et al., 2003; Vernant
et al., 2010; García-Mayordomo et al., 2012; Martínez-Díaz et al.,
2012; Ortuño et al., 2012; Cabral et al., 2013). In that context, our slip
rate results are more consistent with those obtained for most faults on
the Iberian Peninsula if we consider the age given by Martins et al.
(2009). On the other hand, Rockwell et al. (2009) report a relatively
higher long-term slip rate (0.3–0.5 mm/yr) for another long NNE–
SSW striking left-lateral strike-slip fault in western Iberia — the
Vilariça–Manteigas–Bragança fault.
6.4. Earthquake recurrence interval and maximum magnitude
Based on the limited trench data, it can be surmised that the mean
recurrence interval for surface ruptures along the Eastern LTVFZ is
about 1700 years over the last 10 ka and that the fault behavior is
non-periodic. This mean recurrence value is similar to that proposed
by Besana-Ostman et al. (2012) for the Western LTVFZ based on the
1.1 mm of net left-lateral slip along the fault calculated by Negredo
et al. (2002) and assuming 2 m of slip per event.
To estimate the maximum expected magnitude associated with the
seismic rupture of the Eastern LTVFZ, the length of the mapped trace
was used rather than the slip per event observed at the trenches

Fig. 11. Photos showing details of the deformation at the Alorna-South trench (see Fig. 10 for the corresponding location on the log); a) North Wall: the deformation includes several
displaced units, and a fault plane defined by standing pebbles and boulders; b) South Wall: the deformation includes several displaced units and standing boulders; the fault plane affects
the topsoil (paleoearthquake Q6 in Fig. 10). The photo of the South Wall is mirrored to facilitate the comparison with the corresponding log in Fig. 10. The grid size is 1 m × 1 m.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
12 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

because: 1) the uncertainty associated with the observed values of slip
per event is large, and 2) the slip is distributed among several fault
planes so that the total value cannot be well constrained.
Vilanova et al. (2014) estimated a value of 24 km for the seismogenic
thickness of the LTV region based on the 95% cutoff depth of well-
located seismicity. Smith-Konter et al. (2011) showed that for most
segments of the San Andreas Fault System the seismogenic thicknesses
calculated as the 95th percentile of depth distribution and geodetically
constrained locking depths are in agreement within 2 km. We therefore
used rupture-width bounds of 22–27 km for the LTVFZ.
The total length of the Eastern LTVFZ is 70 km, which corresponds to
a magnitude Mw 7.3–7.4 using the empirical relationship proposed by
Hanks and Bakun (2008) for strike-slip faults at slow-moving plate
boundaries. Values of Mw 7.5–7.6 are obtained using the Stirling et al.

Fig. 12. a) Aerial photograph and contour lines over five-meter resolution DTM for the central Almeirim section showing the influence of the LTVFZ on the local drainage pattern. The left-
lateral horizontal movement of the fault offset of the main rivers (white lines). b) The restoration of the geometry of the drainage system shows a cumulative offset of 40 m for the rivers
indicated with an arrow. c) The restoration of the geometry of the drainage system shows a cumulative offset of 75 m for the rivers indicated with an arrow.

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 13

(2008) fault-scaling relations. The equations in Stirling et al. (2008) are

width-limited scaling relations for reverse and oblique-slip earthquakes
for use in low slip rate or immature tectonic regions. Using the Anderson
et al. (1996) empirical relationships for strike-slip faults in stable conti-
nental areas and the general equations of Wells and Coppersmith
(1994) for surface rupture area we obtained magnitudes of Mw 7.2–7.3.
An alternative scenario is a coseismic rupture of the segment that
extends from Almeirim to Chamusca. South of the Almeirim section, a
step-over in the fault trace could act as a possible barrier for the propa-
gation of a rupture. In this case, the fault length would be around 40 km,
which corresponds to a magnitude Mw 7.2–7.3 using the relationship of
Stirling et al. (2008), and Mw 7.0-7.1 according to the other aforemen-
tioned empirical relationships. It is however important to note that
fault segments observed at the surface have only a moderate to low like-
lihood of representing earthquake segments as defined by McCalpin
(1996).

7. P-Wave reflection seismology

A P-wave seismic reflection profile was acquired in the vicinity of the

Alorna trench in order to investigate the fault geometry at depth (see
Fig. 4 for location).
Time-migrated and depth-converted stacked sections are shown in
Fig. 13a with a fault interpretation overlain on the depth section. Both
sections suggest the presence of several shallow fault segments in a
structural pattern indicative of strike-slip faulting (Tün et al., 2010;
Gold et al., 2013). We followed the methodology proposed by Ghose
et al. (2013) to confirm the presence of the interpreted faults. This
methodology allows for recognizing the presence of faults with small
vertical offsets by identifying spatially coincident P-wave velocity
changes and perturbations in the shot and Common Mid Point (CMP)
gathers. Fig. 13b shows the horizon velocity analysis (HOVA) for three
reflection events in the stacked sections. Seismic horizons are chosen
from a stacked section and a time window around the automatically
picked peak amplitude at these horizons is fixed. The semblance value
for the chosen reflection event in each CMP gather is then estimated
for various stacking velocities. Several sharp velocity changes are placed
at similar locations of interruptions in the stacked section reflection
events. Shot gathers (Fig. 13c) show perturbations in the reflection hy-
perbolae and clear changes in amplitude at the same locations. These
observations, taken together, support the presence of strike-slip faults
in the study area.

8. Discussion and conclusions

The existence of an active fault along the LTV has been long postulat-
ed in order to explain the significant historical seismicity in the region.
However, only recently has definitive evidence of the fault trace been
reported for the Western LTVFZ (Besana-Ostman et al., 2012). In this
paper, we present the first published evidence for the existence of the
active Eastern LTVFZ.
Geomorphological, paleoseismic, and reflection seismology studies
indicate that the Eastern LTVFZ is a left lateral strike-slip fault capable
of generating surface-rupture earthquakes of M ≥ 7.2. Similar fault kine-
matics were previously suggested by Fonseca (1989) and Fonseca and
Long (1991) based on sparse seismotectonic data.
Paleoseismic studies using trenching and 14C dating provide insight
into the rupture history of the fault. Data from trenches reveal evidence
for at least six surface rupture events in the last c. 10 ka, which corre-
sponds to a mean recurrence interval of 1700 yr over that time period.
The truncated cumulative exponential model used for the LTV in
Vilanova and Fonseca (2007) gives recurrence times on that order of
magnitude for Mw in the range of 6.5–6.7.
The youngest event is interpreted to affect the currently developing
soil. This youngest event could correspond to the Mw 6.9 1531 earth-
quake, although the damage distribution suggests a rupture on the
Fig. 13. Reflection seismology studies in the Almerim section; a) time migrated seismic
section and depth converted seismic section (using processing velocities) overlaid with
fault interpretation; b) horizon velocity analysis (HOVA) for the three reflection events
identified with dashed lines in the depth stacked section showing sharp velocity changes
at some locations; c) field shot gathers showing perturbations in the reflection hyperbolae
and changes in amplitude (marked by arrows and respective distance in m indicated) at
coincident locations with velocity changes and perturbations in the stacked sections.
Western LTVFZ (Besana-Ostman et al., 2012). Alternatively, this youn-
gest rupture might correspond to the triggered local event following
the great 1755 Lisbon earthquake, as suggested by Vilanova et al.
(2003). However, both the clarity of the fault scarp and the apparent
deformation of the uppermost soil layer suggest an even younger occur-
rence date. Although no surface rupture was reported for the thorough-
ly studied Mw 6.0 1909 Benavente earthquake, it is possible that the
associated ground rupture was overlooked considering the widespread
liquefaction phenomena. The magnitude of this event is probably close
to the lower-bound magnitude that can be detected in a trench. It is

Please cite this article as: Canora, C., et al., The Eastern Lower Tagus Valley Fault Zone in central Portugal: Active faulting in a low-deformation
region within a major river environment, Tectonophysics (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2015.08.026
14 C. Canora et al. / Tectonophysics xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
essential to retrieve reliable dating for this event in the future in order to
either confirm or dismiss these hypotheses.
The lateral stream offsets in Almeirim indicate minimum slip rate
values of 0.14 to 0.24 or 0.5 to 0.75 mm/yr depending on the ages as-
sumed for the landscape. We were unable to identify a single surface
rupture event for the Eastern LTVFZ based on the analysis of small
river displacements. LIDAR images, which are currently being acquired
for the LTVFZ, will allow for a more accurate mapping of both river
and morphotectonic features in order to further constrain both the
slip rate and the seismic history of the fault.
The recency of events observed in the trenches combined with the
slip rate estimates reported herein suggests relatively long recurrence
intervals. On the other hand, the absence of low magnitude earthquakes
in a region affected by large historical earthquakes could indicate that
the LTVFZ may be strongly coupled and accumulating stress.
Long temporal records for major fault systems show that in most
cases earthquake recurrence is far from periodic. This is particularly
true for structurally complex faults that display multiple parallel strands
that can redistribute stress after an earthquake (e.g., King et al., 1994;
Rockwell and Klinger, 2013). Stein et al. (2009) suggest that fault inter-
action may be the key to understanding intraplate faults, which due to
the absence of a significant rate of tectonic loading tend to act as com-
plex systems with the migration of earthquakes within fault systems.
More detailed geomorphological and paleoseismic studies in this region
are therefore needed to better understand the behavior, slip rate and re-
currence of the LTVFZ.
Based on the mapped LTVFZ, the fault system appears to be highly
disconnected and probably structurally and geometrically immature.
Hence, the geometric discontinuities at the surface may not be signifi-
cant barriers to rupture propagation at depth. If this assumption is cor-
rect, there is a high probability that the LTV may produce large
earthquakes of Mw N 7 in the future. This possibility, together with the
fact that the LTV region is the most populated and developed region of
SW Iberia, presents a scenario wherein central Portugal is exposed to a
significant seismic risk.
Acknowledgments
The Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT)
funded this work through research project FINDER (PTDC/CTE-GIX/
113866/2009), Excellence Research Line project SEICHE (EXCL/GEO-
FIQ/0411/2012). The second author (S.P.V.) acknowledges FCT for her
contract n° IF/01561/2014/CP1214/CT0006 under IF2014 Program.
S.H. acknowledges FCT for her research grant SFRH/BPD/84796/2012.
CERENA research unit is funded by FCT through strategic project UID/
ECI/04028/2013.
We are grateful to the owners of Quinta da Alorna and to Eng.
Gustavo Caetano, for giving us access and permission to dig the trenches
inside their property. Patricia Pinheiro and Luís Pinto provided signifi-
cant support while preparing and performing the fieldwork.
Mohammad Fouroutan and Elisa Nemser provided valuable comments
on the final version of the manuscript. Bento Caldeira, the PI of project
ATESTA (PTDC/CTE-GIX/099540/2008) in the framework of which the
seismic data were acquired is also greatly acknowledged.
Finally, we would like to acknowledge the contributions of Editor-
in-chief Kelin Wang, Brian Sherrod, and an anonymous reviewer,
whose critical comments greatly improved the manuscript.
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