18. Cartesian product of two sets: i. Let A and B be two non-empty sets. The cartesian product of A and B denoted by AB is defined as the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a ¢ A and be B Symbolically, A x B= {(a,b):a € Aandb ¢ BY Similarly, Bx A= {(b,a):b¢ Banda e A) eg IfA = {1, 2,3} and B= {x, Ax B= (1,2), (1,3). (2.3). and Bx A= {(x, 1), 0 1, (2) 19. 20. be B,c € C, then we form an ordered triplet (a, b, c). The set of all ordered triplets (a, b, ¢) is called the cartesian product of these sets A, B and C. ie, A x Bx C ={(a, b,c): a € A, be B, Cc Order of A x Bz i, Ifo(A)= mand o(B)= n, then o(AxB)= mn ii, 1fA=6,B=9,thenAxB=6 iii, IfA=9,B= {a,b,c}, thenAxB=6 Similarly, IfA= {a,b,c}, B=, then AxB=$ Some results on cartesian products of sets: i Ax(BUC)=(AxB)U(A xO) i, Ax(BO C)=(AxB)9 (AxC) iii, A x(B-C)=(AxB)-(Ax©) iv. (Ax B)A(CxD)=(ANC)x (BOD) vy. IfAGBandCcD, then (AxC)c(BxD) vi. ACB, then AxAG(AxB)O(Bx A) vii, If A and B are non-empty subsets, then AxB=BxA@A=B. viii. If ACB, then (A x C) <(B x C) Relations from a set A to a set B; A relation (or binary relation) R, from a non- empty set A to another non-empty set B, is a subset of A x B. ie. REAxBorRc {(abiaeA,beBy Now, if (a, b) be an element of the rel then we write a R b (read as‘a" is related to *b) ie,@b)eReoaRb In particular, if B = A, then the subsets of Ax A are called relations from the set A to A, i.e. any subset of A x A is said to be a relation on A. eg i Let A={1, 3, 5, 7) and B={6, 8}, then R be the relation “is less than’ from A to B is IR, IRS, 3RG, 3R8, SRG, SRE, TRE R= {(1, 6), (1, 8), 3, 6), 3, 8), (5, 6), (5, 8), (7, 8)} ii, Let A= {1, 2,3, -..0 34), then R be the one fourth of on A is 20, 6R24, relation IR4, 2R8, 3R12, R16, 7R28, R32 = {(1, 4), 2.8), 3, 12), 4, 16), (5, 20), (6, 24), (7, 28), (8, 32)} Number of possible relations from A to B: If A has m elements and B has n elements, then A x B has m x n elements and total number of possible relations from A to B is Domain and Range of a relation: i, Domain of | ie, if R a relation from A to B, then et of first clements of ordered pairs led the domain of R. ji, Range of R= {b: (a,b) € R} ie. if R is a relation from A to B, then the set of second elements of ordered pairs in R is called the range of R. eg. IfR = {(4, 7), (5, 8), (6, 10)} is a relation from the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} to the set = {6,7,8,9, 10}, then domain of R = (4, 5, 6) and range of R= {7, 8, 10). Scanned with CamIfR = A x B, then domain of RCA and range of R. CB. The domain as well as range of the empty set 9 is 6. IFR isa relation from the sct A to the set B, then the set B is called the co-domain of the relation R. ive., Range c Co-domain. Inverse relation: If R is a relation from a set A to a set B, then the inverse relation of R, to be denoted by R', is a relation from B to A. Symbolically, = {(b,a) :(a, b) © R} Thus,(a, b) € Re (b,a)ER'VacAbeB i, Domain (R') = Range (R) and Range (R') = Domain (R) fi, (R'Y'=R eg. IER= {(1, 2), G, 4), (3, 6)}, then Rt= (2,1), 4,3), (6, 5)} RY" = (1,2), 4), 6, 6)} = Here, domain (R) = {1, 3, 5}, range (R) = {2, 4, 6} and domain (R™ range (R Clearly, dom (R™!) (R) and range (R"') = dom (R) Universal relation: A relation R in a set A is called the universal relation in A ifR=A x A. eg. IfA= {a,b,c}, then AX A= {(a, a), (a,b), (a, ©). (b, a), (b, o) (b, b) (c, a), (c, b), (€. 8} is the universal relation in A. Identity relation: A relation R in a set A is called identity relation in A, if R= {(aa):ae A}=Iy eg. IPA = {a, b,c), then I, = {(a, a), (b, b), (C, ¢)} Void relati Arelation R in a set A is called void relation if R=. % Various types of relation: Let A be a non-empty set, then a relation R on Ais said to be i. Reflexive: IfaRa Vac Aic. eg. IFA = (2,4, 7}, then relation (4.4), (7, 7) is refle abeRVaeA IfaRb = bRaVayb eA (a,b) E R= (ba) RVabEA IA = (2.4.7). then ). (4. 2), (7, 7)} is symmetric, iii, IfaRb and bRe = aRe V a,b,c A i . b) e Rand (b,c) @ R Sj eRVaneeA eg. IA = (2, R= {¢ transitive. iv. Anti-symmetrie: IfaRb and bRa => y. Equivalence relation: A telation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation on A iff R is Reflexive ii, Symmetric and iii, Transitive i.e., for equivalence relation Rin A i aRaVaeA ii, aRb=>bRaVabeA aRb and bRe => aRe W a,b,c ¢ A }. 7}, then relation 4). 4.7). 2. 7), 4 AD} is VabeAd Composition of two relatio It A, B and C are three such that Rc A x Band S cB x C, then (SoRy' = R“oS". It is clear that ab, bSe > aSoRe. R Ss A SoR This relation is called the composition of R and S, Scanned with Cam10. be dh fp. a 6 8) be three sets such that R= {ah (2.0), (1), 2 d)} is a relat from A to Band $= {(a, 8), (b. 9, (6. 9} isa relation from B to C, then SoR is a relation from A to C given by SoR = {(1.5). (2.9. (0) In this case, RoS does not evist. In general, RoS 2 SR. th IER isa relation oma set A, then Ris reflexive => RU is reflexive Ris symmetric => Ris symmetric ii, Ris transitive = Ris transitive a 7 Definition: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets. If to each element x € A 3a unique element y € B under a rule f, then this relation is called function from A into Band is written as f:A>BorA > B The other terms used for operators or transformations. A functions are f(x) © B, then (x,y) ef yi) € and (x 92) © f then Real valued funetion: Let f: A> Band ACR& BCR be defined by y = fly), where x € A, y © B, then fis ica all possiple VANS OL Kay, HUE a values of x (denoted by Rd) Range of P= (f(x) sx € A} ‘The range of f is always a subset of Bie, Rr SCr co-doma et Domain = (a, b, c,d} =A Co-domain = {1, 2.3.4} = Range = {1, 2.3} From figure: So, Rr Cr Algebra of funetions: Let Fand g be two real domains Drand D., then i. Sum function is defined by (f+ 9) @) = fly) +80) and domain of f(x) + gf ii, Difference function (f= g(x) = Ke) = 20) and domain of f(x) iii, Multiplication by scalar is di (a D(X) = @ fle) iv. Product function is defined by (1) (&) = 2). g(e) and domain of f(x) a(x) is Dy 9 Dy v. Quotient funetion is defined by calued functions with yis Dea Dy defined by g(x) is Dy 0 Dy. ed by (E)o = FD 9x) O and & g(x) SG) domain of is Dp A Dy — (g(x) = 0} g(x) vic Domain of YPC) is Dr 9 (x: fx) 2 0} called a real valued function of a real variable. 4. One-one function: 2. Domain, Co-domain and Range: A function ': A — B is said to be one-one if ohana ner eee allel ihe different elements of A have different images domain of fie., all possible values of x in B ie, no two different elements of A have for which f(x) exists (denoted by D,). the same image in B, Such a mapping is also Co-domain: The set of B is called the known as injective mapping or an injection ___co-domain of f (denoted by C)) or monomorphism. iii, Range: The set of all f- images of the Method to test one-one: If x1, x2 € A, then elements of A is called the range of fx) = fxg) => xy = rand function f. “1 ) a _ xy #259 My) # Ave) a ; - Scanned with CamA function is one. -one. if it is incre: or decreasing. — eg. Let f: A> Band g: X > Y be two functions represented by the following diagrams, > y Clearly, fA. > Bisa one-one function. But g) X > Y is not one-one function be two distinct elements xy & xs have th image under function g. suse same Onto function: Let f: A — B, if every clement in B has at east one pre-image in A, then f is said to be nto function or surjective mappin surjection. or & iff! Q) @ ALY y & B, then function 1s onto. In other words, Range of f= Co-domain of T eg In the following diagrams: x y A B t : al sz is f:A— Bis onto function. But g:X —> ¥ is not onto funtion because Range + Co-domain. 6. Into function: A funtion f ; A> B is an into function, if there exists an element in B having no pre-image in A. 7. If (A) cB ie. Range © Co-domain, then the function is into orf: A > B isan into function, 11S not an onto function. eg. The followi cams show into functions: a B Xx y ‘ : 4 b Because in both the diagrams: Rice Bijection (one-one onto function): A function f : A > B is a bijection or hijective . if it is one: well as onto. one In other words, a function f 2 A > Bisa bijection i. it is one-one ie. fo) >) eve vayed ii, itis onto ie. Voy & By there exists ve Assueh that flv) = Clearly, f is a bijection, since it is both injective as well as surjective. Many-one function: ‘A function f : A — B is said to be a many-one function, if two or more elements of set A have the same image in B. In other words, f : A > B is a many-one function, if it is not a one-one function, f: A > B is a many-one function, if there exists x),.x2 € A such that xy # x but fl) = fle) + It can also be defined as a function is many-one, if it has local maximum or local minimum. Scanned with Camon. The following functions: ms show —many-one 9. Inverse of a function: If fA — B be one-one and onto fi then the mapping ¢ “(B) > A si hh that fb) =a (where ae A & b € B) is called inverse function of the funetion f: A > B. or A — B be a one-one and onto funetion, a unique function, g : B—> A ye gQ)=xVxe Aand there exists such that fv) ¥ €B, Then g is said to be inverse of f. Thus, g = 7! B A={(C0)..0 | (£0) € fF eg. Let us consider on: one function with domain where A= {1.2.3.4} and B f: A > Bis given by hw) and fas a set of ordered pairs. So, f= {(1. 2). (2.4). 3.6). (4. 9} (2. D4. 2. (6. 3.84) and f= { AB B-TA ' (2.4.6, 8} and 2x, then write f In above function, Domain of f= {1, 2, 3, 4} = range of f" Range of f= {2, 4, 6, 8} = domain of f! Which represents for a function to have its inverse, it must be one-one onto or bijective. 10, G if then graph of iven by G() = f(x, PQ) ex € A} funetions ‘aph of 2 functior r: A» B bea function defined by » = fx), detined as a subset of A x B Some particular with their graphs: . Constant function: A function f: X — Y is said to be constant function, if its range is a singleton set ic. thx) = ¢ Vx e X, where c is some constant. T:R — R defined by y = flx) = 7 isa constant function (+ f(D = 7, £2) = 7, 13) Here, Dy = R and Ry= 7 funetion £ The defined by f(x) =x Vx € Ris called the identity function. Here, ii, Identity function: Rand Rr=R Polynomial function: A function f defined by f(x) =a tax tape ota where ao, @, a2, ...., a, are real constants and n is non-negative integer, is called a polynomial function. Rational function: A function {0 iv, which can be expressed as 222, where h(x) g(x) and h(x) are polynomials and h(x) # 0 is called a rational function. Scanned with Camf(x) = x Modulus fune tion or Abs " or Numerical toe, esolnte value A function f ; R 4 R defined by fle) = Il or x)= { os ox, x<0 is called the absolute value or Ss I te value ined modulus Properties of Modulus of a real number: vxy eR, we have a. [xl=max (x, b. bP = bx ce bol=FIb a ELE peo 2 bl k+s1S b+ bl e. £ fe-ylshl+ bh gz. e-vl2|xI-Ll bh. e+ x12 [leI-Lyl i. [sk -ksxsk, (k>0) j. bl>k=-k2x or xZk,(k> 0) Signum function: The function f defined by |x| 1, if x>0 x80 Cay = 40, if x=0 0, x=0 <1, if x<0 is called the signum function. Here, Dr= Rand Rr= {-1. 0, 1} ty viii. function f defined by [x] 0, then the function defined by flx) = ak V x € R, is called the general exponential function with base a. Here, Dr=Rand R,= {{ if a=1 (0, ©) if a>0,az1 In particular, f(x) = e', x © R is called the natural exponential fun Here, Dr= Rand Rr= (0, 0) xi. Iro Logarithmic function The funetion defined by 10) = = logy ie =a (A> O.a Dx > 0 is called logarithmic function, Here, Dy = (0,0) and Ry = R. In particular, the fane' led natural and thr) y' Some properties of function: a y=logvitfx b. log, = 0 and logya~ e aM =x, forx>0 log, (xy) = logyx + logy, x > >. log. (5) = log, x = logy a flog") =n log, x Blog, x= Loge oF = Hogs, bh. log x= M8. log a i, Forx <0, log,x is not defined. J. logy x decreases if 9 1 oarWwica wivri Carrmf: ROR WS Ris called a xi, Power function: A defined by fix) = y power fiction, The domain of si and the range function is R ae b. Cosine function: f(x) = cos x x (0,1) CR-D ty =D The domain of cosine function is R and the range is [-1, 1] € Tangent function: f(x) = tan x iy nel} cosee x a, Here, domain © R fens DS. eR-(-L 1). f(x) = Here, domain © R {enn 3} range € R-(-1, 1), LA Cc angent function: f(x) = cot x : | y Here, domain ¢ R — range © R. {nxn © 1} and | Scanned with CamBE) and range of some standard Function Domain Range Polynomial function R R [Identity function| x R Constant function K Reciprocal 1 function — 5 =A Oy xl] Signum function xh ii cosec x 13. 14. Even and odd functions: ‘A function "= fx) is said to be i Even if (2) =f) ii, Odd if f(-x) = -fa) Neither even nor odd if =x) #£ fx) = sing. fa) =a, ii =x sin wall are o Properties of even and odd functions: i. The product of two even or two « functions is an ii, The product of an even function by an an odd functio function or vice ver iii, The sum of even and odd functior neither even nor odd function. iv. Zero function f(x) = 0 is the function which is even and odd both. v. Every function f(x) can be expresse the sum of even and odd function. i. fy = 4 flay + flo] +4 fle) = fe = FO) + Gx) Here, F(x) is even and G(x) is od. Periodic function: A function is said to be periodic functio there exists a constant T > 0 such f(x + T) = fx - T) = f(x) ¥ x € domain. | the least positive value of T is called period of the function, Scanned with Camsine] = feos), sin'y + cost ss] Fact cos cos(cose) + cos( sine) Vian( +2) 4) x] +{eoss] | sin(sinx) + sin(cosr) | nescn sin] #e0s Pome aes ii. Some non-periodic functions: sins, cosvr, cos x sin x x = cos x, x7 + sine _ 8 COS 1 + i) (cos 3x + cos 3x), (Si 0 (sine +x-L) (2) [where {x} is fractional part function & [x] is a greatest integer function] Properties of periodic funct i. If f(x) is periodic with period T, then ‘a.fix) is periodic with period T. a. b. f(e +a) is periodic with period T f(x) £ais periodie with period r. y constant. as period 27 also periodic where a ‘We know sin x hi 1 s(sin x) + 7 is Then f(x) with period 2: ie. “If constant is added, subtracted, tmuttiplied or divided in periodic function, period remains same.” a IF f(x) is periodic with period T, then ii ia flav ¢ by has period — al i.e. periad is only alleeted by coefficient offs, where a, b & constant We know fle) {sin 2x 4 af -12 | 7) has the period sin is periodic with perind 2. iii, IP H09. £4) are periodic functions with periods T;, Tp respectively, then we have. hex) = fx) + GG has period ester tics and tate coleman pair wise comparable even functions we should always While remember. _LCM.of Gee) a coe HCE of (bd 1) 12) b. L.C.M. of rational with rational is possible. L.C.M. of irrational with irrational: is possible. But LCM, of rational and irrational is not possible. .g. LCM. of Qn, 1, 6x) is not possible as 2x, 6x & irrational and | ¢ rational. Some special functions: i IH 9) = fs) +109, then FY) . ii, I tivy) © fv) + £0), then flr) = log x. iii, ity #9) = fx). 19, then fir) =e iv. tty) (4) fix) 4 (2 )ethen fo) ee Scanned with Cam16. Composite function: Let f: A + B be defined by b= fa) and 2: BC be defined by c= f(b), then h: A C be defined by h(a) = g[f{a)] is called composite function. We write h= got Thus, gof : A > C will be defined as gofle) = gfflx)], Vx A. f g gof i. gofis defined, if Rec D, gof is one-one => Fis one-one. gof is onto = Tis onto. if f, g are one-one onto, then gof is also one-one onto. vy. fis function, vi. fis odd, g is odd = foe is odd function. . 8 is even = fog is even vii, f is even, g is odd = fog is even function, viii, £ is odd, g is even = fog is even function ix. fog # gof ie., composite of functions is not commutai All functions are relation but all relations may not be a function + 7 L1__Sets If A, B and C are finite sets and U be the universal set, then ie ACBiff (xe A>x eB} 2, A=BiffAcBandBcoA a i, P(A) = {B : B is a subset of A} If A has n elements i.e., o(A) = n, then xe Aorx eB} x Aandx € B} Aand Baie UION I ALE > y. 0, AABorA@B=(A-B)U (BA) or (AUB)-(AnB) (or A®)= {xix e Uandx ¢ A} =Aand AQA=A are called Idempotent laws, iB A and A=B where P(A) is the power set of A 8, A-B=AnB 19. MAW B)=n(A) + 01B), if A and B are disjoint sets, MAL B)= n(A) + n(B)—n(A 9 By n(A UB) = n(A ~B) # (B= A) + nA. B) nA ~B)=n(A)—- (A AB) n(AUBUC) (A) © n(B) + n(C)=n(A 4B) ~ 0 (BOC) ACOA) +N(ANBOC) we MANB AC) = nA) (AA B)- (AAC) +A ABAC) 25. Ax B= {(x,y):x © Aandy cB} 26. AxB=BxAiffA=B n(A x B) = n(A).n(B) ITA CB, then A x A C(A x B) (Bx A) 29. (Ax BY A (CxD)=(AAC)x(BAD) 2 Relations ITA and B are finite sets and R be the relation, then AXxBie,RC {(a,b):a€ A,b eB} 2, i, If n(A) = m and n(B) = a, then total number of possible relations from AtoBis=2™ ii, The number of relations on finite set 4 on havinw n oloment Scanned with CamDomain of R= { a: (a,b) € R} Range of R= {b : (a, b) ¢ R) R= {(b, a is ot a) b) € R) is called Inverse R=Ax Ais called Universal relation. R= {(a, a) sa © A} = Ih is called Mdentity relation. R= is called Void relation, 4 a be a non-empty set, then a relation R on i, Reflexive: If(@a)eRVacA Symmetric : If (a,b) © R= (ba) Ee RVabed Transitive : If (a,b) Rand (b,c) eR S(ac)eRVabcea iv. Anti-symmetric : If (a, b) € Rand (b,a) eR >a=bVabeA vy. Equivalence : iff it is reflexive, transitive. symmetric and 3__Functions 1. Iff: A> Bisa function, then x=yof@=f)VureA ‘A function f; A -> B is a one-one function or an injection, if f(x) = fla) 2 1 Ve eA or xy #9 = Mle) # fl) We CA ‘A function f: A > B is an onto function or a surjection if range (f) = co-domain (0. ‘A function £; A > B is an into function, if range (f) ¢ co-domain (1). Ree bijective, if it is one-one as well as onto. _5 B is many-one function, 6 ets the total number of subsets of a finite set containing n elements is 2°. Number of proper subsets of A containing n elements is 2 Number of non-emply subsets of A containing n elements is 2" ~ | Let A, B, C be any three sets, then i, n(Aonly) =n(A)-nA OB)-n(AQC) +nA BOC) ii, _n(Bonly) =n(B)—n(BOC)-WA MB) +n(ANBAC) =n(C)- (CAA) = (B00) #n(AQBNC) of the sets iii, n(C only Number of elements in exactly two A, Band C =n(A AB) +0 (BAC) +AC OA) =3n(AABOC) Number of elements in exactly one of the sets A,BandC = n(A) + n(B) + (C) ~ 2n(A 9B) ~2n(BAC)-2n(ANC)=3M(ANBAC) Number of elements which belong to exactly one of A or Bis n(A AB) =n(A) + n(B) = 2n(AO B) If A and B have n clements in common, then A x Band B x A have n° elements in common. IfN, = fan: ne N}, then No Ne = Nuccatofbanter Where a, b,€ & N- is an The idemtity relation on a set A anti-symmetrie relation. The relation ‘is congrus -s ina plane t to" on the set T of a transitive relation. nce relations on a A function f: A 3. If R and S$ are two equi if.xy #2 = Morr) = flea) Van A 7 "i . set A, then RA S is also an uivalence For domain and range, if function is in the aca 4 form 4. The union of wvo equivalence relati ona i F(x) , take fx) 20 set is not necessarily an equivalence relation 1 ‘on the set. ii. To fx) > 0 5. The inverse of an equivalence relation is an F(x) equivalence relation, A Lake f(x) #0 6. Empty relation is always symmetric and L te! transitive, ee Ee fey a {i oarwica wiv Carrsymmetric iff R™ Total number of reflexive relations in a set with n elements = 2! Functions iv. The domain of iv. iii. i, The domain of i. The domain of ii, The domain of vx (— =a] Ufa, x). G%,-a UC»), The domain of J(v=ay(b—x) when a b is (— 9, b) U [a, 2). when a b is (b, a]. ‘The domain of log(a? — (-a, a). - a’) is The domain of log (%,-a)U(a, »), The domain of log((x - a) (b - x)] when a R is onto if degree of fis odd and into if degree of Fis even, I IF fs) is periodic with period a, then is x also periodic with same period a, If fx) is periodic with period a, JF() is also perio i with same period a, If A and B have n and m distinct elements respectively, then the number of mappings from A to B =m’, IfA=B, then the number of mapping = n°, The number of one-one functions that can be defined from a set A into a finite set B is "Pay si (B) > nA) 0; otherwise The number of onto functions that can be defined from a finite set A containing ements onto a finite set B containing elements = 2" ~ 2. The number of onto functions from A to B, where o(A) = m, 0(B) = n and m2 n is yer “co”. ‘The number of bijections from a finite set A onto a finite set B is nA)! 0 fn(A) =n (B) 5 otherwise Scanned with Cam