2009-01-0615
Heated Injectors for Ethanol Cold Starts
Daniel Kabasin, Kevin Hoyer and Joseph Kazour
Copyright © 2009 SAE International
ABSTRACT
Ethanol is commonly employed as a transportation fuel in
Brazil. However, since pure ethanol’s flash point is 12°C,
flex-fuel vehicles marketed in Brazil are currently
equipped with a redundant fuel system which delivers
gasoline during cold starts below [typically] 18°C. Since
these low temperatures are infrequently experienced in
Brazil, gasoline in the auxiliary fuel tank may evaporate
and/or varnish during extended dormant periods,
resulting in poor quality or no-starts. It is therefore
desirable to eliminate the gasoline system by vaporizing
a sufficient quantity of ethanol to enable cold starts at low
ambient temperatures.
A port fuel injector capable of rapidly heating ethanol
above its flash point has been developed which
eliminates the need for the redundant fuel system.
During cold-start conditions, the vehicle’s controller
commands power to an electrical heater contained within
each injector. The injector heaters raise the temperature
of the delivered ethanol during the engine crank and
initial run.
When these heated injectors are employed in
conjunction with engine management system
enhancements, ethanol cold start performance is similar
to that of gasoline. In addition, heating ethanol fuel
enables the leaning-out of 20°C cold start fueling, which
has shown to reduce both engine-out and FTP bag
emissions.
Heated injector flow temperature data, low ambient
temperature engine cold start performance and vehicle
FTP emission results are presented and discussed.
172 SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1
Delphi Corporation Advanced Powertrain - USA
Rudolf Lamers and Tobias Hurter
Delphi Corporation EMS Development - Brazil
INTRODUCTION
Worldwide oil rationing in the 1970s fostered the belief
within Brazil that it should become energy self-sufficient.
Since at that time (and still is), the extraction of domestic
oil was lower than the demand, it was thought that an
alternative fuel should be developed.
Consequently, in 1974 the Brazilian government issued a
strategic plan named National Development Plan - Plano
Nacional de Desenvolvimento. As part of this national
strategy, supported by sugar cane producers, an
alternative fuel incentive plan, Pró-álcool, was issued in
1975. This plan specified that ethanol would not only be
sold blended with gasoline, but also as a pure ethanol
fuel. E22 (a blend of approximately 22% ethanol and
78% gasoline) and E100 (~ 94% ethanol, 6% water)
were produced for the Brazilian market. Consumers
could purchase vehicles either fueled exclusively by E22
or fueled exclusively by E100. The market expanded and
in 1986 approximately 80% of the vehicles manufactured
in Brazil were powered by ethanol fuel.
In spite of a decline in consumer demand for ethanol
vehicles during the 1990s and early 2000s, due to a
reduction in ethanol production and a poor distribution
network, ethanol is still considered a strategic energy
source for Brazil since it reduces gasoline dependence
from other countries. In addition, the Brazilian
government does provide incentives by subsidizing
ethanol and levying lower tax rates.
The typical minimum engine cold start temperature
requirement in Brazil is approximately -5°C. This
requirement is of course, not as severe as the -20°C or -
30°C ambient cold start requirements found in most
other countries, because Brazil is a sub-tropical country.
Figure 1 is a geographical view of the minimum Brazil is now the only country that does not limit the
temperatures observed in Brazil during 2004 [1]. The city ethanol percentage in transportation fuels; furthermore,
“Campus do Jordão” (altitude 2000m) is known as one of E100 is normally marketed throughout the entire winter.
the coldest places in Brazil. Consequently, the -5°C specification guarantees start-
ability for the entire calendar year, even when fueling
with E100 during the winter months.

In order to cold start E100 fueled vehicles at ambient

temperatures down to -5°C, gasoline sub-tanks systems
which inject gasoline during these cold starts, were
introduced in the 70´s on the first carburetor E100 mono-
fuel vehicles. These systems continued to be utilized,
virtually unmodified, on fuel injected vehicles, as well as
on flex fuel vehicles, which were first introduced in 2003.

Development of the next generation of single-fuel cold

start enabling systems is underway. Heating ethanol fuel
just before injection into an engine appears to be an
attractive means for engine cold starting as well as
emission reduction.

GASOLINE SUB-TANK SYSTEM

Brazil’s auto manufacturers currently utilize an auxiliary

Campos do Jordão
gasoline cold-start system for cold starts which occur at
ambient temperatures of [typically] 18°C and below. The
system (Figure 3) consists of a small tank containing
approximately 1 liter of gasoline, a small fuel pump, a
solenoid valve and a calibrated orifice. The Powertrain
Figure 1: Minimum temperatures observed in Brazil
Control Module (PCM) powers the fuel pump relay and
during 2004
modulates the solenoid valve to deliver a quantity of
gasoline scheduled via engine coolant temperature. The
Figure 2 shows the maximum and minimum calibrated orifice located either in the throttle body
temperatures which were observed in Campus do beneath the throttle plate or within the intake manifold,
Jordão – SP – Brazil during the coldest month, July of injects the metered fuel into either the plenum or the
2004, within the last 10 years [2]. intake runners. After the engine starts, depending on
coolant temperature, gasoline may continue to be
30 injected in conjunction with ethanol delivered from the
Maximum main injectors, in order to optimize warm-up drive-ability
and transient throttle response. Most systems have a
25
low-gasoline-level indicator lamp to warn the driver that
refilling of the sub-tank is required.
Ambient Temperature minimum and maximum (ºC)

20

15
SUB-TANK

Fuel Pump
10
Relay
Switch

5
ECM
PCM PWM INTAKE
Solenoid
Minimum
0

Orifice
-5
2-Jul 6-Jul 10-Jul 14-Jul 18-Jul 22-Jul 26-Jul 30-Jul
ENGINE
July 2004

Figure 2: Maximum and minimum temperatures Figure 3: Gasoline sub-tank system

observed in Campus do Jordão – SP in July 2004

SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1 173

MODELING
In order to determine heated injector requirements, Star
CD, a finite volume solver for fluid problems (CFD
computational fluid dynamics), was utilized [3]. This
model requires sectioning the 3D geometry of interest
into smaller elements and applying boundary conditions
before solving for flow parameters such as temperature,
pressure and velocity everywhere within the domain. For
example, Star CD can produce solutions for the
temperatures of solids as well as flowing or static fluids.
The fluids are injected as liquid fuel at the injector exit
and are able to vaporize. Two CFD models are
discussed next, a spray vapor port chamber model and
an in-combustion chamber cylinder-mixing model.
SPRAY VAPOR GENERATION MODEL
A Star CD CFD computational fluid dynamics model was
developed to predict what amount of vapor results from
various fuel conditions within a representative quiescent
cold intake port.
Test Conditions:
• One injection (0.28g pulse) of fuel
• Droplet diameter (SMD): 25, 50, 75 & 100 um
• Droplet velocity: 25, 50, 75 & 100 m/s
o
• Temperature of fuel injected: -10, 0, 10 & 20 C
The modeling results summarized in Figure 5 indicate
that increasing fuel velocity (Vexit) and smaller particle
sizes (SMD) are beneficial for increasing vapor
production, but are not nearly as effective as increasing
the fuel’s temperature (Tfuel). This figure shows that the
amount of fuel vaporized roughly doubles as the SMD is
varied from 25 to 100 microns. The amount of vapor
created from the injection decreases as the injection
velocity increases from 25 m/s to 100 m/s because the
spray has less time in the air before hitting the opposite
chamber wall. When the fuel temperature is raised from
-10°C to 20°C, the amount of vapor produced increases
about four orders of magnitude. This comparison clearly
shows that the fuel temperature has the predominant
effect on fuel vaporization when compared to SMD and
velocity under these conditions.

A picture of the CFD model of the port chamber with 10

spray is shown in Figure 4. Ethanol liquid droplets were

50 u SMD
injected into a quiescent volume in which the air and 75 m/s
1
walls were initially set to -10°C. These drops were given
an initial temperature, velocity and size distribution SMD
[characterized by the Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD)) and 0.1 Vexit
Tfuel
% Ethanol Vapor Mass

injected at a prescribed injection profile versus time. The

injected ethanol liquid drops were able to evaporate to 0.01
vapor, hit the walls and stick, rebound then evaporate, or
remain suspended as droplets. The amount of vapor in
the port and the droplets were then measured at 1 ms 0.001
50 u SMD
o
after the single injection pulse was completed. Figure 4 -10 C

shows an output of the spray chamber model at the end 0.0001 75 m/s
of the fuel injection pulse. The circles represent the fuel o
-10 C

Tfuel [|C] -10|C 0ºC 10ºC 20ºC

spray particles with the circle size corresponding to the
0.00001
liquid particle diameters (greatly exaggerated). Vapor 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

concentration contours are plotted in color on a plane SMD [u], Vexit [m/s]

slice thru the center of the chamber.

Figure 5: % Vapor mass of the total fuel mass as a
function of injected fuel particle size, velocity and
temperature

CYLINDER MIXING MODEL

A Star CD CFD in-cylinder dynamic mixing model, Figure

6, was developed to predict what quantity and
temperature of fuel is required to initiate combustion of
an ethanol-air mixture within a simplified representation
of the engine cylinder, intake, exhaust ports and valves
and fuel injector.

This model was used to predict the quantity of vapor

present at the spark plug during -10°C cranking
conditions.
Figure 4: Spray vapor generation model representation
showing liquid fuel (circles) and vapor concentration
(color contours).

174 SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1

 Fuel Parameters: Injector (C2H6O at Tfuel) 300
Fuel Temperature Exhaust Port & Valve: Fuel Initially @ -10 oC, 2.86 g/s air flow
Director hole diameter Ambient Temperature Walls & Air @ -10 oC

Fuel Temperature, deg C, (injector exit)

Mass flow rate Ambient Pressure 250

Injection timing
200
Intake Port & Valve:
75 u SMD
Ambient Temperature 50 u SMD
Ambient Pressure CFD Analysis Result: 150
Fuel Vapor Fraction &
Cylinder Wall & Piston: Temperature
Ambient Temperature Vs crank angle at spark 100

Ambient Pressure plug gap location

Piston is moving at 50
cranking speed

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Figure 6: Cylinder mixing model representation Delivered Fuel/Air Ratio

In this dynamic model, Figure 7, the fuel enters the Figure 8: Fuel temperature vs. Fuel/Air ratios required to
combustion chamber when the intake valve is open. In- produce 6% vapor in a combustion chamber at TDC
cylinder charge mixing occurs as the piston descends
during the intake stroke and ascends during
The CFD model results presented clearly identify the
compression. The model predicts the amount of vapor
benefit of heating the fuel before it is injected to produce
present throughout the cylinder during the cycle.
more fuel vapor. The model assumptions are that the
Especially important for combustion initiation is the vapor
fuel temperature is prescribed at the injector exit.
concentration near the spark plug at TDC.
Several concepts of how to achieve the heated fuel
Fuel Droplets Fuel Vapor
follow.
Spray begins
At IVO HEATED FUEL RAILS

Initial investigations focused on heating the entire fuel rail

Droplets &
Vapor mix
during Intake
and
compression
stroke
Determine ignitability
based on fuel vapor
fraction at cylinder
Mixture at TDC TDC Firing
Figure 7: Fuel and vapor within the dynamic model
A minimum of 6% vapor, an amount slightly above the
lower flammability limit of ethanol [4], is required to be
present in the vicinity of the spark plug, in order to
produce an ignitable mixture. Figure 8 shows the
relationship between fuel temperature and fuel flow
required to produce 6% vapor in the combustion
chamber. As an example, if 2.86 g/s of airflow is entering
the cylinder and fuel particle sizes are 50μ, then 5.15g/s
(3.43 g/cycle) of 25°C ethanol are required. This is an
extremely rich condition where wall wetting would
produce very high HC and smoke. Alternatively, if the
fuel temperature is raised to 76°C, only 1.14g/s (0.76
g/cycle) of fuel are required. This figure only represents
what is required to produce a combustible mixture during
engine cranking, and does not take into account the total
fuel quantity needed to keep the engine running.
with a single internal heating element, as well as
positioning multiple heaters to locally heat the fuel
resident above each injector.
HEATED FUEL RAIL
This concept heated the entire fuel rail with an internal
heater. A number of significant drawbacks precluded
further development:
• Significant electrical energy is required to heat
the entire quantity of fuel in a short amount of
time
• Pre-crank warm-up times are approximately 60
seconds at -5°C
• Large radiant heat loss area
• Heated fuel rises to the top of the rail
• First injections consist of ambient temperature
fuel
• Requires pre-crank PCM turn-on strategy and
starter control
LOCALIZED FUEL RAIL HEATERS
These concepts position an individual diesel glow plug in
the fuel rail, directly above each injector, to locallyheat
the fuel above each injector.

Again, these concepts suffer from a number of

significant drawbacks:
• Pre-crank warm-up times are between 10 to 20
seconds at -5°C

SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1 175

 • Heated fuel rises to the top of the rail away from 50
0 Seconds Pre-Injection Heating
the injectors 1 Second Pre-Injection Heating

• First injections consist of ambient temperature 2 Seconds Pre-Injection Heating

Stream Temperature Increase Above Ambient [ºC]

40

fuel
• Requires pre-crank PCM turn-on strategy and
30
starter control

20

HEATED FUEL INJECTOR

10

A heated injector, the Delphi Multec® 3.5 HT Fuel

Injector (Figure 9), based on the proven Multec® 3.5 fuel
0
injector, has been developed to increase the temperature 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Test Time [Seconds]
of injected fuels. A heater integrated in the injector is
energized during engine cold starts. Electrical power is
applied through two pins of a 4-pin electrical connector; Figure 10: 0, 1 and 2 seconds pre-injection heating
the remaining two pins provide a connection to the fuel 100% flow 100% power
control solenoid.
Figures 11, 12 and 13 show injector outlet stream
temperature increases above ambient with 50% duty
cycle fueling at a 1.45Hz frequency. This frequency
corresponds to 174 cranking RPM for a four-cylinder
engine which utilizes sequential port injection. The red
curves show the measurement of the injector’s outlet
stream temperature increase above ambient. The black
curve shows the voltage applied to the injector’s fuel coil.
Figure 11 corresponds to 0 seconds of pre-injection
heating, Figure 12, 1 second and Figure 13, 2 seconds.
As in the previous case, 100% heater power is applied to
the heater between 0 and 10 seconds.

50

Stream Temperature Increase

Stream Temperature Increase Above Ambient [ºC]

40
Injector Fuel Command [V}

30

Figure 9: Multec® 3.5 HT Fuel Injector with 4-pin

connector and integrated heater – production intent 20

Injector Fuel Command

STREAM TEMPERATURE PERFORMANCE 10

Ethanol injection can commence immediately upon 0

application of heater power, or can be delayed to provide 0 1 2 3 4 5
Test Time [Seconds]
6 7 8 9 10

pre-injection heating. Figure 10 shows the resultant

increases in the injector’s outlet stream temperatures
(measured with thermo couple located in the fuel stream) Figure 11: 0 seconds pre-injection heating
above ambient (20°C for the following graphs) with static 50% flow 100% heater power
ethanol flow (3.4g/s) and 100% heater power. The black
curve is the temperature rise with 0 seconds of pre-
injection heating (i.e. fuel flow also commences at time =
0). The red curve represents the temperature rise after 1
second of pre-injection heating and the blue curve, 2
seconds. In all these cases, 100% heater power is
applied to the heater between 0 and 10 seconds.

176 SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1

 50

Stream Temperature Increase

Stream Temperature Increase Above Ambient [ºC]

40
Injector Fuel Command [V}

30 PCM

Relay Control
20

Injector Fuel Command

10

Heater
Diagnostic
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Monitor
Test Time [Seconds]

Figure 12: 1 second pre-injection heating PWM Heater

50% flow 100% heater power Command

50

Stream Temperature Increase

Stream Temperature Increase Above Ambient [ºC]

40
Figure 14: Injector heater control diagram
Injector Fuel Command [V}

30

ENGINE COLD START STRATEGY

20

Injector Fuel Command

10
0
0 1
Figure 13: 2 seconds pre-injection heating
50% flow 100% heater power
HEATED INJECTOR CONTROL
Figure 14 is a diagram of the heater control system. The
vehicle’s PCM controls power to the injector heaters via
a protection relay and a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
module. The relay and PWM module provide redundant
power controls to ensure that, in the event of a failure of
one of the components, the PCM can turn off power to
the heaters using the functioning component. Heater
voltage is sensed by the PCM for diagnostic monitoring.
Heater power is regulated by the PCM by adjusting the %
duty cycle, that is, the pulse width at a fixed frequency, of
the voltage applied to the heater.
Because of ethanol’s low Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)
and high flash point, fuel heating becomes a requirement
to form an ignitable mixture at low temperatures. In
addition, without heating, the fuel may cease to burn if
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
the source of ignition is removed at low temperatures.
Test Time [Seconds] Fuel heating has shown to be most effective when
employed with other advanced technologies or
strategies, such as:
• Coordinated combustion chamber heating with
engine cranking while delaying fuel and spark.
• Sequential fuel injection during crank.
• Fuel injection timed in relation to valve timing in
order to avoid heat loss or wetting spark plugs
• Higher fuel pressure designed to produce
smaller fuel droplets.
• Multiple spark ignitions during the cold start
• Spark plug design
• Intake manifold vacuum control with an
electronic throttle during cranking
• Alternator load control
• Increased engine cranking speed
Apart from increasing the fuel heating system’s
robustness and effectiveness, strategies such as “smart”
torque-based software algorithms, which control the
engine via an electronic throttle, have great potential to
further improve both ethanol fueled start-ability and drive-
ability.

Tests were conducted with and without pre-crank heating

on a 1.8L 4-cylinder engine. Results may vary for other
engine applications.

SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1 177

-5°C COLD START ENGINE PERFORMANCE Care must be taken in the calibration of the crank to run
transition. Even with heated fuel, there is potential wall-
Cold start performance was primarily evaluated with wetting, which can build-up and cause over-fueling as
Hydrated Ethanol (6% water) because it is the worst- this fuel evaporates and is ingested during engine warm-
case fuel for cold starting. It has been shown that blends up.
with even slight traces of gasoline, say 3%, greatly
enhance the ability to cold start. Heating the fuel also improves low temperature warm-up
drive-ability. Many sub-tank systems require sustained
As shown in Figure 15, during a cold start without pre- gasoline injection and throttle/torque limiting due to high
crank heating, the PCM first applies 100% duty cycle to fuel flow demands which exceed injector flow capacity
the heater when cranking commences in order to heat during initial transients and at WOT. Heating the fuel
the ethanol. As the engine fires and begins to run, the reduces the liquid fuel requirement by increasing the
PCM reduces the fuel rate as well as the heater’s duty vaporized fuel fraction.
cycle corresponding to its fueling command. As the
engine settles into its cold idle, a minimal duty cycle Figure 17 summarizes heated injector cold starts with
maintains an elevated stream temperature to improve (red curve) and without (blue curve) pre-crank heating as
warm-up drive-ability. a function of start-up coolant temperature. The duration
of pre-crank heating (black curve) is shown on the

Heater Duty Cycle and Heater Temperature

2000 190 negative time scale. For example, at -5°C, the start-of-
1800
Average Heater
170 crank-to-500 RPM time was 3 seconds without pre-crank
1600 Surface Temperature 150
heating; with 6 seconds of pre-crank heating, the start-of-
1400 130
crank-to-500 RPM time was 1.8 seconds.
Engine RPM

1200 110
1000 90
800 70
4
600 50
Heater Duty Cycle 3
400 30
Engine RPM
200 10 2
0 -10
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1
Start of 2.9 Seconds 500
Crank RPM Time in Seconds
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)

-1

Figure 15: 1.8L L4 engine E-100 -5°C cold start -2

without pre-crank heating – prototype injectors -3

-4
Figure 16 shows a cold start with pre-crank heating. In -5
this case the PCM applies 100% duty cycle to the heater
-6
before cranking commences when a pre-set trigger, such
-7
as the opening of the driver’s door or insertion of the Coolant temperature (ºC)
ignition key, is detected. As in the no pre-heating case, pre-crank heat time crank time w/ pre-crank heat Crank time no pre-crank heating
the PCM reduces the fuel rate as well as the heater’s
duty cycle when the engine fires and begins to run.
Figure 17: 1.8L L4 engine E-100 cold start times with and
Similarly, as the engine settles into its cold idle, a
without pre-crank heating – prototype injectors
minimal duty cycle maintains an elevated stream
temperature to improve warm-up drive-ability.
ENGINE EMISSION PERFORMANCE
However, injector heating is terminated if the engine is
The minimal ethanol vapor concentrations which occur at
not cranked after the pre-heating time has elapsed.
low ambient temperatures (including emission test cold
start temperatures) require a very rich engine fueling
Heater Duty Cycle and Heater Temperature

2000 Average Heater 190

1800
Surface Temperature Engine RPM
170
calibration in order to start the engine and achieve
1600 150 acceptable warm-up drive-ability. This condition leads to
1400 130 high Hydro-carbon (HC) and Carbon-monoxide (CO)
Engine RPM

1200 110
1000 90
emissions as well as delayed catalytic converter light-off.
800 70
600
1.8 s
500
RPM Heater Duty Cycle
50 Heating the ethanol significantly reduces the ethanol
400 30
200 10
fueling requirement for starting and warm-up which
0 -10 permits the use of a lean fuel calibration which reduces
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3
Pre-heat 6.0 Seconds
-2 -1 0
Start of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 engine-out HC and CO and improves converter light off
Time in Seconds
Crank
times.

Figure 16: 1.8L L4 engine E-100 -5°C cold start

with pre-crank heating – prototype injectors

178 SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1

The data in Figure 18 was generated by a vehicle ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
equipped with a 1.8 liter I4 SOHC 8-valve engine and a
close-coupled catalytic converter. Heat was applied for The authors would like to gratefully acknowledge the
the first 50 seconds of the test without pre-crank heating contribution of the Delphi Advanced Engineering Team
the injectors. responsible for the development of the heated injector at
the Rochester Technical Center in the United States, as
NMHC g/km THC g/km well as the Delphi EMS Development team at the
Piracicaba Technical Center in Brazil. Without their
0.06 0.08
efforts, this work would not have been possible.

- 42%
0.07
0.05
0.06
- 62%

0.04
0.05
REFERENCES
0.03 0.04

0.03
0.02 1. Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia – Centro de
0.02
0.01 Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos
0.01
http://tempo1.cptec.inpe.br/
0 0

2. Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia – Centro de

Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos
CO g/km Nox g/km
http://tempo1.cptec.inpe.br/
1.2 0.05
3. “Star-Cd User’s Guide,” V3.26, Cd-Adapco, 2005
1
- 43%

0.04

0.8 4. “API Technical Data Book” – Petroleum Refining,

+ 8%

0.03
0.6 Volume I, Chapter I. Revised Chapter 1 to First,
0.4
0.02 Second, Third and Fourth Editions, 1988
0.01
0.2

0 0.00

Figure 18: EPA III total bag emission results

Hashed – production base line
Solid – prototype heated injector system

The approximate 40% reduction in HC and CO can

potentially help avoid an increase of catalyst loading to
meet the next level of regulatory emission standards.

Furthermore, there is potential to reduce HC emissions

by utilizing pre-crank heating or extending the engine
cranking time in order to maximize the temperature of
the ethanol first injected into the engine.

CONCLUSION

Heated injectors offer a practical means to increase the

temperature of injected ethanol. Engines equipped with
prototype systems have exhibited robust and fast E100
cold starts down to -5°C ambient temperatures without
gasoline assistance. In addition, prototype heated
injector equipped vehicles have demonstrated a 40%
reduction in HC and CO with little increase in NOx during
EPA 3 testing. Continuing injector and EMS development
will focus on replicating these results on a variety of
engines in the global automotive market.

SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr. | Volume 2 | Issue 1 179