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Types of Relations
Equivalence Relation
• A relation R in a set A is called symmetric if (a1, a2) ∈ R implies that (a2, a1) ∈ R, for all a1, a2 ∈ A.
• A relation R in a set A is called transitive if (a1, a2) ∈ R, and (a2, a3) ∈ R together imply that (a1, a3)
∈ R, for all a1, a2, a3 ∈ A.
⇒ sin a = sin c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
Equivalence Classes
• Every arbitrary equivalence relation R in a set X divides X into mutually disjoint subsets (Ai) called
partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying the following conditions:
• All elements of Ai are related to0020each other for all i.
• Ai ∪ Aj = X and Ai ∩ Aj = Φ, i ≠ j
• For an equivalence relation in a set X, the equivalence class containing a ∈ X, denoted by [a], is the
subset of X containing all elements b related to a.
Trivial Relations
• Empty relation
• Universal relation
• For example: Consider a relation R in set A = {2, 4, 6} defined by R = {(a, b): a + b is odd,
where a, b ∈ A}. The relation R is an empty relation since for any pair (a, b) ∈ A × A, a + b is always
even.
• A relation R in a set A is called a universal relation if each element of A is related to every element
of A, i.e., R = A × A.
• For example: Let A be the set of all students of class XI. Let R be a relation in set A defined by R =
{(a, b): the sum of the ages of a and b is greater than 10 years}. The relation R is a universal relation
because it is obvious that the sum of the ages of two students of class XI is always greater than 10
years.
Solved Examples
Example 1
Check whether the relation R in the set of all vowels defined by R = {(u, u), (u, a), (a, u)} is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive?
Solution:
The relation R is defined in the set {a, e, i, o, u} as R = {(u, u), (u, a), (a, u)}.
The relation R is not reflexive as (a, a), (e, e) (i, i), (o, o) ∉ R.
Hence, R is symmetric.
Hence, R is transitive.
Example 2
Show that the relation R defined in the set of real numbers as R = {(a, b) a = b or a = −b for a, b ∈ R}
is an equivalence relation. Also, find its equivalence classes.
Solution:
∴ R is reflexive.
⇒ a = b or a = − b
⇒ b = a or b = − a
⇒ (b, a) ∈ R
∴ R is symmetric.
∴ a = b or a = − b and b = c or b = − c
Case I
a = b, b = c
⇒a=c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
Case II
a = b, b = − c
⇒a=−c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
Case III
a = − b, b = c
⇒a=−c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
Case IV
a = − b, b = − c
⇒a=c
⇒ (a, c) ∈ R
∴ R is transitive.
Types of Functions
• A function f: X → Y is said to be one-one (or injective) if the images of distinct elements
of X under f are distinct. In other words, a function f is one-one if for every x1, x2 ∈ X, f (x1) = f (x2)
implies x1 = x2.
A function f: X → Y is said to be many-one if the image of distinct elements of X under f are not
distinct i.e., a function that is not one-one is called a many-one function.
• A function f: X → Y is defined as onto (or surjective) if every element of Y is the image of some
element of x in X under f. In other words, f is onto if and only if, y ∈ Y, there exist x ∈ X such that f (x)
= y.
Solved Examples
Example 1
Solution:
The given function i.e., h: R → R is defined by
h(x) =
h(5) =
h(0) =
∴ h(5) = h(0).
Example 2
Solution:
f (x1) = f (x2)
that
Example 3
Check whether the function f: N → N defined by f(x) = 4x is an onto function.
Solution:
f(x) = 4x
We can clearly observe that 2 ∈ N (co-domain). However, there does not exist any
element y ∈ N (domain) whose image is 2.
• For example: If f: N → N is defined by f(x) = x + 1 for all x∈N and g: N → N is defined by g(x) = x2 for
all x∈N, then gof : N → N is given by
• If the composite function gof is one-one, then the function f is also one-one. However, the
function g may or may not be one-one.
• If the composite function gof is onto, then the function g is also onto. However, the function f may
or may not be onto.
Solved Examples
Example 1
Let f: R → R be given by f(x) = 12x2 − x − 11 and g: R → R be given by g(x) = x2. Find fo(gog).
Solution:
It is given that
g: R → R is defined by g(x) = x2
= g(x2)
= (x2)2
= x4
(fo(gog))(x) = f((gog)(x))
= f(x4)
= 12(x4)2 − x4 − 11
= 12x8 − x4 − 11
Example 2
by g(x) = . Show that fog = IA and gof = IB, where IA and IB are identity functions on A and B
Solution:
(fog)(x) = f(g(x))
(gof)(x) = g(f(x))
Thus, (fog)(x) = x for all x ∈ A ⇒ fog = IA and (gof) (x) = x for all x ∈ B ⇒ gof = IB.
Hence proved.
Example 3
Solution:
= (x + 2) + (4x + 9)
= 5x + 11
∴ fo(g + h)(x) = f((g + h)(x))
= f(5x + 11)
= f(x + 2)
(foh)(x) = f(h(x))
= f(4x + 9)
Invertible Functions
Key Concepts
• If f: X → Y and g: Y → Z are invertible functions, then gof is also invertible and (gof)−1 = f−1 og−1
Solved Examples
Example 1
Determine whether the following functions have inverse or not. Find the inverse, if it exists.
(i) f : {10, 12, 15} → {3, 7, 9, 10, 14}is defined as f = {(12, 9), (15, 7), (10, 10)}.
(ii) g : {2, 4, 6, 8} → {1, 3, 5} is defined as g : {(4, 3), (8, 3), (2, 1), (6, 5)}.
(iii) h : {11, 16}→ {7, 14} is defined as h :{(11, 7), (16, 14)}.
Solution:
(i) The given function f is one-one. However, f is not onto since the elements 3, 14 ∈ {3, 7, 9, 10, 14}
are not the image of any element in {10, 12, 15} under f.
(ii) The given function g is onto. However, g is not one-one since, g(4) = g(8) = 3.
(iii) Clearly, the given function h is both one-one and onto. Hence, h is invertible.
Example 2
Determine whether the functions f and g, defined below, are inverses of each other or not.
Solution:
We have
Thus, where B = R −{−3} and A = R −{4}.
Example 3
Let f: R+ → [−3, ∞) be defined as f (x) = 4x2 − 5x − 3 where R+ is the set of all positive real numbers.
Show that f is invertible and find the inverse of f.
Solution:
Let y = 4x2 − 5x − 3
∴f is onto.
Now, we have
Thus, f is invertible and its inverse is given by
Binary Operations
For example, the operation * defined on N as a * b = a2b is a binary operation since * carries
each pair (a, b) to a unique element a2b in N.
a * (b * c) = 10 + a + b + c = 5 + (5+ a + b) + c = ((a * b) * c
For example: −a is the inverse of a for the addition operation on R, where 0 is the identity
element.
• When the number of elements in set A is small, we can express a binary operation * on A through a
table called operation table.
• For an operation *: A × A → A, if A = {a1, a2… an}, then the operation table will have n rows
and n columns with (i, j)th entry being ai * aj.
• Given any operation with n rows and n columns with each entry being an element of A =
{a1, a2 … an}, we can define a binary operation * on A given by ai * aj = entry in ith row and jth column
of the operation table
* a b c
a a b c
b b a c
c c c c
Here, a * b = b = b * a
a*c=c=c*a
b*c=c=c*b
Example 1:
* a b c
a a a a
b a b c
c a c b
Determine whether the operation * is commutative and associative. Also, find the identity for the
operation *, if it exists.
Solution:
a*b=a=b*a
a*c=a=c*a
b*c=c=c*b
The given binary operation * is commutative since for all x, y, ∈ A = {a, b, c}.
x*y=y*x
Now, consider a * (b * c) = a * c = a
(a * b) * c = a * c = a
Thus, a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
Example 2:
Solution:
We have *: R × R → R defined by , a, b ∈ R.
Now, a * b = and b * a =
∴a*b≠b*a
Example 3:
* 5 6 9
5 5 6 9
6 6 9 5
9 9 5 6
Compute (5 * 9) * 6 and 5 * (9 * 6). Are they equal?
Solution:
∴(5 * 9) * 6 = 9 * 6 = 5
Then, (9 * 6) = 5
∴5 * (9 * 6) = 5 * 5 = 5
Thus, (5 * 9) * 6 = 5 * (9 * 6)