Electricity, Magnetism, and Electromagnetism

ELECTROSTATICS

Electric charge comes in discrete units that are positive or negative. Electrons and protons are
the smallest unit of electric charge. The electron has one unit of negative charge; the proton
has one unit of positive charge. Thus the electric charges associated with an electron and a
proton have the same magnitude but opposite signs.

Electrostatic Laws

Four general laws of electrostatics describe how electric charges interact with each other and
with neutral objects

Coulomb’s Law. The magnitude of the electrostatic force is given by Coulomb’s law as follows:

Where F is the electrostatic force (newton), Qa and Qb are electrostatic charges (Coulomb), D is
the distance between the charges (meter), and k is a constant of proportionality.

This inverse square relationship for electrostatic force is the same as that for x-ray intensity

Electric Potential

The discussion of potential energy in emphasized the relationship of such energy to work. A
system that possesses potential energy is a system with stored energy. Such a system has the
ability to do work when this energy is released. Electric charges have potential energy.

>The unit of electric potential is the volt (V).

ELECTRODYNAMICS

We recognize electrodynamic phenomena as electricity. If an electric potential is applied to

objects such as copper wire, then electrons move along the wire. This is called an electric
current, or electricity. Electric currents occur in many types of objects and range from the very
small currents of the human body (e.g., those measured by electrocardiograms) to the very
large currents of 440,000-V cross-country electric transmission lines.

>Electrodynamics is the study of electric charges in motion.

Electric Circuits

Modifying a conducting wire by reducing its diameter (wire gauge) or inserting different
material (circuit elements) can increase its resistance. When this resistance is controlled and
the conductor is made into a closed path, the result is an electric circuit.
>Increasing electric resistance results in a reduced electric current.

Electric current is measured in amperes (A). The ampere is proportional to the number of
electrons flowing in the electric circuit. One ampere is equal to an electric charge of 1 C flowing
through a conductor each second.

Electric potential is measured in volts (V), and electric resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).
Electrons at high voltage have high potential energy and high capacity to do work. If electron
flow is inhibited, the circuit resistance is high.

Electric Power

Electric power is measured in watts (W). Common household electric appliances, such as
toasters, blenders, mixers, and radios, generally require 500 to 1500 W of electric power. Light
bulbs require 30 to 150 W of electric power. An x-ray imaging system requires 20 to 150 kW of
electric power.

>One watt is equal to 1 A of current flowing through an electric potential of 1 V. Power (W) =
voltage (V) × current (A).

MAGNETISM

Around 1000 BC, shepherds and dairy farmers near the village of Magnesia (what is now
western Turkey) discovered magnetite, an oxide of iron (Fe3O4). This rodlike stone, when
suspended by a string, would rotate back and forth; when it came to rest, it pointed the way to
water. It was called a lodestone or leading stone.

So, the word magnetism comes from the name of that ancient village where the cows too were
very curious. When milked, they produced Milk of Magnesia!

Magnetic Laws

The physical laws of magnetism are similar to those of electrostatics and gravity. The forces
associated with these three fields are fundamental. The equations of force and the fields
through which they act have the same form. Much work in theoretical physics involves the
attempt to combine these fundamental forces with two others—the strong nuclear force and
the weak interaction—to formulate a grand unified field theory.

Four Magnetic States of Matter

State Material Characteristics
Nonmagnetic Wood, glass Unaffected by a
magnetic field

Diamagnetic Water, plastic Weakly repelled from

both poles of a
magnetic field

Paramagnetic Gadolinium Weakly attracted to

both poles of a
magnetic field

Ferromagnetic Iron, nickel, Can be strongly

cobalt magnetized

Magnetic Induction

Just as an electrostatic charge can be induced from one material to another, so too some
materials can be made magnetic by induction. The imaginary magnetic field lines just described
are called magnetic lines of induction, and the density of these lines is proportional to the
intensity of the magnetic field

>Ferromagnetic objects can be made into magnets by induction

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Until the 19th century, electricity and magnetism were viewed as separate effects. Although
many scientists suspected that the two were connected, research was hampered by the lack of
any convenient way of producing and controlling electricity.

>Electric potential is measured in units of joule per coulomb, or volt.

Electromagnetic Induction

Oersted’s experiment demonstrated that electricity can be used to generate magnetic fields. It
is obvious, then, to wonder whether the reverse is true:

Electromagnetic induction: An electric current is induced in a circuit if some part of that circuit
is in a changing magnetic field.

This observation is summarized in what is called Faraday’s law.

FARADAY’S LAW

The magnitude of the induced current depends on four factors:

1. The strength of the magnetic field

2. The velocity of the magnetic field as it moves past the conductor

3. The angle of the conductor to the magnetic field

4. The number of turns in the conductor

Electromechanical Devices

Electric motors and generators are practical applications of Oersted’s and Faraday’s
experiments. In one experiment, an electric current produces a mechanical motion (the motion
of the compass needle). This is the basis of the electric motor.

In the other experiment, mechanical motion (the motion of a magnet near a coil of wire)
induces electricity in a coil of wire. This is the principle on which the electric generator
operates.

The Transformer

Another device that uses the interacting magnetic fields produced by changing electric currents
is the transformer. However, the transformer does not convert one form of energy to another
but rather transforms electric potential and current into higher or lower intensity.

>A transformer changes the intensity of alternating voltage and current.